CHAPTER TWO

UNITS AND MEASUREMENT

2.1 INTRODUCTION
Measurement of any physical quantity involves comparison
with a certain basic, arbitrarily chosen, internationally
accepted reference standard called unit. The result of a
2.1 Introduction measurement of a physical quantity is expressed by a
2.2 The international system of number (or numerical measure) accompanied by a unit.
units Although the number of physical quantities appears to be
2.3 Measurement of length very large, we need only a limited number of units for
expressing all the physical quantities, since they are inter-
2.4 Measurement of mass
related with one another. The units for the fundamental or
2.5 Measurement of time base quantities are called fundamental or base units. The
2.6 Accuracy, precision of units of all other physical quantities can be expressed as
instruments and errors in combinations of the base units. Such units obtained for the
measurement derived quantities are called derived units. A complete set
2.7 Significant figures of these units, both the base units and derived units, is
known as the system of units.
2.8 Dimensions of physical
quantities 2.2 THE INTERNATIONAL SYSTEM OF UNITS
2.9 Dimensional formulae and In earlier time scientists of different countries were using
dimensional equations different systems of units for measurement. Three such
2.10 Dimensional analysis and its systems, the CGS, the FPS (or British) system and the MKS
applications system were in use extensively till recently.
The base units for length, mass and time in these systems
Summary were as follows :
Exercises • In CGS system they were centimetre, gram and second
Additional exercises respectively.
• In FPS system they were foot, pound and second
respectively.
• In MKS system they were metre, kilogram and second
respectively.
The system of units which is at present internationally
accepted for measurement is the Système Internationale
d’ Unites (French for International System of Units),
abbreviated as SI. The SI, with standard scheme of symbols,
units and abbreviations, developed by the Bureau
International des Poids et measures (The International
Bureau of Weights and Measures, BIPM) in 1971 were
recently revised by the General Conference on Weights and
Measures in November 2018. The scheme is now for

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international usage in scientific, technical, industrial

and commercial work. Because SI units used decimal
system, conversions within the system are quite simple
and convenient. We shall follow the SI units in this
book.
In SI, there are seven base units as given in Table (a)
2.1. Besides the seven base units, there are two more
units that are defined for (a) plane angle dθ as the ratio
of length of arc ds to the radius r and (b) solid angle dΩ
as the ratio of the intercepted area dA of the spherical
surface, described about the apex O as the centre, to
the square of its radius r, as shown in Fig. 2.1(a) and
(b) respectively. The unit for plane angle is radian with
(b)
the symbol rad and the unit for the solid angle is
steradian with the symbol sr. Both these are Fig. 2.1 Description of (a) plane angle dθ
dimensionless quantities. and (b) solid angle dΩ .
Table 2.1 SI Base Quantities and Units*
Base SI Units
quantity Name Symbol Definition
Length metre m The metre, symbol m, is the SI unit of length. It is defined by taking the
fixed numerical value of the speed of light in vacuum c to be 299792458
when expressed in the unit m s–1 , where the second is defined in terms of
the caesium frequency ∆ν cs.
Mass kilogram kg The kilogram, symbol kg, is the SI unit of mass. It is defined by taking the
fixed numerical value of the Planck constant h to be 6.62607015×10–34 when
expressed in the unit J s, which is equal to kg m2 s–1, where the metre and
the second are defined in terms of c and ∆ν cs.
Time second s The second, symbol s, is the SI unit of time. It is defined by taking the fixed
numerical value of the caesium frequency ∆ν cs, the unperturbed ground-
state hyperfine transition frequency of the caesium-133 atom, to be
9192631770 when expressed in the unit Hz, which is equal to s–1.
Electric ampere A The ampere, symbol A, is the SI unit of electric current. It is defined by
taking the fixed numerical value of the elementary charge e to be
1.602176634×10–19 when expressed in the unit C, which is equal to A s,
where the second is defined in terms of ∆ν cs.
Thermo kelvin K The kelvin, symbol K, is the SI unit of thermodynamic temperature.
dynamic It is defined by taking the fixed numerical value of the Boltzmann constant
Temperature k to be 1.380649×10–23 when expressed in the unit J K–1, which is equal to
kg m2 s–2 k–1, where the kilogram, metre and second are defined in terms of
h, c and ∆ν cs.
Amount of mole mol The mole, symbol mol, is the SI unit of amount of substance. One mole
substance contains exactly 6.02214076×1023 elementary entities. This number is the
fixed numerical value of the Avogadro constant, N A, when expressed in the
unit mol–1 and is called the Avogadro number. The amount of substance,
symbol n, of a system is a measure of the number of specified elementary
entities. An elementary entity may be an atom, a molecule, an ion, an electron,
any other particle or specified group of particles.
Luminous candela cd The candela, symbol cd, is the SI unit of luminous intensity in given direction.
intensity It is defined by taking the fixed numerical value of the luminous efficacy of
monochromatic radiation of frequency 540×1012 Hz, Kcd, to be 683 when expressed
in the unit lm W–1, which is equal to cd sr W–1, or cd sr kg–1m–2s3, where the
kilogram, metre and second are defined in terms of h, c and ∆ν cs.

* The values mentioned here need not be remembered or asked in a test. They are given here only to
indicate the extent of accuracy to which they are measured. With progress in technology, the measuring
techniques get improved leading to measurements with greater precision. The definitions of base units
are revised to keep up with this progress.

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18 PHYSICS

Table 2.2 Some units retained for general use (Though outside SI)

Note that when mole is used, the elementary 2.3.1 Measurement of Large Distances
entities must be specified. These entities Large distances such as the distance of a planet
may be atoms, molecules, ions, electrons,
or a star from the earth cannot be measured
other particles or specified groups of such
directly with a metre scale. An important method
particles.
in such cases is the parallax method.
We employ units for some physical quantities
that can be derived from the seven base units When you hold a pencil in front of you against
(Appendix A 6). Some derived units in terms of some specific point on the background (a wall)
the SI base units are given in (Appendix A 6.1). and look at the pencil first through your left eye
Some SI derived units are given special names A (closing the right eye) and then look at the
(Appendix A 6.2 ) and some derived SI units make pencil through your right eye B (closing the left
use of these units with special names and the eye), you would notice that the position of the
seven base units (Appendix A 6.3). These are pencil seems to change with respect to the point
given in Appendix A 6.2 and A 6.3 for your ready on the wall. This is called parallax. The
reference. Other units retained for general use distance between the two points of observation
are given in Table 2.2. is called the basis. In this example, the basis is
Common SI prefixes and symbols for multiples the distance between the eyes.
and sub-multiples are given in Appendix A2. To measure the distance D of a far away
General guidelines for using symbols for physical planet S by the parallax method, we observe it
quantities, chemical elements and nuclides are from two different positions (observatories) A and
given in Appendix A7 and those for SI units and B on the Earth, separated by distance AB = b
some other units are given in Appendix A8 for at the same time as shown in Fig. 2.2. We
your guidance and ready reference. measure the angle between the two directions
2.3 MEASUREMENT OF LENGTH along which the planet is viewed at these two
You are already familiar with some direct methods points. The ∠ASB in Fig. 2.2 represented by
for the measurement of length. For example, a symbol θ is called the parallax angle or
metre scale is used for lengths from 10–3 m to 102 parallactic angle.
m. A vernier callipers is used for lengths to an b
accuracy of 10 –4 m. A screw gauge and a As the planet is very far away, << 1, and
D
spherometer can be used to measure lengths as
less as to 10 –5 m. To measure lengths beyond these therefore, θ is very small. Then we
ranges, we make use of some special indirect approximately take AB as an arc of length b of a
methods. circle with centre at S and the distance D as

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UNITS AND MEASUREMENT 19

the radius AS = BS so that AB = b = D θ where AO; but he finds the line of sight of C shifted
θ is in radians. from the original line of sight by an angle θ
= 400 (θ is known as ‘parallax’) estimate
b
D= (2.1) the distance of the tower C from his original
θ position A.

Fig. 2.2 Parallax method.

Fig. 2.3
Having determined D, we can employ a similar Answer We have, parallax angle θ = 400
method to determine the size or angular diameter From Fig. 2.3, AB = AC tan θ
of the planet. If d is the diameter of the planet AC = AB/tanθ = 100 m/tan 400
and α the angular size of the planet (the angle = 100 m/0.8391 = 119 m t
subtended by d at the earth), we have
α = d/D (2.2) Example 2.3 The moon is observed from
t

The angle α can be measured from the same two diametrically opposite points A and B
location on the earth. It is the angle between on Earth. The angle θ subtended at the
the two directions when two diametrically moon by the two directions of observation
opposite points of the planet are viewed through is 1o 54′. Given the diameter of the Earth to
the telescope. Since D is known, the diameter d be about 1.276 × 107 m, compute the
of the planet can be determined using Eq. (2.2). distance of the moon from the Earth.
t
Example 2.1 Calculate the angle of Answer We have θ = 1° 54′ = 114′
(a) 10 (degree) (b) 1′ (minute of arc or arcmin)
and (c) 1″(second of arc or arc second) in (
= (114 × 60 )′′ × 4.85 × 10-6 ) rad
radians. Use 360 0=2π rad, 10=60′ and −2
= 3.32 × 10 rad,
1′ = 60 ″
−6
Answer (a) We have 3600 = 2π rad since 1" = 4.85 × 10 rad .
10 = (π /180) rad = 1.745×10–2 rad Also b = AB = 1.276 ×107 m
(b) 1 = 60′ = 1.745×10–2 rad
0
Hence from Eq. (2.1), we have the earth-moon
1′ = 2.908×10–4 rad
2.91×10–4 rad distance,
(c) 1′ = 60″ = 2.908×10–4 rad D = b /θ
1″ = 4.847×10–4 rad
4.85×10–6 rad t 1.276 × 107
t
Example 2.2 A man wishes to estimate =
3.32 × 10-2
the distance of a nearby tower from him.
He stands at a point A in front of the tower = 3.84 × 108 m t
C and spots a very distant object O in line
with AC. He then walks perpendicular to t Example 2.4 The Sun’s angular diameter
AC up to B, a distance of 100 m, and looks is measured to be 1920′′. The distance D of
at O and C again. Since O is very distant, the Sun from the Earth is 1.496 ×1011 m.
the direction BO is practically the same as What is the diameter of the Sun ?

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20 PHYSICS

Answer Sun’s angular diameter α of this solution and dilute it to 20 cm3, using
= 1920" alcohol. So, the concentration of the solution is
−6  1  3
= 1920 × 4.85 × 10 rad equal to   cm of oleic acid/cm of
3
 20 × 20 
= 9.31 × 10 −3 rad
Sun’s diameter solution. Next we lightly sprinkle some
d =α D lycopodium powder on the surface of water in a
large trough and we put one drop of this solution
=  9.31 × 10−3  × 1.496 × 1011  m
    in the water. The oleic acid drop spreads into a
thin, large and roughly circular film of molecular
= 1.39 × 109 m t thickness on water surface. Then, we quickly
measure the diameter of the thin film to get its
2.3.2 Estimation of Very Small Distances: area A. Suppose we have dropped n drops in
Size of a Molecule the water. Initially, we determine the
To measure a very small size, like that of a approximate volume of each drop (V cm3).
molecule (10–8 m to 10–10 m), we have to adopt Volume of n drops of solution
special methods. We cannot use a screw gauge
= nV cm3
or similar instruments. Even a microscope has
certain limitations. An optical microscope uses Amount of oleic acid in this solution
visible light to ‘look’ at the system under
 1 
investigation. As light has wave like features, nV   cm
3
=  20 × 20 
the resolution to which an optical microscope
can be used is the wavelength of light (A detailed
This solution of oleic acid spreads very fast
explanation can be found in the Class XII
on the surface of water and forms a very thin
Physics textbook). For visible light the range of
layer of thickness t. If this spreads to form a
wavelengths is from about 4000 Å to 7000 Å
film of area A cm2, then the thickness of the
(1 angstrom = 1 Å = 10-10 m). Hence an optical
film
microscope cannot resolve particles with sizes
smaller than this. Instead of visible light, we can Volume of the film
t=
use an electron beam. Electron beams can be Area of the film
focussed by properly designed electric and
nV
magnetic fields. The resolution of such an or, t= cm (2.3)
electron microscope is limited finally by the fact 20 × 20 A
that electrons can also behave as waves ! (You
will learn more about this in class XII). The If we assume that the film has mono-molecular
wavelength of an electron can be as small as a thickness, then this becomes the size or diameter
fraction of an angstrom. Such electron of a molecule of oleic acid. The value of this
microscopes with a resolution of 0.6 Å have been thickness comes out to be of the order of 10–9 m.
built. They can almost resolve atoms and
Example 2.5 If the size of a nucleus (in
t
molecules in a material. In recent times,
tunnelling microscopy has been developed in the range of 10–15 to 10–14 m) is scaled up
which again the limit of resolution is better than to the tip of a sharp pin, what roughly is
an angstrom. It is possible to estimate the sizes the size of an atom ? Assume tip of the pin
of molecules. to be in the range 10–5m to 10–4m.
A simple method for estimating the molecular
Answer The size of a nucleus is in the range of
size of oleic acid is given below. Oleic acid is a
10–15 m and 10–14 m. The tip of a sharp pin is
soapy liquid with large molecular size of the
taken to be in the range of 10–5 m and 10–4 m.
order of 10–9 m.
Thus we are scaling up by a factor of 1010. An
The idea is to first form mono-molecular layer atom roughly of size 10–10 m will be scaled up to a
of oleic acid on water surface. size of 1 m. Thus a nucleus in an atom is as small
We dissolve 1 cm3 of oleic acid in alcohol to in size as the tip of a sharp pin placed at the centre
make a solution of 20 cm3. Then we take 1 cm3 of a sphere of radius about a metre long. t

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UNITS AND MEASUREMENT 21

2.3.3 Range of Lengths While dealing with atoms and molecules, the
The sizes of the objects we come across in the kilogram is an inconvenient unit. In this case,
universe vary over a very wide range. These may there is an important standard unit of mass,
vary from the size of the order of 10–14 m of the called the unified atomic mass unit (u), which
tiny nucleus of an atom to the size of the order has been established for expressing the mass
of 1026 m of the extent of the observable universe. of atoms as
Table 2.3 gives the range and order of lengths 1 unified atomic mass unit = 1u
and sizes of some of these objects. = (1/12) of the mass of an atom of carbon-12
We also use certain special length units for
short and large lengths. These are
(
12
)
isotope 6 C including the mass of electrons
= 1.66 × 10–27 kg
1 fermi = 1 f = 10–15 m
1 angstrom = 1 Å = 10–10 m Mass of commonly available objects can be
1 astronomical unit = 1 AU (average distance determined by a common balance like the one
of the Sun from the Earth) used in a grocery shop. Large masses in the
= 1.496 × 1011 m universe like planets, stars, etc., based on
1 light year = 1 ly= 9.46 × 1015 m (distance Newton’s law of gravitation can be measured by
that light travels with velocity of using gravitational method (See Chapter 8). For
3 × 108 m s–1 in 1 year) measurement of small masses of atomic/sub-
1 parsec = 3.08 × 1016 m (Parsec is the atomic particles etc., we make use of mass
distance at which average radius of earth’s orbit spectrograph in which radius of the trajectory
subtends an angle of 1 arc second) is proportional to the mass of a charged particle
moving in uniform electric and magnetic field.
2.4 MEASUREMENT OF MASS
Mass is a basic property of matter. It does not 2.4.1 Range of Masses
depend on the temperature, pressure or location
The masses of the objects, we come across in
of the object in space. The SI unit of mass is
the universe, vary over a very wide range. These
kilogram (kg). It is defined by taking the fixed
numerical value of the Plank Constant h to be may vary from tiny mass of the order of 10-30 kg
6.62607015×10–34 when expressed in the unit of of an electron to the huge mass of about 1055 kg
Js which is equal to kg m 2 s –1, where the of the known universe. Table 2.4 gives the range
metre and the second are defined is terms of C and order of the typical masses of various
and ∆νcs. objects.

Table 2.3 Range and order of lengths

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Table 2.4 Range and order of masses ± 1 × 10–15, i.e. 1 part in 1015. This implies that
the uncertainty gained over time by such a
device is less than 1 part in 1015; they lose or
gain no more than 32 µs in one year. In view of
the tremendous accuracy in time measurement,
the SI unit of length has been expressed in terms
the path length light travels in certain interval
of time (1/299, 792, 458 of a second) (Table 2.1).
The time interval of events that we come
across in the universe vary over a very wide
range. Table 2.5 gives the range and order of
some typical time intervals.
You may notice that there is an interesting
coincidence between the numbers appearing
in Tables 2.3 and 2.5. Note that the ratio of the
longest and shortest lengths of objects in our
universe is about 1041. Interestingly enough,
the ratio of the longest and shortest time
intervals associated with the events and objects
2.5 MEASUREMENT OF TIME in our universe is also about 1041. This number,
To measure any time interval we need a clock. 1041 comes up again in Table 2.4, which lists
We now use an atomic standard of time, which typical masses of objects. The ratio of the
is based on the periodic vibrations produced in largest and smallest masses of the objects in
a cesium atom. This is the basis of the caesium our universe is about (1041)2. Is this a curious
clock, sometimes called atomic clock, used in coincidence between these large numbers
the national standards. Such standards are purely accidental ?
available in many laboratories. In the caesium
atomic clock, the second is taken as the time 2.6 ACCURACY, PRECISION OF INSTRUMENTS
needed for 9,192,631,770 vibrations of the AND ERRORS IN MEASUREMENT
radiation corresponding to the transition
between the two hyperfine levels of the ground Measurement is the foundation of all
state of caesium-133 atom. The vibrations of the experimental science and technology. The result
caesium atom regulate the rate of this caesium of every measurement by any measuring
atomic clock just as the vibrations of a balance instrument contains some uncertainty. This
wheel regulate an ordinary wristwatch or the uncertainty is called error. Every calculated
vibrations of a small quartz crystal regulate a quantity which is based on measured values,
quartz wristwatch. also has an error. We shall distinguish between
The caesium atomic clocks are very accurate. two terms: accuracy and precision. The
accuracy of a measurement is a measure of how
In principle they provide portable standard. The
close the measured value is to the true value of
national standard of time interval ‘second’ as
the quantity. Precision tells us to what resolution
well as the frequency is maintained through four
or limit the quantity is measured.
cesium atomic clocks. A caesium atomic clock
is used at the National Physical Laboratory The accuracy in measurement may depend on
(NPL), New Delhi to maintain the Indian several factors, including the limit or the resolution
standard of time. of the measuring instrument. For example, suppose
In our country, the NPL has the responsibility the true value of a certain length is near 3.678 cm.
of maintenance and improvement of physical In one experiment, using a measuring instrument
standards, including that of time, frequency, etc. of resolution 0.1 cm, the measured value is found to
Note that the Indian Standard Time (IST) is be 3.5 cm, while in another experiment using a
linked to this set of atomic clocks. The efficient measuring device of greater resolution, say 0.01 cm,
caesium atomic clocks are so accurate that they the length is determined to be 3.38 cm. The first
impart the uncertainty in time realisation as measurement has more accuracy (because it is

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UNITS AND MEASUREMENT 23

Table 2.5 Range and order of time intervals

closer to the true value) but less precision (its of a human body, a thermometer placed
resolution is only 0.1 cm), while the under the armpit will always give a
second measurement is less accurate but temperature lower than the actual value of
more precise. Thus every measurement is the body temperature. Other external
approximate due to errors in measurement. In conditions (such as changes in temperature,
general, the errors in measurement can be humidity, wind velocity, etc.) during the
broadly classified as (a) systematic errors and experiment may systematically affect the
(b) random errors. measurement.
(c) Personal errors that arise due to an
Systematic errors
individual’s bias, lack of proper setting of
The systematic errors are those errors that the apparatus or individual’s carelessness
tend to be in one direction, either positive or in taking observations without observing
negative. Some of the sources of systematic proper precautions, etc. For example, if you,
errors are : by habit, always hold your head a bit too far
(a) Instrumental errors that arise from the to the right while reading the position of a
errors due to imperfect design or calibration needle on the scale, you will introduce an
of the measuring instrument, zero error in error due to parallax.
the instrument, etc. For example, the Systematic errors can be minimised by
temperature graduations of a thermometer improving experimental techniques, selecting
may be inadequately calibrated (it may read better instruments and removing personal bias
104 °C at the boiling point of water at STP as far as possible. For a given set-up, these
whereas it should read 100 °C); in a vernier errors may be estimated to a certain extent and
callipers the zero mark of vernier scale may the necessary corrections may be applied to the
not coincide with the zero mark of the main readings.
scale, or simply an ordinary metre scale may
be worn off at one end. Random errors
(b) Imperfection in experimental technique The random errors are those errors, which occur
or procedure To determine the temperature irregularly and hence are random with respect

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24 PHYSICS

to sign and size. These can arise due to random as to underestimate the true value of the
and unpredictable fluctuations in experimental quantity.
conditions (e.g. unpredictable fluctuations in The magnitude of the difference
temperature, voltage supply, mechanical between the individual measurement and
vibrations of experimental set-ups, etc), personal the true value of the quantity is called the
(unbiased) errors by the observer taking absolute error of the measurement. This
readings, etc. For example, when the same is denoted by |∆a |. In absence of any other
person repeats the same observation, it is very method of knowing true value, we considered
likely that he may get different readings arithmatic mean as the true value. Then the
everytime. errors in the individual measurement values
Least count error from the true value, are
The smallest value that can be measured by the ∆a1 = a1 – amean,
measuring instrument is called its least count. ∆a2 = a2 – amean,
All the readings or measured values are good only .... .... ....
up to this value. .... .... ....
The least count error is the error ∆a n = an – amean
associated with the resolution of the instrument.
For example, a vernier callipers has the least The ∆a calculated above may be positive in
count as 0.01 cm; a spherometer may have a certain cases and negative in some other
least count of 0.001 cm. Least count error cases. But absolute error |∆a| will always
belongs to the category of random errors but be positive.
within a limited size; it occurs with both
(b) The arithmetic mean of all the absolute errors
systematic and random errors. If we use a metre
is taken as the final or mean absolute error
scale for measurement of length, it may have
of the value of the physical quantity a. It is
graduations at 1 mm division scale spacing or
represented by ∆amean.
interval.
Using instruments of higher precision, Thus,
improving experimental techniques, etc., we can
reduce the least count error. Repeating the ∆amean = (|∆a1|+|∆a2 |+|∆a3|+...+ |∆an|)/n
observations several times and taking the (2.6)
arithmetic mean of all the observations, the
n
mean value would be very close to the true value
of the measured quantity. = ∑ |∆ai|/n (2.7)
i =1
2.6.1 Absolute Error, Relative Error and
Percentage Error If we do a single measurement, the value we
get may be in the range amean ± ∆amean
(a) Suppose the values obtained in several
measurements are a1, a2, a3...., an. The i.e. a = amean ± ∆amean
arithmetic mean of these values is taken as
or,
the best possible value of the quantity under
the given conditions of measurement as : amean – ∆amean ≤ a ≤ amean + ∆amean
(2.8)
amean = (a1+a2+a3+...+an ) / n (2.4)
This implies that any measurement of the
or, physical quantity a is likely to lie between
n (amean+ ∆amean ) and (amean− ∆amean ).
a mean = ∑a i /n (2.5)
(c) Instead of the absolute error, we often use
i =1 the relative error or the percentage error
This is because, as explained earlier, it is (δa). The relative error is the ratio of the
reasonable to suppose that individual mean absolute error ∆amean to the mean
measurements are as likely to overestimate value amean of the quantity measured.

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UNITS AND MEASUREMENT 25

Relative error = ∆amean/amean (2.9) = 2.624 s

= 2.62 s
When the relative error is expressed in per As the periods are measured to a resolution
cent, it is called the percentage error (δa). of 0.01 s, all times are to the second decimal; it
is proper to put this mean period also to the
Thus, Percentage error second decimal.
δa = (∆amean /amean ) × 100% (2.10) The errors in the measurements are
Let us now consider an example. 2.63 s – 2.62 s = 0.01 s
2.56 s – 2.62 s = – 0.06 s
Example 2.6 Two clocks are being tested 2.42 s – 2.62 s = – 0.20 s
t
against a standard clock located in a 2.71 s – 2.62 s = 0.09 s
national laboratory. At 12:00:00 noon by 2.80 s – 2.62 s = 0.18 s
the standard clock, the readings of the two
Note that the errors have the same units as the
clocks are : quantity to be measured.
Clock 1 Clock 2 The arithmetic mean of all the absolute errors
(for arithmetic mean, we take only the
Monday 12:00:05 10:15:06
magnitudes) is
Tuesday 12:01:15 10:14:59
Wednesday 11:59:08 10:15:18 ∆Τmean = [(0.01+ 0.06+0.20+0.09+0.18)s]/5
Thursday 12:01:50 10:15:07 = 0.54 s/5
Friday 11:59:15 10:14:53 = 0.11 s
Saturday 12:01:30 10:15:24
Sunday 12:01:19 10:15:11 That means, the period of oscillation of the
simple pendulum is (2.62 ± 0.11) s i.e. it lies
If you are doing an experiment that requires
between (2.62 + 0.11) s and (2.62 – 0.11) s or
precision time interval measurements, which
between 2.73 s and 2.51 s. As the arithmetic
of the two clocks will you prefer ?
mean of all the absolute errors is 0.11 s, there
is already an error in the tenth of a second.
Answer The range of variation over the seven
Hence there is no point in giving the period to a
days of observations is 162 s for clock 1, and
hundredth. A more correct way will be to write
31 s for clock 2. The average reading of clock 1
is much closer to the standard time than the T = 2.6 ± 0.1 s
average reading of clock 2. The important point Note that the last numeral 6 is unreliable, since
is that a clock’s zero error is not as significant it may be anything between 5 and 7. We indicate
for precision work as its variation, because a this by saying that the measurement has two
‘zero-error’ can always be easily corrected.
significant figures. In this case, the two
Hence clock 2 is to be preferred to clock 1. t
significant figures are 2, which is reliable and
6, which has an error associated with it. You
Example 2.7 We measure the period of
t
will learn more about the significant figures in
oscillation of a simple pendulum. In
section 2.7.
successive measurements, the readings
For this example, the relative error or the
turn out to be 2.63 s, 2.56 s, 2.42 s, 2.71s
percentage error is
and 2.80 s. Calculate the absolute errors,
relative error or percentage error.
0.1
δa = × 100 = 4 % t
Answer The mean period of oscillation of the 2.6
pendulum
( 2.63 + 2.56 + 2.42 + 2.71 + 2.80) s
T = 2.6.2 Combination of Errors
5 If we do an experiment involving several
13.12 measurements, we must know how the errors
= s
5 in all the measurements combine. For example,

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26 PHYSICS

(a) Error of a sum or a difference

How will you measure the length of a line?
Suppose two physical quantities A and B have
What a naïve question, at this stage, you might measured values A ± ∆A, B ± ∆B respectively
say! But what if it is not a straight line? Draw where ∆A and ∆B are their absolute errors. We
a zigzag line in your copy, or on the blackboard. wish to find the error ∆Z in the sum
Well, not too difficult again. You might take a Z = A + B.
thread, place it along the line, open up the We have by addition, Z ± ∆Z
thread, and measure its length. = (A ± ∆A) + (B ± ∆B).
Now imagine that you want to measure the
The maximum possible error in Z
length of a national highway, a river, the railway
track between two stations, or the boundary
∆Z = ∆A + ∆B
between two states or two nations. If you take For the difference Z = A – B, we have
a string of length 1 metre or 100 metre, keep it Z ± ∆ Z = (A ± ∆A) – (B ± ∆B)
along the line, shift its position every time, the = (A – B) ± ∆A ± ∆B
arithmetic of man-hours of labour and expenses
on the project is not commensurate with the or, ± ∆Z = ± ∆A ± ∆B
outcome. Moreover, errors are bound to occur The maximum value of the error ∆Z is again
in this enormous task. There is an interesting ∆A + ∆B.
fact about this. France and Belgium share a
common international boundary, whose length Hence the rule : When two quantities are
mentioned in the official documents of the two added or subtracted, the absolute error in the
countries differs substantially! final result is the sum of the absolute errors
Go one step beyond and imagine the in the individual quantities.
coastline where land meets sea. Roads and rivers
have fairly mild bends as compared to a
Example 2.8 The temperatures of two
t
coastline. Even so, all documents, including our
school books, contain information on the length bodies measured by a thermometer are
of the coastline of Gujarat or Andhra Pradesh, t1 = 20 0C ± 0.5 0C and t2 = 50 0C ± 0.5 0C.
or the common boundary between two states, Calculate the temperature difference and
etc. Railway tickets come with the distance the error theirin.
between stations printed on them. We have
‘milestones’ all along the roads indicating the Answer t′ = t2–t1 = (50 0C±0.5 0C)– (200C±0.5 0C)
distances to various towns. So, how is it done?
One has to decide how much error one can t′ = 30 0 C ± 1 0 C t
tolerate and optimise cost-effectiveness. If you (b) Error of a product or a quotient
want smaller errors, it will involve high
technology and high costs. Suffice it to say that Suppose Z = AB and the measured values of A
it requires fairly advanced level of physics, and B are A ± ∆A and B ± ∆B. Then
mathematics, engineering and technology. It Z ± ∆Z = (A ± ∆A) (B ± ∆B)
belongs to the areas of fractals, which has lately
become popular in theoretical physics. Even = AB ± B ∆A ± A ∆B ± ∆A ∆B.
then one doesn’t know how much to rely on Dividing LHS by Z and RHS by AB we have,
the figure that props up, as is clear from the
1±(∆Z/Z) = 1 ± (∆A/A) ± (∆B/B) ± (∆A/A)(∆B/B).
story of France and Belgium. Incidentally, this
story of the France-Belgium discrepancy Since ∆A and ∆B are small, we shall ignore their
appears on the first page of an advanced Physics product.
book on the subject of fractals and chaos!
Hence the maximum relative error
mass density is obtained by deviding mass by ∆Z/ Z = (∆A/A) + (∆B/B).
the volume of the substance. If we have errors
You can easily verify that this is true for division
in the measurement of mass and of the sizes or
also.
dimensions, we must know what the error will
be in the density of the substance. To make such Hence the rule : When two quantities are
estimates, we should learn how errors combine multiplied or divided, the relative error in the
in various mathematical operations. For this, result is the sum of the relative errors in the
we use the following procedure. multipliers.

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UNITS AND MEASUREMENT 27

Then,
Example 2.9 The resistance R = V/I where
t
∆Z/Z = (∆A/A) + (∆A/A) = 2 (∆A/A).
V = (100 ± 5)V and I = (10 ± 0.2)A. Find the
Hence, the relative error in A2 is two times the
percentage error in R.
error in A.
Answer The percentage error in V is 5% and in In general, if Z = Ap Bq/Cr
I it is 2%. The total error in R would therefore Then,
be 5% + 2% = 7%. t ∆Z/Z = p (∆A/A) + q (∆B/B) + r (∆C/C).
t
Example 2.10 Two resistors of resistances Hence the rule : The relative error in a
R1 = 100 ± 3 ohm and R2 = 200 ± 4 ohm are physical quantity raised to the power k is the
connected (a) in series, (b) in parallel. Find k times the relative error in the individual
the equivalent resistance of the (a) series quantity.
combination, (b) parallel combination. Use
for (a) the relation R = R1 + R2, and for (b) Example 2.11 Find the relative error in
t
Z, if Z = A4B1/3/CD3/2.
and
Answer The relative error in Z is ∆Z/Z =
Answer (a) The equivalent resistance of series 4(∆A/A) +(1/3) (∆B/B) + (∆C/C) + (3/2) (∆D/D).
combination t
R = R1 + R2 = (100 ± 3) ohm + (200 ± 4) ohm
Example 2.12 The period of oscillation of
t

= 300 ± 7 ohm. a simple pendulum is T = 2π L/g.

(b) The equivalent resistance of parallel Measured value of L is 20.0 cm known to 1
combination mm accuracy and time for 100 oscillations
R1R2 200 of the pendulum is found to be 90 s using
R′ = = a wrist watch of 1 s resolution. What is the
R1 + R2 3 = 66.7 ohm accuracy in the determination of g ?
1 1 1 Answer g = 4π2L/T2
Then, from R ′ = R + R
1 2
t ∆t ∆T ∆t
we get, Here, T = and ∆T = . Therefore, = .
n n T t
∆R ′ ∆R1 ∆R 2 The errors in both L and t are the least count
= 2 + 2 errors. Therefore,
R ′2 R1 R2
(∆g/g) = (∆L/L) + 2(∆T/T )
(
∆R ′ = R ′2 ) ∆RR + ( R ′ ) ∆RR
2
1 2 2
2
=
0.1  1
+ 2   = 0.027
1 2 20.0  90 

 66.7 
2
 66.7 
2 Thus, the percentage error in g is
=  3+  4 100 (∆g/g) = 100(∆L/L) + 2 × 100 (∆T/T )
 100   200 
= 3% t
= 1.8
2.7 SIGNIFICANT FIGURES
Then, R ′ = 66.7 ± 1.8 ohm
As discussed above, every measurement
(Here, ∆R is expresed as 1.8 instead of 2 to
involves errors. Thus, the result of
keep in confirmity with the rules of significant
measurement should be reported in a way that
figures.) t indicates the precision of measurement.
Normally, the reported result of measurement
(c) Error in case of a measured quantity
raised to a power is a number that includes all digits in the
number that are known reliably plus the first
Suppose Z = A2, digit that is uncertain. The reliable digits plus

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28 PHYSICS

the first uncertain digit are known as • The trailing zero(s) in a number with a
significant digits or significant figures. If we decimal point are significant.
say the period of oscillation of a simple [The numbers 3.500 or 0.06900 have four
pendulum is 1.62 s, the digits 1 and 6 are significant figures each.]
reliable and certain, while the digit 2 is
uncertain. Thus, the measured value has three (2) There can be some confusion regarding the
significant figures. The length of an object trailing zero(s). Suppose a length is reported to
reported after measurement to be 287.5 cm has be 4.700 m. It is evident that the zeroes here
are meant to convey the precision of
four significant figures, the digits 2, 8, 7 are
measurement and are, therefore, significant. [If
certain while the digit 5 is uncertain. Clearly,
these were not, it would be superfluous to write
reporting the result of measurement that
them explicitly, the reported measurement
includes more digits than the significant digits
would have been simply 4.7 m]. Now suppose
is superfluous and also misleading since it would
we change units, then
give a wrong idea about the precision of
measurement. 4.700 m = 470.0 cm = 4700 mm = 0.004700 km
The rules for determining the number of Since the last number has trailing zero(s) in a
significant figures can be understood from the number with no decimal, we would conclude
following examples. Significant figures indicate, erroneously from observation (1) above that the
as already mentioned, the precision of number has two significant figures, while in
measurement which depends on the least count fact, it has four significant figures and a mere
of the measuring instrument. A choice of change of units cannot change the number of
change of different units does not change the significant figures.
number of significant digits or figures in a (3) To remove such ambiguities in
measurement. This important remark makes determining the number of significant
most of the following observations clear: figures, the best way is to report every
(1) For example, the length 2.308 cm has four measurement in scientific notation (in the
significant figures. But in different units, the power of 10). In this notation, every number is
same value can be written as 0.02308 m or 23.08 expressed as a × 10b, where a is a number
mm or 23080 µm. between 1 and 10, and b is any positive or
All these numbers have the same number of negative exponent (or power) of 10. In order to
significant figures (digits 2, 3, 0, 8), namely four. get an approximate idea of the number, we may
This shows that the location of decimal point is round off the number a to 1 (for a ≤ 5) and to 10
of no consequence in determining the number (for 5<a ≤ 10). Then the number can be
of significant figures. expressed approximately as 10b in which the
The example gives the following rules : exponent (or power) b of 10 is called order of
• All the non-zero digits are significant. magnitude of the physical quantity. When only
• All the zeros between two non-zero digits an estimate is required, the quantity is of the
are significant, no matter where the order of 10b. For example, the diameter of the
decimal point is, if at all. earth (1.28×107m) is of the order of 107m with
• If the number is less than 1, the zero(s) the order of magnitude 7. The diameter of
on the right of decimal point but to the hydrogen atom (1.06 ×10–10m) is of the order of
left of the first non-zero digit are not 10 –10 m, with the order of magnitude
significant. [In 0.00 2308, the underlined –10. Thus, the diameter of the earth is 17 orders
zeroes are not significant]. of magnitude larger than the hydrogen atom.
• The terminal or trailing zero(s) in a It is often customary to write the decimal after
number without a decimal point are not the first digit. Now the confusion mentioned in
significant. (a) above disappears :
4.700 m = 4.700 × 102 cm
[Thus 123 m = 12300 cm = 123000 mm has
= 4.700 × 103 mm = 4.700 × 10–3 km
three significant figures, the trailing zero(s)
being not significant.] However, you can also The power of 10 is irrelevant to the
see the next observation. determination of significant figures. However, all

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UNITS AND MEASUREMENT 29

zeroes appearing in the base number in the following rules for arithmetic operations with
scientific notation are significant. Each number significant figures ensure that the final result of
in this case has four significant figures. a calculation is shown with the precision that is
Thus, in the scientific notation, no confusion consistent with the precision of the input
arises about the trailing zero(s) in the base measured values :
number a. They are always significant. (1) In multiplication or division, the final
result should retain as many significant
(4) The scientific notation is ideal for reporting
figures as are there in the original number
measurement. But if this is not adopted, we use with the least significant figures.
the rules adopted in the preceding example : Thus, in the example above, density should
• For a number greater than 1, without any be reported to three significant figures.
decimal, the trailing zero(s) are not
4.237g -3
significant. D ensity = 3
= 1.69 g cm
• For a number with a decimal, the trailing 2.51 cm
zero(s) are significant. Similarly, if the speed of light is given as
3 × 108 m s-1 (one significant figure) and one
(5) The digit 0 conventionally put on the left of a
year (1y = 365.25 d) has 3.1557 × 107 s (five
decimal for a number less than 1 (like 0.1250)
significant figures), the light year is 9.47 × 1015 m
is never significant. However, the zeroes at the
(three significant figures).
end of such number are significant in a
measurement. (2) In addition or subtraction, the final result
should retain as many decimal places as are
(6) The multiplying or dividing factors which are
there in the number with the least decimal
neither rounded numbers nor numbers
places.
representing measured values are exact and
For example, the sum of the numbers
have infinite number of significant digits. For
436.32 g, 227.2 g and 0.301 g by mere arithmetic
d addition, is 663.821 g. But the least precise
example in r = or s = 2πr, the factor 2 is an measurement (227.2 g) is correct to only one
2
exact number and it can be written as 2.0, 2.00 decimal place. The final result should, therefore,
be rounded off to 663.8 g.
t Similarly, the difference in length can be
or 2.0000 as required. Similarly, in T = , n is
n expressed as :
an exact number.
0.307 m – 0.304 m = 0.003 m = 3 × 10–3 m.
2.7.1 Rules for Arithmetic Operations with Note that we should not use the rule (1)
Significant Figures applicable for multiplication and division and
The result of a calculation involving approximate write 664 g as the result in the example of
measured values of quantities (i.e. values with addition and 3.00 × 10–3 m in the example of
limited number of significant figures) must reflect subtraction. They do not convey the precision
the uncertainties in the original measured values. of measurement properly. For addition and
It cannot be more accurate than the original subtraction, the rule is in terms of decimal
measured values themselves on which the result places.
is based. In general, the final result should not
2.7.2 Rounding off the Uncertain Digits
have more significant figures than the original
data from which it was obtained. Thus, if mass of The result of computation with approximate
an object is measured to be, say, 4.237 g (four numbers, which contain more than one
significant figures) and its volume is measured to uncertain digit, should be rounded off. The rules
be 2.51 cm3, then its density, by mere arithmetic for rounding off numbers to the appropriate
division, is 1.68804780876 g/cm3 upto 11 decimal significant figures are obvious in most cases. A
places. It would be clearly absurd and irrelevant number 2.746 rounded off to three significant
to record the calculated value of density to such a figures is 2.75, while the number 2.743 would
precision when the measurements on which the be 2.74. The rule by convention is that the
value is based, have much less precision. The preceding digit is raised by 1 if the

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30 PHYSICS

insignificant digit to be dropped (the

Example 2.14 5.74 g of a substance
t
underlined digit in this case) is more than
occupies 1.2 cm3. Express its density by
5, and is left unchanged if the latter is less keeping the significant figures in view.
than 5. But what if the number is 2.745 in
which the insignificant digit is 5. Here, the Answer There are 3 significant figures in the
convention is that if the preceding digit is measured mass whereas there are only 2
even, the insignificant digit is simply significant figures in the measured volume.
dropped and, if it is odd, the preceding digit Hence the density should be expressed to only
is raised by 1. Then, the number 2.745 rounded 2 significant figures.
off to three significant figures becomes 2.74. On 5.74
the other hand, the number 2.735 rounded off
Density = g cm−3
1.2
to three significant figures becomes 2.74 since = 4.8 g cm--3 . t
the preceding digit is odd.
In any involved or complex multi-step 2.7.3 Rules for Determining the Uncertainty
calculation, you should retain, in intermediate in the Results of Arithmatic
steps, one digit more than the significant digits Calculations
and round off to proper significant figures at the
The rules for determining the uncertainty or
end of the calculation. Similarly, a number
error in the number/measured quantity in
known to be within many significant figures,
arithmetic operations can be understood from
such as in 2.99792458 × 108 m/s for the speed
the following examples.
of light in vacuum, is rounded off to an
(1) If the length and breadth of a thin
approximate value 3 × 108 m/s , which is often rectangular sheet are measured, using a metre
employed in computations. Finally, remember scale as 16.2 cm and, 10.1 cm respectively, there
that exact numbers that appear in formulae like are three significant figures in each
L measurement. It means that the length l may
2 π in T = 2π , have a large (infinite) number be written as
g
l = 16.2 ± 0.1 cm
of significant figures. The value of π =
= 16.2 cm ± 0.6 %.
3.1415926.... is known to a large number of
significant figures. You may take the value as Similarly, the breadth b may be written as
3.142 or 3.14 for π, with limited number of b = 10.1 ± 0.1 cm
significant figures as required in specific = 10.1 cm ± 1 %
cases.
Then, the error of the product of two (or more)
Example 2.13 Each side of a cube is experimental values, using the combination of
t
measured to be 7.203 m. What are the errors rule, will be
total surface area and the volume of the
cube to appropriate significant figures? l b = 163.62 cm2 + 1.6%

= 163.62 + 2.6 cm2

Answer The number of significant figures in
the measured length is 4. The calculated area This leads us to quote the final result as
and the volume should therefore be rounded off l b = 164 + 3 cm2
to 4 significant figures.
Here 3 cm2 is the uncertainty or error in the
Surface area of the cube = 6(7.203)2 m2 estimation of area of rectangular sheet.
= 311.299254 m2 (2) If a set of experimental data is specified
= 311.3 m 2 to n significant figures, a result obtained by
combining the data will also be valid to n
Volume of the cube = (7.203)3 m3
significant figures.
= 373.714754 m3
However, if data are subtracted, the number of
= 373.7 m3 t significant figures can be reduced.

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UNITS AND MEASUREMENT 31

For example, 12.9 g – 7.06 g, both specified to three square brackets [ ]. Thus, length has the
significant figures, cannot properly be evaluated dimension [L], mass [M], time [T], electric current
as 5.84 g but only as 5.8 g, as uncertainties in [A], thermodynamic temperature [K], luminous
subtraction or addition combine in a different intensity [cd], and amount of substance [mol].
fashion (smallest number of decimal places rather The dimensions of a physical quantity are the
than the number of significant figures in any of powers (or exponents) to which the base
the number added or subtracted). quantities are raised to represent that
(3) The relative error of a value of number quantity. Note that using the square brackets
specified to significant figures depends not [ ] round a quantity means that we are dealing
only on n but also on the number itself. with ‘the dimensions of’ the quantity.
In mechanics, all the physical quantities can
For example, the accuracy in measurement of
be written in terms of the dimensions [L], [M]
mass 1.02 g is ± 0.01 g whereas another
and [T]. For example, the volume occupied by
measurement 9.89 g is also accurate to ± 0.01 g.
The relative error in 1.02 g is an object is expressed as the product of length,
= (± 0.01/1.02) × 100 % breadth and height, or three lengths. Hence the
= ± 1% dimensions of volume are [L] × [L] × [L] = [L]3 = [L3].
Similarly, the relative error in 9.89 g is As the volume is independent of mass and time,
= (± 0.01/9.89) × 100 % it is said to possess zero dimension in mass [M°],
= ± 0.1 % zero dimension in time [T°] and three
Finally, remember that intermediate results in dimensions in length.
a multi-step computation should be Similarly, force, as the product of mass and
calculated to one more significant figure in acceleration, can be expressed as
Force = mass × acceleration
every measurement than the number of
= mass × (length)/(time)2
digits in the least precise measurement.
These should be justified by the data and then The dimensions of force are [M] [L]/[T]2 =
the arithmetic operations may be carried out; [M L T–2]. Thus, the force has one dimension in
otherwise rounding errors can build up. For mass, one dimension in length, and –2
example, the reciprocal of 9.58, calculated (after dimensions in time. The dimensions in all other
rounding off) to the same number of significant base quantities are zero.
figures (three) is 0.104, but the reciprocal of Note that in this type of representation, the
0.104 calculated to three significant figures is magnitudes are not considered. It is the quality
of the type of the physical quantity that enters.
9.62. However, if we had written 1/9.58 = 0.1044
Thus, a change in velocity, initial velocity,
and then taken the reciprocal to three significant average velocity, final velocity, and speed are
figures, we would have retrieved the original all equivalent in this context. Since all these
value of 9.58. quantities can be expressed as length/time,
This example justifies the idea to retain one their dimensions are [L]/[T] or [L T–1].
more extra digit (than the number of digits in
the least precise measurement) in intermediate 2.9 DIMENSIONAL FORMULAE AND
steps of the complex multi-step calculations in DIMENSIONAL EQUATIONS
order to avoid additional errors in the process The expression which shows how and which of
of rounding off the numbers. the base quantities represent the dimensions
of a physical quantity is called the dimensional
2.8 DIMENSIONS OF PHYSICAL QUANTITIES formula of the given physical quantity. For
example, the dimensional formula of the volume
The nature of a physical quantity is described is [M° L3 T°], and that of speed or velocity is
by its dimensions. All the physical quantities [M° L T-1]. Similarly, [M° L T–2] is the dimensional
represented by derived units can be expressed formula of acceleration and [M L–3 T°] that of
in terms of some combination of seven mass density.
fundamental or base quantities. We shall call An equation obtained by equating a physical
these base quantities as the seven dimensions quantity with its dimensional formula is called
of the physical world, which are denoted with the dimensional equation of the physical

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quantity. Thus, the dimensional equations are from the thermodynamic temperature. This
the equations, which represent the dimensions simple principle called the principle of
of a physical quantity in terms of the base homogeneity of dimensions in an equation is
quantities. For example, the dimensional extremely useful in checking the correctness of
equations of volume [V ], speed [v], force [F ] and an equation. If the dimensions of all the terms
mass density [ρ] may be expressed as are not same, the equation is wrong. Hence, if
we derive an expression for the length (or
[V] = [M0 L3 T0]
distance) of an object, regardless of the symbols
[v] = [M0 L T–1]
[F] = [M L T–2] appearing in the original mathematical relation,
when all the individual dimensions are
[ρ] = [M L–3 T0]
simplified, the remaining dimension must be
The dimensional equation can be obtained that of length. Similarly, if we derive an equation
from the equation representing the relations of speed, the dimensions on both the sides of
between the physical quantities. The equation, when simplified, must be of length/
dimensional formulae of a large number and time, or [L T–1].
wide variety of physical quantities, derived from Dimensions are customarily used as a
the equations representing the relationships
preliminary test of the consistency of an
among other physical quantities and expressed
equation, when there is some doubt about the
in terms of base quantities are given in
Appendix 9 for your guidance and ready correctness of the equation. However, the
reference. dimensional consistency does not guarantee
correct equations. It is uncertain to the extent
2.10 DIMENSIONAL ANALYSIS AND ITS of dimensionless quantities or functions. The
APPLICATIONS arguments of special functions, such as the
The recognition of concepts of dimensions, which trigonometric, logarithmic and exponential
guide the description of physical behaviour is functions must be dimensionless. A pure
of basic importance as only those physical number, ratio of similar physical quantities,
quantities can be added or subtracted which such as angle as the ratio (length/length),
have the same dimensions. A thorough refractive index as the ratio (speed of light in
understanding of dimensional analysis helps us vacuum/speed of light in medium) etc., has no
in deducing certain relations among different dimensions.
physical quantities and checking the derivation, Now we can test the dimensional consistency
accuracy and dimensional consistency or or homogeneity of the equation
homogeneity of various mathematical
expressions. When magnitudes of two or more x = x 0 + v0 t + (1/2) a t 2
physical quantities are multiplied, their units for the distance x travelled by a particle or body
should be treated in the same manner as in time t which starts from the position x0 with
ordinary algebraic symbols. We can cancel an initial velocity v0 at time t = 0 and has uniform
identical units in the numerator and acceleration a along the direction of motion.
denominator. The same is true for dimensions The dimensions of each term may be written as
of a physical quantity. Similarly, physical [x] = [L]
quantities represented by symbols on both sides [x0 ] = [L]
of a mathematical equation must have the same [v0 t] = [L T–1] [T]
dimensions. = [L]
[(1/2) a t2] = [L T–2] [T2]
2.10.1 Checking the Dimensional
= [L]
Consistency of Equations
As each term on the right hand side of this
The magnitudes of physical quantities may be equation has the same dimension, namely that
added together or subtracted from one another of length, which is same as the dimension of
only if they have the same dimensions. In other left hand side of the equation, hence this
words, we can add or subtract similar physical equation is a dimensionally correct equation.
quantities. Thus, velocity cannot be added to It may be noted that a test of consistency of
force, or an electric current cannot be subtracted dimensions tells us no more and no less than a

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UNITS AND MEASUREMENT 33

test of consistency of units, but has the (b) and (d); [M L T–2] for (c). The quantity on the
advantage that we need not commit ourselves right side of (e) has no proper dimensions since
to a particular choice of units, and we need not two quantities of different dimensions have been
worry about conversions among multiples and added. Since the kinetic energy K has the
sub-multiples of the units. It may be borne in dimensions of [M L2 T–2], formulas (a), (c) and (e)
mind that if an equation fails this consistency are ruled out. Note that dimensional arguments
test, it is proved wrong, but if it passes, it is cannot tell which of the two, (b) or (d), is the
not proved right. Thus, a dimensionally correct correct formula. For this, one must turn to the
equation need not be actually an exact actual definition of kinetic energy (see Chapter
(correct) equation, but a dimensionally wrong 6). The correct formula for kinetic energy is given
(incorrect) or inconsistent equation must be by (b). t
wrong.
2.10.2 Deducing Relation among the
Physical Quantities
Example 2.15 Let us consider an equation
t
The method of dimensions can sometimes be
1
m v2 = m g h used to deduce relation among the physical
2 quantities. For this we should know the
where m is the mass of the body, v its dependence of the physical quantity on other
velocity, g is the acceleration due to quantities (upto three physical quantities or
gravity and h is the height. Check linearly independent variables) and consider it
whether this equation is dimensionally as a product type of the dependence. Let us take
correct. an example.

Answer The dimensions of LHS are t

Example 2.17 Consider a simple
[M] [L T–1 ]2 = [M] [ L2 T–2] pendulum, having a bob attached to a
= [M L2 T–2] string, that oscillates under the action of
The dimensions of RHS are the force of gravity. Suppose that the period
[M][L T–2] [L] = [M][L2 T–2] of oscillation of the simple pendulum
= [M L2 T–2] depends on its length (l), mass of the bob
The dimensions of LHS and RHS are the same and (m) and acceleration due to gravity (g).
hence the equation is dimensionally correct. t Derive the expression for its time period
using method of dimensions.

Example 2.16 The SI unit of energy is

t

J = kg m2 s–2; that of speed v is m s–1 and Answer The dependence of time period T on
of acceleration a is m s–2. Which of the the quantities l, g and m as a product may be
written as :
formulae for kinetic energy (K) given below
can you rule out on the basis of T = k lx gy mz
dimensional arguments (m stands for the where k is dimensionless constant and x, y
mass of the body) : and z are the exponents.
(a) K = m2 v3 By considering dimensions on both sides, we
(b) K = (1/2)mv2 have
(c) K = ma [Lo Mo T 1 ]=[L1 ]x [L1 T –2 ]y [M1 ]z
(d) K = (3/16)mv2
= Lx+y T–2y Mz
(e) K = (1/2)mv2 + ma
On equating the dimensions on both sides,
Answer Every correct formula or equation must we have
have the same dimensions on both sides of the x + y = 0; –2y = 1; and z = 0
equation. Also, only quantities with the same
1 1
physical dimensions can be added or So that x = ,y = – , z = 0
subtracted. The dimensions of the quantity on 2 2
the right side are [M2 L3 T–3] for (a); [M L2 T–2] for Then, T = k l g
½ –½

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Dimensional analysis is very useful in deducing

l relations among the interdependent physical
or, T = k quantities. However, dimensionless constants
g
cannot be obtained by this method. The method
Note that value of constant k can not be obtained of dimensions can only test the dimensional
by the method of dimensions. Here it does not validity, but not the exact relationship between
matter if some number multiplies the right side physical quantities in any equation. It does not
of this formula, because that does not affect its distinguish between the physical quantities
dimensions. having same dimensions.
A number of exercises at the end of this
l chapter will help you develop skill in
Actually, k = 2π so that T = 2π t
g dimensional analysis.

SUMMARY

1. Physics is a quantitative science, based on measurement of physical quantities. Certain

physical quantities have been chosen as fundamental or base quantities (such as length,
mass, time, electric current, thermodynamic temperature, amount of substance, and
luminous intensity).
2. Each base quantity is defined in terms of a certain basic, arbitrarily chosen but properly
standardised reference standard called unit (such as metre, kilogram, second, ampere,
kelvin, mole and candela). The units for the fundamental or base quantities are called
fundamental or base units.
3. Other physical quantities, derived from the base quantities, can be expressed as a
combination of the base units and are called derived units. A complete set of units,
both fundamental and derived, is called a system of units.
4. The International System of Units (SI) based on seven base units is at present
internationally accepted unit system and is widely used throughout the world.
5. The SI units are used in all physical measurements, for both the base quantities and
the derived quantities obtained from them. Certain derived units are expressed by
means of SI units with special names (such as joule, newton, watt, etc).
6. The SI units have well defined and internationally accepted unit symbols (such as m for
metre, kg for kilogram, s for second, A for ampere, N for newton etc.).
7. Physical measurements are usually expressed for small and large quantities in scientific
notation, with powers of 10. Scientific notation and the prefixes are used to simplify
measurement notation and numerical computation, giving indication to the precision
of the numbers.
8. Certain general rules and guidelines must be followed for using notations for physical
quantities and standard symbols for SI units, some other units and SI prefixes for
expressing properly the physical quantities and measurements.
9. In computing any physical quantity, the units for derived quantities involved in the
relationship(s) are treated as though they were algebraic quantities till the desired
units are obtained.
10. Direct and indirect methods can be used for the measurement of physical quantities.
In measured quantities, while expressing the result, the accuracy and precision of
measuring instruments along with errors in measurements should be taken into account.
11. In measured and computed quantities proper significant figures only should be retained.
Rules for determining the number of significant figures, carrying out arithmetic
operations with them, and ‘rounding off ‘ the uncertain digits must be followed.
12. The dimensions of base quantities and combination of these dimensions describe the
nature of physical quantities. Dimensional analysis can be used to check the dimensional
consistency of equations, deducing relations among the physical quantities, etc. A
dimensionally consistent equation need not be actually an exact (correct) equation,
but a dimensionally wrong or inconsistent equation must be wrong.

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EXERCISES

Note : In stating numerical answers, take care of significant figures.

2.1 Fill in the blanks
(a) The volume of a cube of side 1 cm is equal to .....m3
(b) The surface area of a solid cylinder of radius 2.0 cm and height 10.0 cm is equal to
...(mm)2
(c) A vehicle moving with a speed of 18 km h–1 covers....m in 1 s
(d) The relative density of lead is 11.3. Its density is ....g cm–3 or ....kg m–3.
2.2 Fill in the blanks by suitable conversion of units
(a) 1 kg m2 s–2 = ....g cm2 s–2
(b) 1 m = ..... ly
(c) 3.0 m s–2 = .... km h–2
(d) G = 6.67 × 10–11 N m2 (kg)–2 = .... (cm)3 s–2 g–1.
2.3 A calorie is a unit of heat (energy in transit) and it equals about 4.2 J where 1J =
1 kg m2 s–2. Suppose we employ a system of units in which the unit of mass equals α
kg, the unit of length equals β m, the unit of time is γ s. Show that a calorie has a
magnitude 4.2 α –1 β –2 γ 2 in terms of the new units.
2.4 Explain this statement clearly :
“To call a dimensional quantity ‘large’ or ‘small’ is meaningless without specifying a
standard for comparison”. In view of this, reframe the following statements wherever
necessary :
(a) atoms are very small objects
(b) a jet plane moves with great speed
(c) the mass of Jupiter is very large
(d) the air inside this room contains a large number of molecules
(e) a proton is much more massive than an electron
(f) the speed of sound is much smaller than the speed of light.
2.5 A new unit of length is chosen such that the speed of light in vacuum is unity. What
is the distance between the Sun and the Earth in terms of the new unit if light takes
8 min and 20 s to cover this distance ?
2.6 Which of the following is the most precise device for measuring length :
(a) a vernier callipers with 20 divisions on the sliding scale
(b) a screw gauge of pitch 1 mm and 100 divisions on the circular scale
(c) an optical instrument that can measure length to within a wavelength of light ?
2.7 A student measures the thickness of a human hair by looking at it through a
microscope of magnification 100. He makes 20 observations and finds that the average
width of the hair in the field of view of the microscope is 3.5 mm. What is the
estimate on the thickness of hair ?
2.8 Answer the following :
(a)You are given a thread and a metre scale. How will you estimate the diameter of
the thread ?
(b)A screw gauge has a pitch of 1.0 mm and 200 divisions on the circular scale. Do
you think it is possible to increase the accuracy of the screw gauge arbitrarily by
increasing the number of divisions on the circular scale ?
(c) The mean diameter of a thin brass rod is to be measured by vernier callipers. Why
is a set of 100 measurements of the diameter expected to yield a more reliable
estimate than a set of 5 measurements only ?
2.9 The photograph of a house occupies an area of 1.75 cm2 on a 35 mm slide. The slide
is projected on to a screen, and the area of the house on the screen is 1.55 m2. What
is the linear magnification of the projector-screen arrangement.
2.10 State the number of significant figures in the following :
(a) 0.007 m2
(b) 2.64 × 1024 kg
(c) 0.2370 g cm–3

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(d) 6.320 J
(e) 6.032 N m–2
(f) 0.0006032 m2
2.11 The length, breadth and thickness of a rectangular sheet of metal are 4.234 m, 1.005 m,
and 2.01 cm respectively. Give the area and volume of the sheet to correct significant
figures.
2.12 The mass of a box measured by a grocer’s balance is 2.30 kg. Two gold pieces of
masses 20.15 g and 20.17 g are added to the box. What is (a) the total mass of the
box, (b) the difference in the masses of the pieces to correct significant figures ?
2.13 A physical quantity P is related to four observables a, b, c and d as follows :

P = a 3 b 2/ ( c d )
The percentage errors of measurement in a, b, c and d are 1%, 3%, 4% and 2%,
respectively. What is the percentage error in the quantity P ? If the value of P calculated
using the above relation turns out to be 3.763, to what value should you round off
the result ?
2.14 A book with many printing errors contains four different formulas for the displacement
y of a particle undergoing a certain periodic motion :
(a) y = a sin 2π t/T
(b) y = a sin vt
(c) y = (a/T) sin t/a
(d) y = (a 2 ) (sin 2 πt / T + cos 2 πt / T )
(a = maximum displacement of the particle, v = speed of the particle. T = time-period
of motion). Rule out the wrong formulas on dimensional grounds.
2.15 A famous relation in physics relates ‘moving mass’ m to the ‘rest mass’ mo of a
particle in terms of its speed v and the speed of light, c. (This relation first arose as
a consequence of special relativity due to Albert Einstein). A boy recalls the relation
almost correctly but forgets where to put the constant c. He writes :
m0
m=
(1 − v )
2 1/2 .

Guess where to put the missing c.

2.16 The unit of length convenient on the atomic scale is known as an angstrom and is
denoted by Å: 1 Å = 10–10 m. The size of a hydrogen atom is about 0.5 Å. What is the
total atomic volume in m3 of a mole of hydrogen atoms ?
2.17 One mole of an ideal gas at standard temperature and pressure occupies 22.4 L
(molar volume). What is the ratio of molar volume to the atomic volume of a mole of
hydrogen ? (Take the size of hydrogen molecule to be about 1 Å). Why is this ratio
so large ?
2.18 Explain this common observation clearly : If you look out of the window of a fast
moving train, the nearby trees, houses etc. seem to move rapidly in a direction opposite
to the train’s motion, but the distant objects (hill tops, the Moon, the stars etc.)
seem to be stationary. (In fact, since you are aware that you are moving, these
distant objects seem to move with you).
2.19 The principle of ‘parallax’ in section 2.3.1 is used in the determination of distances
of very distant stars. The baseline AB is the line joining the Earth’s two locations six
months apart in its orbit around the Sun. That is, the baseline is about the diameter
of the Earth’s orbit ≈ 3 × 1011m. However, even the nearest stars are so distant that
with such a long baseline, they show parallax only of the order of 1” (second) of arc
or so. A parsec is a convenient unit of length on the astronomical scale. It is the
distance of an object that will show a parallax of 1” (second of arc) from opposite
ends of a baseline equal to the distance from the Earth to the Sun. How much is a
parsec in terms of metres ?

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2.20 The nearest star to our solar system is 4.29 light years away. How much is this
distance in terms of parsecs? How much parallax would this star (named Alpha
Centauri) show when viewed from two locations of the Earth six months apart in its
orbit around the Sun ?
2.21 Precise measurements of physical quantities are a need of science. For example, to
ascertain the speed of an aircraft, one must have an accurate method to find its
positions at closely separated instants of time. This was the actual motivation behind
the discovery of radar in World War II. Think of different examples in modern science
where precise measurements of length, time, mass etc. are needed. Also, wherever
you can, give a quantitative idea of the precision needed.
2.22 Just as precise measurements are necessary in science, it is equally important to be
able to make rough estimates of quantities using rudimentary ideas and common
observations. Think of ways by which you can estimate the following (where an
estimate is difficult to obtain, try to get an upper bound on the quantity) :
(a) the total mass of rain-bearing clouds over India during the Monsoon
(b) the mass of an elephant
(c) the wind speed during a storm
(d) the number of strands of hair on your head
(e) the number of air molecules in your classroom.
2.23 The Sun is a hot plasma (ionized matter) with its inner core at a temperature exceeding
10 7 K, and its outer surface at a temperature of about 6000 K. At these high
temperatures, no substance remains in a solid or liquid phase. In what range do you
expect the mass density of the Sun to be, in the range of densities of solids and
liquids or gases ? Check if your guess is correct from the following data : mass of the
Sun = 2.0 × 1030 kg, radius of the Sun = 7.0 × 108 m.
2.24 When the planet Jupiter is at a distance of 824.7 million kilometers from the Earth,
its angular diameter is measured to be 35.72" of arc. Calculate the diameter of
Jupiter.
Additional Exercises
2.25 A man walking briskly in rain with speed v must slant his umbrella forward making
an angle θ with the vertical. A student derives the following relation between θ and
v : tan θ = v and checks that the relation has a correct limit: as v →0, θ → 0, as
expected. (We are assuming there is no strong wind and that the rain falls vertically
for a stationary man). Do you think this relation can be correct ? If not, guess the
correct relation.
2.26 It is claimed that two cesium clocks, if allowed to run for 100 years, free from any
disturbance, may differ by only about 0.02 s. What does this imply for the accuracy
of the standard cesium clock in measuring a time-interval of 1 s ?
2.27 Estimate the average mass density of a sodium atom assuming its size to be about
2.5 Å. (Use the known values of Avogadro’s number and the atomic mass of sodium).
Compare it with the mass density of sodium in its crystalline phase : 970 kg m–3. Are
the two densities of the same order of magnitude ? If so, why ?
2.28 The unit of length convenient on the nuclear scale is a fermi : 1 f = 10–15 m. Nuclear
sizes obey roughly the following empirical relation :
r = r0 A1/3

where r is the radius of the nucleus, A its mass number, and ro is a constant equal to
about, 1.2 f. Show that the rule implies that nuclear mass density is nearly constant
for different nuclei. Estimate the mass density of sodium nucleus. Compare it with
the average mass density of a sodium atom obtained in Exercise. 2.27.
2.29 A LASER is a source of very intense, monochromatic, and unidirectional beam of
light. These properties of a laser light can be exploited to measure long distances.
The distance of the Moon from the Earth has been already determined very precisely
using a laser as a source of light. A laser light beamed at the Moon takes 2.56 s to

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return after reflection at the Moon’s surface. How much is the radius of the lunar
orbit around the Earth ?
2.30 A SONAR (sound navigation and ranging) uses ultrasonic waves to detect and locate
objects under water. In a submarine equipped with a SONAR, the time delay between
generation of a probe wave and the reception of its echo after reflection from an
enemy submarine is found to be 77.0 s. What is the distance of the enemy submarine?
(Speed of sound in water = 1450 m s–1).
2.31 The farthest objects in our Universe discovered by modern astronomers are so distant
that light emitted by them takes billions of years to reach the Earth. These objects
(known as quasars) have many puzzling features, which have not yet been satisfactorily
explained. What is the distance in km of a quasar from which light takes 3.0 billion
years to reach us ?
2.32 It is a well known fact that during a total solar eclipse the disk of the moon almost
completely covers the disk of the Sun. From this fact and from the information you
can gather from examples 2.3 and 2.4, determine the approximate diameter of the
moon.
2.33 A great physicist of this century (P.A.M. Dirac) loved playing with numerical values of
Fundamental constants of nature. This led him to an interesting observation. Dirac
found that from the basic constants of atomic physics (c, e, mass of electron, mass of
proton) and the gravitational constant G, he could arrive at a number with the
dimension of time. Further, it was a very large number, its magnitude being close to
the present estimate on the age of the universe (~15 billion years). From the table of
fundamental constants in this book, try to see if you too can construct this number
(or any other interesting number you can think of ). If its coincidence with the age of
the universe were significant, what would this imply for the constancy of fundamental
constants?

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