n general, the techniques of evaluating the

I avian eye are similar to those used in mam-

mals. However, the small size of the eye in
companion birds and the striated sphincter
muscle of the avian iris necessitate modified proce-
CHAPTER

26
dures to visualize the posterior segment of the eye.

Each ophthalmologist has a particular pattern for

ophthalmic examination. The key to effective evalu-
ation is to develop a logical, consistent use of the
same pattern of examination for each eye.

Before a bird is agitated by restraint, the eyes should

be evaluated from a distance, noting whether the
bird will fixate on moving objects, whether both pu-
pils are the same size and whether there are any
obvious abnormalities in the periorbital area (Figure
26.1). Vision can be difficult to evaluate because birds
can feel slight air movements created by an ap-
proaching hand. The detailed examination requires
OPHTHALMOLOGY
adequate restraint, and a darkened room will calm
the bird and improve the illumination provided by a
focal light source.

Many disease processes affect the external eye and

periorbita. Ocular discharge, conjunctival hyperemia
or periorbital swelling can be an indication of a pri-
mary ocular disorder or may occur secondary to si-
David Williams
nusitis or facial dermatitis (see Chapter 24). Some
larger Psittaciformes may inflate a portion of their
periorbital sinus as an aggressive gesture, creating a
transient swelling in the periorbital region (Color
26.7). This swelling should not be mistaken for peri-
orbital disease. Collapse of the anterior chamber may
occur in an otherwise normal eye following a period
of head restraint or lateral recumbency during anes-
thesia. Normal anterior chamber depth is rapidly
regained.

Examination of the anterior segment can be per-

formed with a bright pen light, a binocular loupe, an
operating microscope, an ophthalmoscope set on +20
diopters or, ideally, a slit lamp (Figure 26.2). Key
features to evaluate are the clarity of the cornea, the
aqueous, the lens and the color and vascularization
of the iris. Aqueous flare, as seen in uveitis, can be
detected by looking for scattering of a slit light beam
that is passing through the anterior chamber (Colors
26.25, 26.26). Pupillary light reflexes can be deter-
mined, but because the avian iris is under conscious
control, rapid changes in pupil diameter according to
674
SECTION FOUR INTERNAL MEDICINE

FIG 26.3 Indirect ophthalmoscopy in a cockatiel to evaluate the

fundus. A 28 diopter lens is particularly useful but results in an
inverted image that requires some practice to interpret (courtesy
of David Willaims).
FIG 26.1 Normal periocular area in a Grey-cheeked Parakeet. The
eye should be open with a bright, shiny appearance. The lid
margins should be evenly colored, dry and symmetrically shaped. jections. The most useful regime in raptors has been
found to be vecuronium bromide solution (4 mg/ml)
topically every five minutes for fifteen minutes (see
Chapter 18).53

With or without mydriasis, the easiest way to view

the fundus is to start with the direct ophthalmoscope
at the +20 dioptre setting, and with the instrument
close to the bird’s eye, change the dioptre setting
gradually back to zero. This will bring the pleated
pecten into view. It is then possible to focus on the
avascular retina at the posterior of the eye. An indi-
rect ophthalmoscope is excellent (Figure 26.3), al-
though an expensive binocular all-pupil model is
needed if adequate mydriasis is not achieved. A 28 or
40 dioptre lens is useful to obtain a good field of view
FIG 26.2 A slit lamp is ideal for examining the anterior segment
in the small avian eye. A 90 dioptre lens used with a
of the avian eye. The lamp can also be used to facilitate evaluation slit-lamp provides excellent visualization of a large
of oral and dermatologic lesions (courtesy of David Williams). area of the fundus.

the degree of alertness of the animal can make evalu- Ancillary Tests for Evaluation of the Eye
ation difficult.
Further testing can be used to confirm or refute the
Retinal examination is difficult in many birds be- presence of suspicious lesions detected by gross ob-
cause of the small size of the eye and the lack of servation. Corneal ulcerations can be detected by
response of the avian iris to conventional parasym- staining with fluorescein dye. The Schirmer Tear
pathomimetic mydriatics. Mydriasis can be accom- Tests can be used on birds, although normal data for
plished by intracemeral injection of d-tubocurarine psittacine birds have not been published. Conven-
or by the frequent use of a freshly prepared topical 3 tional 6 mm-wide Schirmer tear test filter paper
mg/ml solution of crystalline d-tubocurarine in strips have been found to be difficult to insert in the
0.025% benzilonium chloride over a fifteen-minute lower conjunctival sac of the smaller Psittaciformes;
period.5,56 A more practical approach may be the topi- thus trimming these to 4 mm is more useful. This
cal use of commercially available neuromuscular also gives a higher reading of wetted strip length than
blocking agents commonly used for intravenous in- the 6 mm-wide filter strips, with which the Schirmer
tear test results are rarely over 3 in clinically normal
 675
CHAPTER 26 OPHTHALMOLOGY

birds. To date, Schirmer tear test readings have been

found to be 8 ± 1.5 mm in the larger Psittaciformes
such as the African Grey Parrot, and 4.5 ± 1 mm in Anatomy of the Eye
smaller species such as lories and conures.

The difference in tear production between species is

presumably related to the size of the orbit and lacri- An understanding of the anatomy of the avian eye
mal gland tissue. These interspecies differences (Figures 26.4-26.7) and how it differs from the mam-
make it difficult to provide standard normal data for malian eye is vital when differentiating between the
all Psittaciformes. With unilateral problems, com- normal and abnormal.24,46,52,68,77
parison between the affected and the unaffected eye
may be useful. A normal bird of the same species, As an overview, the avian eyelids are mobile, the
ideally an enclosure mate, can also be used for com- lower more so than the upper. The meibomian glands
parative purposes. are absent, but a lacrimal gland (varying in size
between species) is present, inferior and lateral to
Tonometry is possible in birds, but little normal data the globe. The Harderian gland acts as a second
has been published. The simple indentation Schiotz lacrimal gland at the base of the nictitating mem-
tonometer cannot be used in smaller birds because of brane (Figure 26.5). The nictitating membrane ac-
its large footplate, which covers the cornea and sclera tively moves over the cornea during blinking and in
in all but the largest avian species. However, the the menace response (Color 26.1). It has an unusual
portable Tonopen applanation tonometer is ideal for muscular arrangement; it is drawn across the eye by
use in birds. One study indicates that this instru- the pyramidal muscle originating in the posterior
ment provided reproducible readings in birds with sclera and loops over the optic nerve through a sling
corneal diameters over 9 mm. Some readings in birds formed by the bursalis muscle (quadratus muscle.)
with corneal diameters as small as 5 mm were reli- Inferior and superior nasolacrimal puncta at the me-
able.40 This tonometric examination of 275 birds (39 dial canthus drain lacrimal secretions into the nasal
species) showed intraocular pressures in normal eyes cavity (Color 26.2).
of between 9.2 and 16.3 mmHg. Among 14 species of
psittacine birds, values were found to be 14.4 ± 4.2 The orbit is open, but, because the globe occupies the
mmHg with a sample size of 74 birds. vast majority of the space, the rectus and oblique
muscles are not well developed, and torsional move-
Avian periorbital and external eye disease is frequently ments of the globe are limited in many species to
associated with infectious agents. A consistent tech- between two and five degrees. A key point in the
nique for sample collection should be used to increase anatomy of the avian orbit is the close proximity of
the validity of the sample. The best diagnostic bacterio- the tightly packed orbit with the infraorbital diver-
logic samples can be obtained by inserting a sterile ticulum of the infraorbital sinus (Figure 26.5). Si-
swab moistened in transport medium into the upper nusitis and enlargement of this diverticulum will
conjunctival fornix and rubbing it from side to side two
or three times. The upper fornix is the preferred site for
collecting culture samples because there is less con-
tamination from environmental organisms than in the
lower fornix. Conjunctival scrapings can be stained
with a modified Wright’s stain for general cytology. A
Giemsa stain can be used to detect chlamydial elemen-
tary bodies (see Chapters 10, 34).14

FIG 26.4 Relative size of the globe to the skull.

676
SECTION FOUR INTERNAL MEDICINE

FIG 26.5 a) Anterior and b) Posterior view of the avian globe. 1) Nictitating membrane 2) M. lateral rectus 3) lacrimal gland 4) gland of
nictitating membrane 5) M. dorsal rectus 6) M. dorsal oblique 7) M. medial rectus 8) M. ventral oblique 9) M. pyramidalis 10) M. ventral
rectus 11) optic nerve and 12) M. quadratus (modified from Martin46).

therefore lead to periorbital or orbital compression and reddish pink in the adult female. Immature
and signs of periorbital swelling, conjunctivitis and cockatoos of both genders have black irides. In the
sometimes intraocular disease (Color 26.16). Moluccan Cockatoo, however, the male has a black
iris and the female has a dark brown iris, and in most
In most birds, including Psittaciformes, the globe is black cockatoo species and in the Goffin’s Cockatoo,
anterio-posteriorly flattened, with a hemispherical there is no gender difference in eye color. Young Blue
posterior segment. It is rounded in some diurnal and Gold Macaws have a dark iris that lightens in
birds and tubular in owls (Figure 26.6). The sclera the first two to three years and then turns yellow as
immediately posterior to the cornea contains scleral the bird ages. African Grey Parrots have dark
ossicles, and through its full circumference, the muddy-grey irides as young birds, which turn yel-
sclera has a support of hyaline cartilage (Figure lowish-grey and then silver as they mature.
26.7). The avian cornea is similar to that of mammals
except that it is considerably thinner, and unlike Pupillary light reflexes do occur in birds but their
mammals, it has a Bowman’s layer. The thickness of interpretation is complicated by the fact that voluntary
the cornea varies depending on the size of the bird. constriction and dilation of the pupil is possible, even
The anterior segment is relatively shallow compared in the absence of retinal stimulation. Clinically, the
with the posterior segment, with some anatomic dif- complete separation of the optic nerves prevents the
ferences noted between species. Owls have an unusu- elicitation of a consensual pupillary light reflex. The
ally deep anterior chamber (Color 26.21). iridocorneal angle is well developed in all birds and
drains the aqueous fluid, as in mammals. The lens is
The iris is thin and contains striated dilator and soft and is almost spherical in nocturnal birds, or has a
constrictor muscles. Varying chromatophores create flattened anterior face in diurnal species including
the different iris colors noted with age, gender and companion birds. An annular pad lies under the lens
species of some birds. In some white cockatoo species, capsule in the equatorial region, and can be separated
for example, the iris is dark brown in the adult male from the center of the lens during cataract surgery.
 677
CHAPTER 26 OPHTHALMOLOGY

FIG 26.6 a) In diurnal birds, like this chickadee and most companion birds, the lens has a flattened anterior surface, whereas b) in noctural
birds, like this Great Horned Owl, the lens is almost spherical. 1) pecten 2) fovea (modified from Martin46)

The color of the fundus varies considerably among

species; however, all species have a pecten, a comb-
like black or brown projection of choroidal tissue that Ophthalmic Disorders
extends into the vitreous (Color 26.35). Recent work
has shown that small, regular torsional movements
of the eye sweep the pecten through the relatively
fluid vitreous. Blood vessels in the pecten disperse a Lids and Periorbita
serum filtrate that extends to the peripheral retina.62
The pecten is thought to provide oxygen and nutri- One of the most common ocular presentations in
ents to the inner portion of the retina. Most species, large psittacine birds is periorbital disease secondary
including Psittaciformes and Passeriformes, have in- to upper respiratory infection, particularly chronic
distinct fovea. Many raptors have one and some diur- rhinitis and sinusitis (Figure 26.8) (see Chapter 22).
nal raptors and hummingbirds have two foveae. Ma- As stated above, the close proximity of the infraorbi-
caws have a particularly distinct foveal area that can tal sinus to the orbit predisposes it to physical dis-
be evaluated fundoscopically. It is suggested that in placement when the sinus diverticulum is enlarged.
bi-foveate birds, one fovea serves for near vision and In some cases, cellulitis or abscessation occur from
the other accommodates long-range vision. Birds can spread of organisms from the sinus cavity. Antibiotics
distinguish colors and in most cases have excellent alone are rarely efficacious in these cases; flushing
visual acuity. Because a bird’s sight is so important the sinus and, in some cases, more aggressive surgi-
behaviorally, it is critical that ophthalmologic prob- cal debridement is required (see Chapter 41).
lems are accurately diagnosed and rapidly resolved.
678
SECTION FOUR INTERNAL MEDICINE

1) cornea 15) scleral venous

2) lens sinus
3) iris 16) conjunctival ring
4) scleral ossicle 17) trabecular
5) ora serrata reticulum
6) vitreous chamber 18) anterior chamber
7) optic nerve 19) lens capsule
8) pecten 20) posterior chamber
9) retina 21) lens vesicle
10) choroid 22) zonular fibers
11) sclera 23) ciliary process
12) ciliary folds 24) sclera
13) equator 25) limbus
14) ciliary body

FIG 26.7 Three-dimensional representation of the avian eye; enlarged view of the interior of the eye.

FIG 26.8 An emu (left) was presented with a history of chronic sinusitis. A serous to mucoid oculonasal discharge was noted on physical
examination. The sinus was retracted into the skull (“sunken sinus syndrome”). This condition has been most frequently reported in macaws
but may also occur with sinusitis in other avian species. Antibiotics were curative (see Chapter 22). A normal emu (right) is shown for
comparison (courtesy of Tom Tully).

Poxvirus (Color 26.8). As the disease progresses, ulcerative

Avian poxvirus may cause lesions in or around the lesions on the lid margins and at the medial or lateral
eyes in a number of species (see Chapter 32). The canthus develop; these can become secondarily in-
initial changes include a mild, predominantly unilat- fected, giving rise to a mucopurulent discharge and
eral blepharitis with eyelid edema and serous dis- transient ankyloblepharon (Color 26.9). The lids be-
charge starting about 10 to 14 days post-infection
 679
CHAPTER 26 OPHTHALMOLOGY

come sealed shut with a caseous plug or with dry should be considered in cases of unexplained ocular
crusty scabs, which fall off within two weeks.50 discharge or swelling.

Clinical lesions provide a tentative diagnosis. An Nasal discharge, sneezing, crusted nares, dry oral
infection can be confirmed through histopathologic membranes and palatine and choanal abscesses are
identification of eosinophilic intracytoplasmic inclu- highly suggestive of primary hypovitaminosis A, par-
sion bodies (Bollinger bodies) in scabs or scrapings of ticularly in Amazon parrots. Response to injectable
periocular ulcers.27,34 vitamin A or oral beta carotene supplementation sug-
gests the involvement of a deficiency in the disease
Poxvirus infections may cause keratitis and, less process.42,63
commonly, anterior uveitis. The keratitis can be mild
with corneal clouding or severe with ulceration that Lovebird Eye Disease
progresses to panophthalmitis and rupture of the A severe and often fatal systemic disease with per-
globe. Keratitis may lead to permanent corneal lid iocular lesions as the presenting sign has been re-
scarring. Cicatricial changes in the lid margins can ported in lovebirds. Generalized depression is accom-
lead to entropion, ankyloblepharon or deformities of panied by blepharitis and serous ocular discharge,
the lid edge, resulting in keratitis from corneal abra- followed by hyperemia and edema of the periorbita
sion or environmental exposure. These patients may with a mucopurulent ocular discharge. Affected birds
need corrective surgery (lid retraction) or can be are often attacked by enclosure mates and usually
placed on life-long therapy with ocular lubricants. die within a few days of the onset of ocular signs. The
disease is most commonly seen in the Peach-faced
Many affected psittacine birds, particularly Ama-
mutations, and it is in these birds that the lesions are
zons, pionus parrots and mynah birds, have residual
most severe.
problems that cause more important pathology than
the primary ocular and periocular lesions. In one No definitive isolation of an infectious agent has been
study, 46% of the Amazon parrots and pionus parrots achieved, but an adenovirus-like particle has been
with poxvirus had post-infection ocular abnormali- demonstrated in renal tissue by electron microscopy.
ties.35 Eyelid and corneal lesions are most severe if Conjunctival inclusions have been found in some
poxvirus lesions are secondarily infected with bacte- affected birds.32,36 The histologic lesions reported in
ria or fungus. Treatment of poxvirus lesions should one case included proliferative inflammatory reac-
include topical antibiotic ophthalmic ointments to tion of the subconjunctival tissue with lymphoid cell
reduce the incidence of these sequelae. Systemic an- infiltration and concurrent atrophic changes in con-
tibiotics may also be required in severely affected junctival epithelium. Conjunctival edema with mini-
birds. Early eye lesions should be flushed with dilute mal cellular infiltrates were characteristic in other
antiseptic solutions. Once scabs have formed they cases. The disease occurs most frequently immedi-
should not be removed. It may be beneficial to soften ately after shipping or introduction into a new aviary,
scabs with hot or cold compresses soaked in nonirri- suggesting that stress may be involved in initiating
tating baby shampoo. It has been reported that pro- pathologic changes. Symptomatic therapy that in-
phylactic vitamin A supplementation of exposed cludes isolation of affected birds in a stress-free envi-
birds decreases the severity of infection36 (see Chap- ronment and administration of antibiotics has been
ter 18). The importance of subclinical hypovitami- suggested.
nosis A in the progression of the disease has not been
determined.

Hypovitaminosis A
Hypovitaminosis A is less prevalent today than a
decade ago; however, it may still be seen as a compli- C L I N I C A L A P PL I C A TI ON S
Sinusitis frequently causes ocular disease because of the
cating factor in ocular diseases. Xerophthalmia is close proximity of the infraorbital sinuses and the globe.
said to be the classic sign of hypovitaminosis A in Hypovitaminosis A may cause mild periorbital swelling.
many avian species, but the most common ocular Lacrimal sac masses present as mobile swellings anterio-
change in psittacine birds is mild periorbital and ventral to the medial canthus.
conjunctival swelling with some discharge (Color Pupillary light reflexes are difficult to interpret because
26.14). These signs can be subtle. Hypovitaminosis A birds can voluntarily constrict and dilate the pupil.
680
SECTION FOUR INTERNAL MEDICINE

Ophthalmology
Color 26.1 gar. b) Knemidocoptes spp. are most fre-
A three-month-old Blue and Gold Macaw quently associated with beak and cere le-
was presented with a two-week history of sions but can also cause lesions in the peri-
serous nasal discharge. Note the accumula- orbital tissues (courtesy of the Unit for
tion of debris on the feathers of the face. The Continuing Veterinary Education in Lon-
nictitating membrane, which moves over don and John E. Cooper).
the cornea during blinking and in the men-
ace response, is normal. This bird’s rhinitis Color 26.6
was caused by exposure to cigarette smoke. A mature cockatiel was presented for diar-
rhea and weight loss of five days’ duration.
Color 26.2 The bird had partial paresis of the eyelid,
An Umbrella Cockatoo was presented with mild conjunctivitis and was unable to bite.
a two-month history of unilateral dis- Partially hulled seeds were common in the
charge. Note the moist, discolored feathers bottom of the enclosure. Giardia spp. were
on the face. The nasolacrimal duct in this detected in a fecal smear. The bird re-
bird was occluded and was opened by re- sponded to treatment with metronidazole
peated flushing with warm, sterile saline. and vitamin E.
Color 26.3 Color 26.7
Depression and hyperemia of the face and An Amazon parrot with a transient perior-
eyelids in a gallinaceous bird with sinusitis bital sinus inflation. This inflation is be-
and pneumonia. lieved to be secondary to stressful events
and is not indicative of a pathologic prob-
Color 26.4 lem.
Periocular dermatitis in an Amazon parrot
from southern Florida. These lesions, fre- Color 26.8
quently encountered in birds in outdoor Scarring of the palpebral margin secondary
aviaries, are believed to be caused by biting to a poxvirus infection (courtesy of David
insects. Williams).
Color 26.5 Color 26.9
a) Gross proliferative lesions caused by Poxvirus in a canary (courtesy of Louise
Knemidokoptes sp. infection in a budgeri- Bauck).
 683
CHAPTER 26 OPHTHALMOLOGY

Ophthalmology
Color 26.10 Color 26.14
A budgerigar with conjunctivitis, epiphora Hypovitaminosis A in psittacine birds can
and chemosis of seven to ten days’ duration. cause dysplastic lacrimal gland lesions
The etiology is unknown but the clinical (courtesy of David Williams).
presentation is similar to that described
with conjunctivitis in cockatiels. In this Color 26.15
Cockatiel conjunctivitis frequently re-
case, topical application of enrofloxacin re-
sponds to therapy with tetracyclines (cour-
solved the chemosis within four days (cour-
tesy of Louise Bauck).
tesy of R. Korbel).
Color 26.16
Color 26.11
Infraorbital sinusitis in a 2.5-year-old In-
Subconjunctival granuloma in an Amazon
parrot. Chemotic conjunctivitis in this bird dian Hill Mynah. Surgical removal of
caseous masses followed by treatment with
was not ameliorated with topical or sys-
temic tetracycline and enrofloxacin treat- enrofloxacin and vitamin A successfully re-
solved the lesion (courtesy of R. Korbel).
ment. Ziehl-Neelsen staining of the granu-
lomatous conjunctival tissue revealed Color 26.17
Mycobacterium spp. The conjunctiva was A four-year-old female budgerigar was pre-
surgically removed (courtesy of R. Korbel). sented with a three-week history of pro-
gressive ocular swelling and ataxia. The
Color 26.12
An adult Arcuna was presented with a two- bird died shortly after presentation. Ab-
scesses present in the infraorbital sinuses
week history of progressive depression and
weight loss. The bird had a bilateral, serous also involved portions of the calvarium.
ocular discharge and preferred to keep the Color 26.18
eyes shut. Thelazia spp. were noted on An eight-year-old African Grey Parrot was
physical examination. The bulk of the presented with a twelve-day history of pro-
nematodes was removed with copious gressive upper respiratory disease. This
flushing (LRS), and the bird was success- was the only companion bird in the house-
fully treated with topical ivermectin. hold, but the bird had been boarded at a pet
retailer two months before the onset of
Color 26.13
clinical signs. The client also had a flu-like
Conjunctivitis in an ostrich caused by
disease. Chlamydia was detected by using
flukes (Philophthalmus sp.). This bird was
a fecal antigen test, and the bird responded
housed in an area that contained a water-
to doxycycline therapy. Note the rhinolith
fowl pond. Most infected birds are housed
in the left naris.
in low-lying, damp areas.
684
SECTION FOUR INTERNAL MEDICINE

Pasteurella spp. septicemia and gram-positive cocci vent and legs (Color 26.5). The periorbital lesions
have been associated with conjunctivitis in lovebirds. seldom cause problems even though they may be
A poxvirus has been described in Masked and Peach- quite severe. Ivermectin can be used topically.
faced Lovebirds.43
A potential differential diagnosis would include vita-
Periorbital and Orbital Abscesses min A deficiency, which can lead to periorbital epi-
Periorbital disease with exophthalmos or strabismus thelial hyperplasia and hyperkeratosis, but hypovi-
is most likely to be caused by an abscess of the orbit taminosis A lesions rarely achieve the size or
or lacrimal gland. In some cases, periorbital neo- proliferative extent seen with knemidokoptes. Peri-
plasia, either primary or secondary, can cause similar orbital papilloma-like virus infection in an African
clinical changes. Periorbital abscesses generally re- Grey Parrot resulted in hyperplastic parakeratotic
sult from chronic upper respiratory tract infection epithelial proliferations.33 Other periorbital papil-
and sinusitis. They are most often seen in cockatiels, lomas have been described without viral isolation.
and can occur in any position in the orbit (Color
26.11). Early treatment of sinusitis reduces the inci- Other Periocular Dermatoses
dence of these lesions. Surgical debridement of the Any dermatosis (eg, allergic, bacterial, fungal) can
abscesses with concomitant systemic antibiotics is potentially affect the periorbital skin and occur in the
the only effective treatment. Lacrimal sac abscesses periorbital region (Color 26.4). It should be noted
must be differentiated from periorbital abscesses. that many periorbital dermal lesions appear to be
The lacrimal sac masses present as mobile swellings exceptionally pruritic and that self-trauma can com-
at, or immediately anteroventral to, the medial can- plicate the initial lesions.
thus. Early dacryocystitis can sometimes be treated
Congenital Deformities
by expressing the inflammatory debris through the
lacrimal punctum. More severe cases with firm, ne- Although rare in birds, congenital eyelid abnormali-
crotic debris require cannulation and regular flush- ties do occur and are a surgical challenge to correct.
ing with antibiotic solutions as dictated by bacterio- Partial agenesis of the upper eyelid, which was sur-
logic culture and sensitivity. Surgical removal is not gically corrected by creating a new lateral canthus at
recommended because of the potential for scarring the point at which normal upper eyelid would be
and long-term nasolacrimal drainage problems. found, has been reported in a raptor.37

Periorbital Swelling of Neoplastic Origin Cryptophthalmos (fusion of the eyelid margins) has
been reported in four cockatiels11 in which dramati-
Any primary tumor arising in the periorbital or
cally reduced or absent palpebral fissures were de-
retrobulbar area can cause swelling with or without
scribed without other ocular abnormalities (Color
globe displacement.7 The periorbital area in birds
26.20). Reconstructive surgery was uniformly unsuc-
appears to be a particularly common area for cutane-
cessful. Behaviorally, the birds appeared normal be-
ous manifestations of lymphoreticular neoplasia,13
cause some vision was possible through one or both
represented clinically by periorbital swelling, globe
eyes. Corneal dermoids have been reported in one
displacement and feather loss.61,65 Exophthalmia or
goose, in which feathers grew out of the aberrant
posteriorly directed strabismus may be noted.
dermal tissue on the lateral aspect of the globe.12
Exophthalmos and globe deviation have been re- Microphthalmia and maldevelopment of ciliary body,
ported secondary to optic nerve glioma, orbital round retina and pecten, as well as retinal dysplasias and
cell sarcoma,2,26 and some advanced cases of pituitary congenital cataracts have been described in rap-
chromophobe tumors in budgerigars.69 Other less tors.10 The lacrimal ducts did not drain properly in an
common causes of retrobulbar masses include Myco- Umbrella Cockatoo with choanal atresia, resulting in
bacterium spp.,79 Aspergillus spp. granulomas and a chronic ocular discharge (Figure 26.9). Ectropion
disseminated cryptococcosis.25 with secondary exposure keratitis has been seen in
cockatiels. This lesion can be resolved with a lateral
Hyperplastic Periocular Lesions canthoplasty (see Chapter 41).
Proliferative and hyperplastic periorbital lesions are
most commonly seen in budgerigars and canaries in
response to Knemidokoptes spp. infections. Pitted or
honeycombed, scaly and crusting lesions are easily
noted in the periorbital area as well as on the beak,
 685
CHAPTER 26 OPHTHALMOLOGY

14% and fungi, from 9% of these clinically normal

birds. In another study, 41% of ocular samples were
sterile and 50% of the isolates were gram-positive
cocci.82

TABLE 26.1 Avian Conjunctival Flora

Gram + Gram- Fungal

Family
Isolates Isolates Isolates
Anseriformes 36/68 (56%) 30/68 (44%) 2/27 (11%)
Coraciiformes 3/3 (100%) 0/3 (0%) 0/2 (0%)
Falconiformes 17/18 (94%) 1/18 (6%) 4/11 (36%)
Piciformes 6/7 (86%) 1/7 (14%) 1/5 (20%)
Psittaciformes 44/51 (86%) 7/51 (14%) 5/55 (9%)
Rheiformes 6/18 (33%) 12/18 (67%) 2/5 (40%)
Falconiformes 17/18 (94%) 1/18 (6%) 4/11 (36%)

Adapted from Wolf DE, et al: J Am Vet Med Assoc 183:1232-1233, 1983.

FIG 26.9 A mature Umbrella Cockatoo was presented with a life-

The incidence of gram-positive, gram-negative and
long history of ocular nasal discharge. Physical examination indi- fungal organisms was determined in a group of 117
cated the lack of a choanal slit and an abnormally formed in- birds by swabbing the conjunctiva. The birds sam-
fundibular cleft, preventing normal lacrimal drainage. The
periorbital tissue was moistened with a serous ocular and nasal
pled were clinically asymptomatic and were housed
discharge. Note the bubbles in the ocular fluids suggesting that air in zoos or pet shops. Staphylococcus spp. or Coryne-
was exiting the lacrimal duct. bacterium spp. were recovered from 85 of 97 birds in
which bacterial organisms were recovered. Chlamy-
Conjunctiva dia spp. was not identified by cytologic evaluation of
conjunctival scrapings in any of the birds.
Differential Diagnosis of Conjunctivitis
Conjunctivitis can be classified clinically into three In one study of domestic ducks, E. coli was isolated
groups. The first are those caused by strictly local from the eyes of a majority of clinically asymptomatic
factors, such as localized conjunctival infection or ducklings, suggesting that neonatal conjunctival
foreign bodies. The second are those in which con- flora are derived from intestinal flora (Color 26.24).16
junctivitis is a manifestation of periorbital or orbital The isolation of gram-negative bacteria from the eye
disease. These are mainly related to sinusitis (see or conjunctiva should be considered abnormal except
Chapter 22). The third group are those in which in Anseriformes and Rheiformes, where gram-nega-
conjunctival hyperemia is caused by a septicemia. tive bacteria are considered autochthonous flora.
Almost any organism causing systemic infection can Haemophilus-like bacteria have been reported to
result in conjunctivitis. A careful examination of the cause conjunctivitis in cockatiels.19
bird for upper respiratory disease is mandatory in Chlamydia psittaci is a frequent cause of keratocon-
determining the cause of ocular discharge or conjunc- junctivitis in Australian parakeets23 and of conjunc-
tival hyperemia (Color 26.10). Exposure to cigarette tivitis without other signs in pigeons and finches. In
smoke, chemical fumes and other aerosolized envi- these cases, treatment with topical oxytetracycline is
ronmental toxins should always be considered in the effective. Clinical chlamydiosis in Psittaciformes is
differential diagnosis of conjunctivitis, with or with- generally associated with conjunctivitis, diarrhea
out signs of upper respiratory disease. and polyuria.
Various infectious agents have been implicated in Mycoplasma spp. are important causes of conjuncti-
conjunctivitis, but mere isolation of a bacteria or vitis in pigeons and are suspected in many cases of
protozoan does not imply that it is the cause of the conjunctivitis in cockatiels. Ocular discharge and
disease. The conjunctival flora of captive exotic birds conjunctivitis may be the only presenting signs.
has been surveyed (Table 26.1).80 Bacteria was iso- Other affected birds may develop rales, nasal dis-
lated from the upper conjunctival fornix of 71% of the charge and sneezing. Unilateral conjunctivitis (one-
psittacine birds tested. Staphylococcus sppp. or Co- eyed cold) in pigeons is frequently associated with
rynebacterium spp. were isolated from 86% of the mycoplasma but can also be caused by chlamydia or
birds. Gram-negative bacteria were recovered from salmonella.
686
SECTION FOUR INTERNAL MEDICINE

Cryptosporidial conjunctivitis has been described in Parasitic Conjunctivitis

pheasants66 and ducks.48 A case of blepharitis and A number of nematode and trematode parasites can
conjunctivitis in a goose yielded Actinobacillus suis,45 occasionally cause conjunctival irritation in a wide
while Mycobacterium avium was isolated from a con- variety of avian species (see Chapter 36). Oxyspirura
junctival granuloma in an ostrich.31 mansoni is a nematode that has been associated with
conjunctival irritation and pruritus in cockatoos, my-
The presence of foreign bodies in the fornix, or behind nahs and other avian species. This nematode can
the third eyelid, may be a cause of conjunctival irri- enter the lacrimal duct and may cause transient
tation and should be suspected in cases of unilateral epiphora if present in large numbers. Small numbers
conjunctivitis that are not responsive to antibiotics. of nematodes can be manually removed or flushed
In one study, 7% of the free-ranging Red-shouldered out of the lower conjunctival sac. Heavy parasite
Hawks had grass florets lodged behind the third burdens must be treated with a single topical dose of
eyelid.49 In companion birds, millet seeds, seed husks ivermectin.74 This nematode has an indirect life cy-
and feathers have been associated with a foreign
cle. Nematode eggs are passed through the nasolac-
body conjunctivitis.
rimal duct, swallowed and passed in the feces, where
Cockatiel Conjunctivitis they are consumed by cockroaches (Pycnoscellus
spp.). When a bird eats the cockroach, the mature
Cockatiels are frequently presented with a conjunc-
nematode larvae escape into the crop, move up the
tivitis from which no infectious agent can be isolated.
esophagus and enter the nasolacrimal duct to reach
Clinical signs involve blepharitis and serous ocular
the eye. Companion birds maintained in indoor envi-
discharge, progressing to conjunctival chemosis and
ronments are less likely to be infected. Thelazia spp.
inflammation with hyperemic conjunctiva protrud-
are reported to cause conjunctivitis in birds but are
ing in front of the eye. These signs are seen much
more common in mammals (Color 26.12).8
more frequently in white or albino mutations than in
birds of normal gray color (Color 26.15). Trematode flukes of the genus Philophthalmus have
been reported as a cause of conjunctivitis in many
The lesions are often associated with upper respira-
avian species (Color 26.13). The degree of irritation
tory tract infection, and Mycoplasma spp. and
was sufficient in one group of ostriches to cause the
Chlamydia spp. have been suggested as agents. Iso-
birds to show persistent lacrimation, irritation and
lating mycoplasma requires specialized techniques,
loss of condition. Repeated applications of topical
and diagnostic samples should be sent in specific
carbamate powder eliminated the flukes.29
media to qualified laboratories. Many cockatiels with
conjunctivitis are not systemically positive for
Chlamydia spp., shedding some doubt on the impor- Cornea
tance of this organism in the cockatiel syndrome.3
Treating Corneal Ulcers and Keratitis
Treatment with topical antibiotics often ameliorates Most corneal problems seen in Psittaciformes are
the signs but recurrences are common. Systemic tet- epithelial erosions secondary to trauma or keratitis
racycline is often curative but should be combined secondary to lid abnormalities. Fluorescein dye will
with symptomatic treatment of the inflamed perior- stain denuded stroma indicating the presence of an
bita. Antibiotic ophthalmic ointments may be used or ulcer. In subtle lesions such as Amazon punctate
the eyes can be sprayed with tylosin (l:10 dilution in keratitis, an ultraviolet Wood’s lamp can be used to
sterile water) or lincomycin and spectinomycin. The augment the detection of fluorescein retention.
problem seems to follow familial lines, suggesting Keratitis can be difficult to resolve, but, as a rule,
that affected birds should not be used in breeding topical antibiotics and corneal bandaging techniques
programs. In some cockatiels, the conjunctivitis is provide a sterile environment and time for corneal
associated with partial lid paresis and reduced jaw epithelium to heal (Color 26.22). By extrapolation
tone (Color 26.6). Many of these birds have giardiasis from other species, anticollagenases should be used
and respond to treatment with metronidazole and in deep ulcers, especially in hotter climates, where
vitamin E. A similar condition has been noted in corneal melting may be a cause of rupture of the
budgerigars, and again, the etiologic agent has yet to globe. Acetylcysteine can be applied by spray every
be identified.41 few hours without having to restrain the bird. A
temporary tarsorrhaphy created by placing one or
two horizontal mattress sutures of 4-0 or 6-0 nylon
 687
CHAPTER 26 OPHTHALMOLOGY

provides a corneal “bandage.” This is preferable to a fewer cases reported in this group of birds, but the
third eyelid flap because the muscular action moving incidence of long-term corneal scarring is higher.
the third eyelid can cause the suture to pull through.
The use of a hydrated collagen shield to provide a Treatment of more severely affected birds, such as
medicated corneal bandage has not been reported in those with intraocular lesions, includes topical and
birds but may be useful in selected cases. Chronic systemic antibiotics. Topical corticosteroid to control
corneal erosions may occur in older birds. To provide intraocular inflammation can reduce the healing of
a suitable surface for reattachment of the epithe- concurrent corneal ulceration; topical non-steroidal
lium, devitalized epithelium can be removed with a anti-inflammatories such as indomethacin or flu-
dry cotton-tipped applicator or by using a punctate or bruprofen may be more appropriate in these cases.
grid keratotomy.
Uvea
Mynah Bird Keratitis
Corneal erosions may be noted secondary to capture Uveitis in raptors is most commonly seen as a sequel
and transport in many imported companion birds. to intraocular trauma57 and is characterized by aque-
The majority of these heal by corneal epithelial mi- ous flare, hypopyon and fibrin clots in the anterior
gration within 48 hours. Mynahs appear to be espe- chamber, iridal hemorrhages or gross hyphema. The
cially prone to handling-related keratitis. In one latter was reported to be the most common ophthal-
study, 96% of birds examined immediately after ship- mologic finding in injured raptors in one survey.58
ping were found to have corneal scratches.36 Ble- Uveitis can occur following rupture of the crystalline
pharospasm or some degree of conjunctival hypere- lens1,54 or secondary to severe extraocular disease in
mia is a characteristic finding. Many of these lesions conditions such as poxvirus infection. One case of
regress spontaneously in a few weeks, but some may bilateral intraocular inflammation with concomitant
lead to corneal scarring and permanent opacity. staphylococcus septicemia in a lovebird has been
Some birds develop a chronic keratoconjunctivitis reported.6 Uveitis has been reported in psittacine
with conjunctival masses, severe geographic corneal birds with reovirus infection in which histopathologic
ulceration and corneal vascularization. Systemic as- changes suggested disseminated intravascular co-
pergillosis is found in many chronically affected agulopathy. Hypopyon and hemorrhage, sometimes
birds, suggesting an immunosuppressed condition. with fixed dilated pupils (atypical for uveitis where
Acyclovir-responsive herpesvirus lesions have been miosis is more common), are characteristic ocular
suggested as complicating factors in some affected signs. Birds that recover may have synechiae (Color
birds. 26.28).17

Amazon Punctate Keratitis Clinical signs of uveitis vary, reflecting the diversity
A transient keratitis with a characteristic subtle of inflammatory states in the eye. Active inflamma-
punctate appearance has been reported in Central tion may be mild, with increased levels of aqueous
American Amazon parrots. Lesions are bilateral, and proteins causing a flare that reduces the clarity of iris
the presenting signs are normally blepharospasm detail and pupil margin. More severe cases may be
and a clear ocular discharge. The keratitis normally characterized by accumulation of pus or hemorrhage
starts in the medial cornea. In 50% of the birds, in the anterior chamber. Subtle signs including a
lesions progress to cover the cornea but resolve gen- darkened iris or more obvious lesions including pos-
erally within one to two weeks. The lesions are tran- terior synechiae or organized fibrin clots in the ante-
siently fluorescein-positive. A small minority of birds rior chamber suggest a past episode of anterior seg-
develop more serious lesions with deep corneal ul- ment inflammation. Glaucoma is seen secondary to
ceration and anterior uveitis, manifesting either as a traumatic uveitis in raptors,58 and has been diagnosed
flare and “muddiness” of the iris or as a more severe without concurrent ocular disease in a canary. If the eye
inflammation with fibrin clots and synechiae (Color appears painful, enucleation or evisceration is the only
26.27). Some birds develop concomitant sinusitis. treatment (Figure 26.10) (see Chapter 41).
The use of topical antibiotics or antivirals has not
been found to significantly alter the outcome of the Lens
disease.36
Cataract and lens luxation can occur in birds. Both
Amazon parrots from northern South America have conditions can be treated surgically in suitable cases.
also been reported with a chronic keratitis. There are Cataracts are seen relatively frequently39 and have a
688
SECTION FOUR INTERNAL MEDICINE

Trauma in wild raptors is likely to be a frequent

cause for lenticular opacification, and because other
intraocular damage may be present, care should be
taken in assessing the bird for cataract surgery
(Color 26.34). Assessment should include full evalu-
ation of the bird physically, neurologically and, of
course, ophthalmoscopically. Ideally, ultrasonic
evaluation of the posterior segment should be made
to avoid operating on an eye with a concurrent retinal
detachment. An electroretinogram gives useful data
on retinal function and is suggested prior to surgery
in some cases.30

Miscellaneous Eye Conditions

FIG 26.10 Although evisceration or enucleation can be disfiguring,
these procedures may be life-saving in cases of severe infections or Retinal Diseases
neoplasms.
The difficulties in examining the posterior segment
of the avian eye, especially in small companion birds,
wide variety of causes, although in the majority of have delayed investigations into retinal disease in
cases the etiology is unknown. Senile cataracts have these species. The pioneering work of Casey Wood in
been described in macaws (Color 26.30).18 the early part of this century on the normal avian
fundus has not been surpassed even with the ad-
There is clear evidence for familial cataracts in York- vances in ophthalmoscopic instrumentation and the
shire and Norwich Canaries (Color 26.31).72 A fully growing interest in avian ophthalmology.81
penetrant autosomal recessive gene is responsible for
the condition. In affected canaries, the cataracts were Nevertheless, some reports of retinal disease in birds
mature with lens-induced uveitis and posterior have found their way into the literature. Wood him-
synechiae formation (Color 26.32). In one affected bird, self noted a high prevalence of posterior segment
lens resorption had taken place. Lens removal by the inflammatory lesions in captive raptors, and other
irrigation-aspiration technique was unsuccessful in authors have confirmed his findings.28,56,58 Lesions
these birds. Patients requiring cataract removal should include pigmentary deposits on the otherwise unpig-
be referred to a veterinary ophthalmologist. mented peripheral retina, focal scarring, pre-retinal
membranes, vitreal opacities and gross inflamma-
Because of the small size of the avian eye, conven- tory disease of the entire posterior segment (Color
tional extracapsular cataract extraction techniques 26.35). Many of these lesions in free-ranging birds
are generally difficult. In small birds, soft lenses can may be caused by trauma with hemorrhage that
be removed through a 26 ga needle. Phacoemulsifica- causes vitreal scarring and contraction. Posterior
tion is the technique of choice for avian cataract segment bleeding may result from choroidal vessels,
removal in patients with eyes large enough to accom- a damaged ciliary body, or even in some cases, rup-
modate the phacoemulsification probe.38 The extra- ture of the pecten.
capsular technique can be used in intumescent or
resorbing cataracts where the lens material can be Toxoplasmosis has been suggested as a cause of reti-
aspirated or flushed from the anterior chamber nal lesions in raptors (see Chapter 36). This report,
(Color 26.34).55 An intracapsular technique has been however, was based on identifying seropositive birds
used for removal of an anteriorly luxated lens in an in a population where the seroprevalence is un-
owl.9 In eight aging macaws with senile cataracts, known.28 Toxoplasmosis was confirmed as a cause of
the lens was disrupted and removed with an irriga- retinitis and blindness in canaries. Toxoplasmosis
tion aspiration technique, resulting in vision in 77% was diagnosed in a group of canaries with crusty
of the eyes.18 Post-operative treatment with 17% ocular lesions, white lesions in the vitreous humor
maxitrol was considered an indispensable part of the and, in most cases, collapse of the globe. Several of
therapy. Topical medications, particularly steroids, the infected birds had neurologic signs characterized
must be applied cautiously to small birds to prevent by circling and head tremors. High latex agglutina-
intoxication. tion antibody titers to T. gondii were seen in five of
the seven affected birds. Histologically, T. gondii
 689
CHAPTER 26 OPHTHALMOLOGY

tachyzoites were demonstrated in the detached and adenomas, can cause visual deficits from pressure
intact retina, the lens and in exudate in the vitreous being placed on the optic chiasm. One large survey of
humor.76 50 chromophobe pituitary tumors reported central
blindness in a number of birds with associated
Retinal detachment can occur through trauma, but neurologic and endocrine signs.4,69
idiopathic bilateral detachments have been noted in
pheasants unassociated with mechanical damage.67 Defects of cranial nerves III, IV and VI are somewhat
Retinal dysplasia has been diagnosed in raptors,21,60 difficult to appreciate in birds because there is rela-
and a retinal degeneration of unknown origin was tively little torsional movement of the globe within
reported in a parakeet.75 the orbit. Horner’s syndrome was suggested as a
diagnosis in one bird in which a unilateral ptosis and
Intraocular Tumors mild miosis ameliorated by topical phenylephrine
Intraocular tumors are rare in birds. Malignant in- was noted.78
traocular medulloepithelioma has been reported in
two-year-old cockatiels in which, after enucleation Evaluating the Blind Bird: Determining if visually
for presumed bacterial panophthalmitis and orbital defective birds are sound for release can be difficult.
cellulitis, tumor masses grew rapidly in the orbit.70 Some birds such as owls perform well with one eye,
An intraocular adenocarcinoma has been reported in while releasing a one-eyed diurnal falcon to the wild
a budgerigar.22 might be considered unwise. Many companion birds
can survive remarkably well with little or no vision,
Neurophthalmology and Central Blindness as has been noted with cockatiels with cryptophthal-
Blindness in birds may be caused by opacity of the mos11 and Bobwhite Quail with dense bilateral cata-
visual media, retinal lesions or central neurologic racts;44 however, blindness can be very debilitating in
disease. In cases where no obvious ocular cause of some smaller Passeriformes where flying from perch
blindness can be observed, an electroretinogram can to perch is behaviorally important.
be used to differentiate between retinal or central
lesions.47 Enucleation
Enucleation is frequently necessary in birds because
Causes of central blindness may include cataracts, of trauma, non-responsive inflammation or tumors.
neoplasia or encephalitis that may be localized or Enucleation is difficult because of the large size of the
related to systemic disease. Heavy metal toxicities avian eye and the tight fit of the globe into the orbit.
can result in blindness, but the visual changes are For further information on enucleation and other
only one of a number of multifocal nervous signs. ophthalmic surgeries, see Chapter 41.
Space-occupying brain lesions, particularly pituitary

References and Suggested Reading

1.Anderson GA, Buyukmihci N: Pha- 9. Brooks DE, Murphy CJ, Quesenbury KE, 17.Clubb SL: A multifactorial disease Anatomica Avium. London and New
coanaphylactic endophthalmitis in an Walsh MT: Surgical correction of a syndrome in African grey parrots York, Academic Press, 1979.
owl. Vet Pathol 20:776-778, 1983. luxated cataractous lens in a barred (Psittacus erithacus) imported from 25. Fenwick B, Takeshita K, Wong A: A
2.Arnall L: Anaesthesia and surgery in owl. J Am Vet Med Assoc 183:1298- Ghana. Proc Intl Conf Avian Med, Moluccan cockatoo with dissemi-
cage and aviary birds. Vet Rec 1299, 1983. 1984, pp 135-149. nated cryptococcosis. J Am Vet Med
73:188, 1961. 10. Buyukmihci NC, Murphy CJ, Schulz T: 18.Clubb SL, Karpinski L: Aging in ma- Assoc 187:1218-1219, 1985.
3.Bauck L: Three treatment protocols Developmental ocular disease of rap- caws. Proc Assoc Avian Vet, 1992, p 26. Frost C: Experiences with pet budg-
for cockatiel conjunctivitis. Proc As- tors. J Wildl Dis 24:207-213, 1988. 85. erigars Vet Rec 73:623, 1961.
soc Avian Vet, 1989, pp 92-96. 11. Buyukmihci NC, et al: Eyelid malfor- 19.Devriese LA, Vianene N, Uyttebroek E, 27. Graham CL: Poxvirus infection in a
4.Bauck L: Pituitary neoplastic disease mation in four cockatiels. J Am Vet et al: Three cases of infection by spectacled Amazon parrot (Amazona
in budgerigars. Proc 1st Intl Conf Med Assoc 196:1490-1492, 1990. Haemophilus-like bacteria in psittac- albifrons). Avian Dis 22:340-343,
Zool & Avian Med, Hawaii, 1987, pp 12. Busch TJ: Corneal dermoids in a ines. Avian Pathol 17: 741-744, 1988. 1978.
87-90. goose. New Zeal Vet J 33:189-190, 20.Dorrestein GM, van der Hage MH: 28. Greenwood AG, Barnett KC: The in-
5.Bellhorn RW: Laboratory animal oph- 1985. Aviculture and veterinary problems vestigations of visual defects in rap-
thalmology. In Gelatt KN (ed): Veteri- 13. Campbell TW: Neoplasia. In Harrison in lovebirds. Proc 1st Intl Conf Zool & tors. In Cooper JE, Greenwood AG
nary Ophthalmology. Philadelphia, GJ, Harrison LR (eds): Clinical Avian Avian Med, Hawaii, 1987, pp 243-261. (eds): Advances in the Study of Rap-
Lea & Febiger, 1981. Medicine and Surgery. Philadelphia, 21.Dukes TW, Fox GA: Blindness associ- tor Diseases. Keighley, England, Chi-
6.Bounous DI, Schaeffer DO, Roy A: Co- WB Saunders Co, 1986, p 507. ated with retinal dysplasia in a prai- ron Publications, 1981.
agulase-negative Staphylococcus sp. 14. Campbell TW: Conjunctival cytology. rie falcon (Falco mexicanus). J Wildl 29. Greve JH, Harrison GJ: Conjunctivitis
septicaemia in a lovebird. J Am Vet In Campbell TW: Avian Hematology Dis 19:66-69, 1983. caused by eye flukes in captive-
Med Assoc 195:1120-1121, 1989. and Cytology. Ames, Iowa State Uni- 22.Dukes TW, Petit JR: Avian ocular neo- reared ostriches. J Am Vet Med As-
7.Brightman AH, Burke TJ: Eyelid tumor versity Press, 1988. plasia - a description of spontane- soc 177:909-910, 1980.
in a parakeet. Mod Vet Pract 59:683, 15. Cavill JP: Canary pox: Report of an ously occurring cases. Can J Comp 30. Hacker DV, Shifrin M: Cataract ex-
1978. outbreak in roller canaries (Serinus Med 47:33-36, 1983. traction in a Mandarin duck. J Am
8.Brooks DE, Greiner EC, Walsh MT: Con- canarius). Vet Rec 76:463-465, 1964. 23.Emanuelson S, Carney J, Saito J: Anim Hosp Assoc 24:679-682, 1988.
junctivitis caused by Thelazia sp. in a 16. Chalmers WSK, Kewley DR: Bacterial Avian pox in two black-masked 31. Hood HB: Eye pathology in an adult
Senegal parrot J Am Vet Med Assoc flora of clinically normal conjunctivae conures. J Am Vet Med Assoc male ostrich (Struthio camelus). Proc
183:1305-1306, 1983. in the domestic duckling. Avian 173:1249-1250, 1978. Am Assoc Zoo Vet, 1978.
Pathol 14:69-74, 1985. 24.Evans HE: Organa senoria. In
Baumel JJ, et al (eds): Nomina
continued on page 694
690
SECTION FOUR INTERNAL MEDICINE

Ophthalmology
Color 26.19 Color 26.23
a,b) A mature Sun Conure was presented Corneal ulceration and globe collapse from
with an idiopathic occurrence of unilateral unknown etiology in a seagull. The eye was
periocular hemorrhage. There was no enucleated.
known trauma and clinicopathologic find-
ings were limited to mild anemia (PCV=35). Color 26.24
Conjunctivitis in a farm duck. Culture
The bird fully recovered and had no further
yielded Acinetobacter sp. and the lesions
problems.
resolved using topical chloramphenicol
Color 26.20 ointment.
Cryptophthalmos with ankyloblepharon in
a two-year-old male cockatiel. Surgery to Color 26.25
Luxation of the lens and uveitis in an owl
restore a normal palpebral aperture was
unsuccessful (courtesy of N. Buyukmihci). that was hit by a car. Luxation of the lens
may cause an increase in intraocular pres-
Color 26.21 sure that must be resolved with an intra-
Snowy Owl with ulcer and corneal calcifi- capsular lentectomy. Topical steroids were
cation caused by trauma. A punctate or grid effective in controlling the uveitis in this
keratotomy to restore normal epitheliza- case (courtesy of S. West).
tion would be indicated (courtesy of K.C.
Barnett). Color 26.26
Keratic precipitates on the posterior cornea
Color 26.22 of a Screech Owl with phacolytic uveitis and
Fungal keratopathy in an ostrich secon- bilateral cataracts (courtesy of S. West).
dary to sand contamination of the eye. A
third eyelid flap was attempted but the Color 26.27
Uveitis and cataract in an Amazon parrot.
sutures failed because of the muscular ac-
Note the darkening and “muddy” appear-
tion of the nictitating membrane. The bird
ance of the iris. These changes are charac-
responded to treatment with topical keto-
teristic of uveitis not complicated by hy-
conazole (courtesy of S. West).
popyon (courtesy of Dan Wolf).
 693
CHAPTER 26 OPHTHALMOLOGY

Ophthalmology
Color 26.28 sequent to senile iridal atrophy (courtesy of
Tawny Owl with uveitis. Examination David Williams).
with a slit lamp showed that the white
glistening of the eye was caused by hy- Color 26.32
Cataract and posterior synechiae in a thir-
popyon and not a corneal lesion. Resolu-
teen-year-old canary. Phitisis bulbi with
tion with topical steroid medication was
wrinkling of the lid margins are also evi-
slow and several synechiae remained. No
dent (courtesy of R. Korbel).
etiologic agent could be identified (cour-
tesy of David Williams). Color 26.33
Cataract in a mynah bird with posterior
Color 26.29
synechiae. In this case, the contralateral
An adult male cockatiel was presented with
a three-week history of ocular discharge eye was unaffected, the bird’s behavior
was normal and surgical removal of the
and scratching of the face. A severe pan-
ophthalmitis was noted on physical exami- cataract was not attempted (courtesy of
K.C. Barnett).
nation. The bird’s WBC count was 22,000.
A conjunctival scraping revealed numerous Color 26.34
gram-negative bacteria, both free and Cataract in a Harris Hawk. Note the scin-
within conjunctival cells. The bird was tillating appearance of the cataract, indi-
placed on systemic and ophthalmic antibi- cating some resorption. The iris ectropion
otics. Cultures indicated Pseudomonas spp. is believed to be a congenital anomaly and
The eye did not respond to therapy, and not reflective of a uveitis. Extracapsular
enucleation was performed six days after cataract extraction was performed and the
initial presentation. bird regained vision in the eye (courtesy of
David Williams).
Color 26.30
Cataract in an Eclectus Parrot. The perior- Color 26.35
bital feather loss is probably secondary to a) Normal pecten in an Eagle Owl (courtesy
the bird’s rubbing the area because of re- of David Williams). b) Gross retinal post-
duced vision in the eye (courtesy of David inflammatory scarring in a Tawny Owl. It
Williams). has been suggested, but not confirmed, that
this scarring may be a result of toxoplas-
Color 26.31
mosis (courtesy of K.C. Barnett).
Inherited cataract in a Norwich Canary.
Note also the polycoria probably sub-
694
SECTION FOUR INTERNAL MEDICINE

32.Jacobson ER, Gardiner C, Clubb S: Ade- 44. Krehbiel JD: Cataracts in bobwhite Am Vet Med Assoc 181:1390-1391, imported into Japan. Jpn J Vet Sci
novirus-like infection in white- quail. J Am Vet Med Assoc 161:634- 1982. 43:273, 1981.
masked lovebirds (Agapornis per- 637, 1972. 58.Murphy CJ, et al: Ocular lesions in 72. Slatter DH, et al: Hereditary cata-
sonata). J Assoc Avian Vet 1:32-34, 45. Maddux RL, Cgengappa MM, McLaugh- free-living raptors. J Am Vet Med As- racts in canaries. J Am Vet Med As-
1989. lin BG: Isolation of Actinobacillus soc 181:1302-1304, 1982. soc 183:872-874, 1983.
33.Jacobson ER, et al: Papilloma-like vi- suis from a Canada goose (Branta ca- 59.Murphy CJ, et al: Enucleation in 73. Surman PG, Schultz DJ, Tham VL:
rus infection in an African grey par- nadensis). J Wild Dis 23:483, 1987. birds of prey. J Am Vet Med Assoc Keratoconjunctivitis and chlamy-
rot. J Am Vet Med Assoc 183:1307- 46. Martin GR: Eye. In King AS, McLel- 183:1234-1237, 1983. diosis in cage birds. Aust Vet J
1308, 1983. land J (eds): Form and Function in 60.Murphy CJ et al: Retinal dysplasia in 50:356, 1974.
34.Johnson BJ, Castro AE: Canary pox Birds Vol 3. London and New York, a hybrid falcon. J Am Vet Med Assoc 74. Thomas-Baker B, Dew RD, Patton S:
causing high mortality in an aviary. J Academic Press, 1985. 187:1208-1209, 1985. Ivermectin treatment of ocular nema-
Am Vet Med Assoc 189:1345, 1986. 47. Martin GR, Gordon IE, Cadle DR: Elec- 61.Paul-Murphy J, et al: Malignant lym- todiasis in birds. J Am Vet Med As-
35.Karpinski LG, Clubb SL: Post pox ocu- troretinographically determined spec- phoreticular neoplasm in an African soc 189:1113, 1986.
lar problems in blue-fronted and blue- tral sensitivity in the tawny owl grey parrot. J Am Vet Med Assoc 75. Tudor DC, Yard C: Retinal atrophy in
headed pionus parrots. Proc Assoc (Strix aluco). J Comp Physiol 89:72- 187:1216-1217, 1985. a parakeet. Vet Med Sm Anim Clin
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