Ch 1.

Fundamentals of Turbulent Jets

Chapter 1 Fundamentals of Turbulent Jet

1.1 Turbulent Jets

1.2 Plane Jets

1.3 Axially Symmetric Jets

Objectives

▪ Derive governing equations of turbulent jets

▪ Derive constancy of momentum flux along jet axis

▪ Analyze velocity profile of plane and round jets using geometric

similarity

▪ Determine the amount of fluid entrainment into jets

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 Ch 1. Fundamentals of Turbulent Jets

1.1 Turbulent Jets

1.1.1 Turbulent Motions

(1) Wall turbulence

- turbulent motions which are constrained by one or more boundaries

- turbulent generated in velocity gradient caused by the no-slip condition

(2) Free turbulence

- turbulent motions which are not affected by the presence of solid boundaries

- Example: Fig.16.1

shear layer (mixing layer)

immersed jet

wake of an immersed body

- Velocity (shear) gradients are generated.

- Viscous (molecular) shear stress usually can be neglected in comparison with

turbulent eddy stresses throughout the entire flow field.

[Cf] In wall turbulence, due to the damping of turbulent by wall, viscous stresses in the

laminar sublayer must be considered.

- In jets and wakes in large bodies of fluid, pressure gradient in the direction of motion

is zero.

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 Ch 1. Fundamentals of Turbulent Jets

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 Ch 1. Fundamentals of Turbulent Jets

PIV measurements of round jets

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 Ch 1. Fundamentals of Turbulent Jets

PIV system

x
Velocity of particle A: u x  as t  0
t

y
uy  as t  0
t

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 Ch 1. Fundamentals of Turbulent Jets

PIV: field measurement

a) Image b)Velocity c)Turbulence Intensity

Jet Characteristics Measured by PIV (Seo et al., 2002)

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 Ch 1. Fundamentals of Turbulent Jets

1.1.2 Equation of Motion for Turbulent Jets

• Common properties of free turbulence and wall turbulence

- width of mixing zone < longitudinal distance, x

u u
→ 
y x

~ same assumption as those by Prandtl

→ use Prandtl‘s 2-D boundary-layer equations for steady 2-D free turbulent flows with

zero-pressure gradient and neglecting molecular-viscosity

For instantaneous velocity,

 u u u  p  2u
 u v      2 - x-com (a)
 t x y  x y

u v
 0 (b)
x y

Decompose velocity and pressure, then take average over time

 u u u  p  u 2  2u uv
 u v         (c)
 t x y  x x y 2 y

u v
 0 (d)
x y

u u2   u 
u  
2
→   
x x x  x  (f)

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 Ch 1. Fundamentals of Turbulent Jets

u uv   u     
uv   →   
y y y  y  y   
(g)


where  = kinematic eddy viscosity;


u
  = turbulent shear stress
y

Substituting (g) into (c) gives

u u 1 
u v  (1.1)
x y  y

u v
 0 (1.2)
x y

~ B.C.s are different for plane and axisymmetric jets and wakes.

~ Eq. (1.1) and Eq. (1.2) are equations of motion for the 2-D turbulent free jet with a

zero pressure gradient in the axial direction.

[Re] Equations for a turbulent boundary layer

Apply Prandtl's 2-D boundary-layer equations

u u u 1 p   2 u
u v   (8.7a)
t x y  x  y 2

u v
 0
x y
(8.7b)
u v
 u u 0
x y

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 Ch 1. Fundamentals of Turbulent Jets

Add Continuity Eq. and Eq. (8.7a)

u u  u v  1 p   2u
 2u  v u  
t x  y y   x  y 2
  (A)
u 2
uv
x y

Substitute velocity decomposition into (A) and average over time

 (u  u ') u

t dt

 (u  u ') 2 u 2  u '2
 
x dx x

 (u  u ')(v  v ') u v  u ' v '

 
y y y

1  1 p
 ( p  p ')  
 x  x

 2   2u
(u  u ') 
 y 2  y 2

Thus, (A) becomes

u u 2 u v 1 p   2 u  u '2  u ' v '

       (B)
t x y  x  y 2 x y

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 Ch 1. Fundamentals of Turbulent Jets

Subtract Continuity eq. from (B)

u u u 1 p   2 u  u '2  u ' v '

u v     
t x y  x  y 2 x y

 u u u  p u '2  2u u ' v '

 u v    2 
 t x y  x x y y

→ Equation of motion in x-direction

Adopt similar equation as Eq. (8.25) for y-eq.


0 ( p   v '2 )
y

Continuity eq.:

u v
 0
x y

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 Ch 1. Fundamentals of Turbulent Jets

1.2 Plane Jets

• Plane jet:

height of slot  2b0

length of potential core  L0

x  L0 uc  U 0

x  L0 uc  U 0

• Entrainment of surrounding fluid

→ volume rate of flow past any section in the jet increases in the x -direction

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 Ch 1. Fundamentals of Turbulent Jets

1.2.1 Constancy of momentum flux

Derive integral momentum equation

Integrate Eq.(1.1) w.r.t. y

 u  u  
 u dy    v dy   dy (1.4)
 x  y  y

① ② ③

Integral by parts:
u   1 u
2
   2
①:   u dy   
2 x   uv dx  uv   uv dx
dy  u dy
 x  2 x

 u   v   v
dy    v u    u

②:  v dy      u dy
 y   y   y

u  0 at x  
u v
 0
  u   u x y
    u   dy    u dy = same as ①

 x   x

  

2 x 
 u 2dy



  u u
③:  y
dy   

y

y
0
 

Eq. (1.4) becomes

  2
x 
 u dy  0 (1.5)



 u 2 dy  cons tan t  J (1.6)

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 Ch 1. Fundamentals of Turbulent Jets

 u  momentum per unit volume (mu / vol.   u )

 udy  volume per unit time (vol. / t  Q  u  A  udy )

 u 2dy  total momentum per unit time passing any section of the jet

= momentum flux per unit length of slot

→ Eq. (1.5) states that the flux of momentum of the jet is constant and independent of x

→ There is no change in the longitudinal momentum flux.

• Constant in Eq.(1.6) can be evaluated from momentum influx at x  0

At outlet u  U 0  const. for b0  y  b0

J 0 = momentum influx = U 0  U 0 2b0  2 U 0 2b0



 u 2 dy  2 U 02 b0 (1.7)

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 Ch 1. Fundamentals of Turbulent Jets

1.2.2 Velocity profile

In fully developed region of the jet, assume that

b ~ xm

umax ~ x  n

Then, consider order of magnitude of each term in eq. of motion, Eq. (1.1)

u u 1 
u v 
x y  y

u (umax ) 2 x 2 n
① u ~ ~ ~ x 2 n1
x x x

u  u   u   umax b   umax  (umax )

2
x 2 n
y   x   y   x   b
② v   dy  ~  ~ ~ ~ x 2 n 1
 x x

u v v u u
 0    v    dy
x x y x x

    (umax ) 2
③   ~ ~ x 2 n  m
y    b


~ (umax )2


2 n 1
LHS of (1.1) ~ x

2 nm
RHS of (1.1) ~ x

 m 1

1
→ b~x (a)

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 Ch 1. Fundamentals of Turbulent Jets

→ The plane jet expands as a linear function of x.

Now consider order of Eq. (1.7)


 
 u 2 dy  2 U 02 b0

U 02 b0 ~ x 2 n  x m ~ x 2 nm

→ Eq. (1.7) is independent of x only if 2 n  m  0

m 1
 n 
2 2
1

umax ~ x 2

(b)

1
→ The centerline velocity decreases as
x.

• Jet Reynolds number, Rei

1 1
umax b 
Rei  2 1
~ x x ~ x2
v

→ Reynolds number increases as x

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 Ch 1. Fundamentals of Turbulent Jets

1.2.3 Similarity of velocity profiles

We don't know yet about velocity distribution, rate of entrainment, and actual jet dimensions.

Beyond some transition distance past end of potential core ( L0 ), the velocity profiles are

similar.

→ transition = 6 ~ 40 (2b0)

• Use semiempirical approaches based on the assumption or geometric similarity of velocity

profiles.

u  y
 f    f ( ) (1.8)
umax x

u  umax f ( )

y
in which    y  z  dy  xd
x

• Assume function f as Gaussian curves which is found to be satisfactory from the

experiments.

u  y2 
 f ( )  exp   2 2  (1.9)
umax  2C1 x 

in which C1 = spreading coefficient = const. to be determined experimentally

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 Ch 1. Fundamentals of Turbulent Jets

[Cf] Top Hat distribution

1-17
 Ch 1. Fundamentals of Turbulent Jets

Gaussian

Top Hat

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 Ch 1. Fundamentals of Turbulent Jets

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 Ch 1. Fundamentals of Turbulent Jets

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 Ch 1. Fundamentals of Turbulent Jets

1-21
 Constancy of
momentum flux Ch 1. Fundamentals of Turbulent Jets

Combine Eq. (1.7) and Eq. (1.8)

 
2 U 02 b0   (u ) 2max  f 2 ( )dy  (u ) 2max  f 2 ( )d  x
 


Let I 2  

f 2 ( )d

Then, the ratio of the centerline velocity to the initial jet velocity can be given as

2U 02b0  (u )2max xI 2 (1.11)

umax 2b0
 (1.12)
U0 xI 2

1
→ umax ~
x

→ the same result as Eq. (b)

• Length of potential core, L0

umax
 1 at x  L0
U0

2b0
1 
L0 I 2

2b0
L0  (1.13)
I2

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 Ch 1. Fundamentals of Turbulent Jets

1.2.4 Entrainment Hypothesis

The total discharge per unit width of the jet, x  L0 is given by integrating the local velocity

across a section of the jet,

  
Q   udy  umax  f ( )dy  umax x  f ( )d  (1.14)
  

where Q = volume flux

The initial discharge per unit width, Q0 is given

Q0  2b0U 0 (1.15)

Divide Eq. (1.14) by Eq. (1.15) to obtain the ratio of the total rate of flow to the initial

discharge

Q umax x 

Q0 U 0 2b0  
f ( )d 

I1

umax x 2b0 x xI12

 I1  I1 
U 0 2b0 xI 2 2b0 2b0 I 2

Q I12
 x (1.16)
Q0 2b0 I 2

→ Q x

Q
where  volume dilution
Q0

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 Ch 1. Fundamentals of Turbulent Jets

• Experimental results by Albertson et al. (1950)

→ C1  0.109; I1  0.272; I 2  0.192

Then, we have

umax / U 0  2.28 2b0 / x  3.22 b0 / x , x  L0 (1.17)

L0  10.4b0 (1.18)

Q / Q0  0.62 x / 2b0 , x  L0 (1.19)

- Gaussian velocity distribution

Eq. (1.9):

u  1 y2 
 exp   2 2 
umax  2C1 x 

 1  y  
2
  y  
2

 exp   2     exp  42.08   

 2(0.109)  x     x  

[Cf] Abramovich (1963)

umax
 3.78 b0 / x
U0

Zijnen (1958)

umax
 3.12 ~ 3.52 b0 / x
U0

Newman (1961)

umax
 3.39 b0 / x
U0

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 Ch 1. Fundamentals of Turbulent Jets

u   y  
2

 exp  42.08   
umax   x  

Eq. 1.17

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 Ch 1. Fundamentals of Turbulent Jets

1.2.5 Theoretical Solution for Equation of Motion for 2-D Boundary Layer Flow

Solve equations of motion and continuity

u u 1 
u v 
x y  y (1)

u u
 0
x y (2)

Given: 2 equations

Unknown: u , v , 

→ We need 1 more eq. for 

1) Tollmien solution (1926)

→ use Prandtl's mixing length formula

2
 u 
  l  
2

 y 

l  b  l   b  l   C2 x

2) Goertler solution (1942)

→ use Prandtl‘s 2nd eq.

u
  
y

u / um  1  tanh 2 ( y / x)

1  y  y y y
u / um    tanh 2  0.5tanh 
 x x x x 

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 Ch 1. Fundamentals of Turbulent Jets

1-27
 Ch 1. Fundamentals of Turbulent Jets

1.3 Axially Symmetric Jets

• Axially symmetric jets

~ round jet issuing from a circular hole, pipe, nozzle

~ symmetrical about longitudinal axis of the jet

axial - z , vz

radial - r , vr

1.3.1 Derivation of Equation of Motion

Employ the same boundary-layer approximation as in the plane jets in cylindrical coordinates

 v z v v v v  p  1   v z  1  vz  vz 
2 2
  vr z   z  v z z     r 
 2     gz
  t  r r    z   z  r  r  r  r 
2
z 2 

steady Axisymmetri
cal jet pressure
 vz  vz
2 2
gradient 
r z
2 2
=0

1-28
 Ch 1. Fundamentals of Turbulent Jets

v z v  1   v z  
 vr   vz z    r 
r z  r r  r   (1.20)

vz
Substitute  
r

v z v 1 r
vr  vz z  (1.21)
r z  r r

Continuity eq. (From (6-30)) becomes

1  
( rvr )  ( vz )  0 (1.22)
r r z

Assume half width and centerline velocity as a power function of z as in the plane-jet analysis

d ~ zm

(vz )max ~ z  n

Evaluate the order of magnitude of the terms in the eq. of motion

m 1

d ~ z1 (A)

Evaluate the order of magnitude of the terms in the eq. of constant-momentum flux

   d 02 
2  ( v z ) rdr  V 
2
0
2
 (1.23)
0
 4 

( V0 )  (V0 A0 )

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 Ch 1. Fundamentals of Turbulent Jets

Therefore, the order of magnitude of the terms gives

(vz ) 2max d 2 ~ z 2 n 2 m ~ z 0

  2n  2m  0 flux is independent of z

 n  m 1

Finally we get

d ~ z → Jet boundary increases linearly with z.

1
(vz ) max ~ → Centerline velocity deceases inversely with z.
z

1
[Cf] For plane jet: m  1, n 
2

b ~ z1

1
umax ~
z

[Re] Spreading coefficient

For plane jet, b  kz

For round jet, d  kz

•Value of k

Plane jet Round jet

Velocity profile 0.116 0.107

Concentration profile 0.157 0.127

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 Ch 1. Fundamentals of Turbulent Jets

• Eddy viscosity

du
  l2
dy

 vz max
 ~ d2 ~ d  v z max ~ z1  z 1 ~ z 0  const.
d

→ Eddy viscosity is constant throughout the mixing region of the jet.

Eq. of motion Eq. (1.20) for turbulent flow becomes

vz v  1   vz  
 vr   vz z    r 
r z  r r  r   (1.20)

Divide (A) by 

v z v    v z 
vr  vz z  r  (1.24)
r z r r  r 

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 Ch 1. Fundamentals of Turbulent Jets

1.3.2 Solution for axially symmetric jet

Solve eq. of motion, Eq. (1.24) and continuity eq., Eq. (1.22)

Assume geometrically similar velocity profiles

vz
 f ( )
 vz max
r
where  
z


Use following boundary conditions

r : vz  0

vr
r  0: vr  0 ; 0
r

Solution can be obtained by integration of Eq. (1.22) and Eq. (1.24).

[Re] Hinze (1987), pp. 520 ~ 527

vz 1
 (1.25)
 vz max  r2 
2

1   vz max 8 z 
 

Substitute experimental data for  , (1.26) into (1.25)

  0.00196 z  vz max (1.26)

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 Ch 1. Fundamentals of Turbulent Jets

vz 1
  , z  L0
 vz max  r 2

2

1  0.016 z 2 
 

vz 1
 (1.27)
 vz max  r 
2 2

1  62.5   
  z  

→ Exact solution

umax 2b0
[Cf] For slot jet,  2.28 (B)
U0 x

Constancy of
momentum flux

Substitute Eq. (1.27) into Eq. (1.23)

 vz max d0
 6.4 (1.28)
V0 z

in which z = distance from geometrical origin of similarity

• Length of potential core, L0

At z  L0 , ( v z ) max  V0

d0
1  6.4
L0

L0  6.4d 0

From the actual origin L0  6.4d0  0.6d0  7.0d0

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 Ch 1. Fundamentals of Turbulent Jets

[Re] Detailed derivation of Eq. (1.28)

   d 02 
Eq.(1.23): 2  (vz ) rdr  const.  V 
2
 0
2
0
 4 

 1

0
(vz )2 rdr  V02 d02 (A)
8

Substitute Eq.(1.27) into (A)

 v  
2


z max
L.H.S. 4
rdr
0
 1 
1  2
r2 
 0.016 z 

dX
Set r  X  dr 
2

2r

1
a
0.016 z 2

 1 dX

2
Then, L.H.S = (vz ) max
0 (1  aX ) 2
4


(vz ) 2max  1 1 1
 
 3 (1  aX )3
2  a  0

(vz )2max  1 1
 0  3a   6 (0.016 z )(vz )max
2 2

 0.0027  z (vz ) max 

2

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 Ch 1. Fundamentals of Turbulent Jets

1
L.H.S. = R.H.S.; 0.0027 z (vz ) max  V0 d 0
2 2 2 2

(vz ) 2max d2
 6.8 0 (1.28)
V0 z

Combine Eq. (1.26) and Eq. (1.28)

 d0 
  0.00196 z V0 6.4   0.013V0 d 0 → constant (1.29)
 z 

 0.013V0 d0
  0.013Re0 (1.30)
v v

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 Ch 1. Fundamentals of Turbulent Jets

[Re] Gaussian curve

vz   r 2 
 exp  c   
 vz max   z  

→ Comparison of exact solution, Eq. (1.27) and Gaussian curve → Fig. 1.4

• Gaussian curve for axisymmetrical jet

Constant C

Reichardt (1951) 48

Hinze (1959) 108

Schlichting (1979) 72

Papanicolaou and List (1988) 80 z/d0 < 50

93 z/d0 > 50

Yu et al. (1998) 78

[Example] Air jet

V0  100 fps; d0  0.1 ft; v  1.6  104 ft 2 / sec (Table 1-6)

100(0.1)
 Re0   62,500
1.6  104


 0.013(62,500)  813 ~ 103
v

→  (turbulent eddy viscosity) is 10 times larger than molecular viscosity

3

For laminar flow,

 1
 1  Re0   80
v 0.013

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 Ch 1. Fundamentals of Turbulent Jets

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 Ch 1. Fundamentals of Turbulent Jets

1.3.3 Lateral Spread of Jets

For both plane and round jets, the lateral spread of of jets is linear.

1 1
b~z ;d ~z

vz 1
For line (jet boundary) along which  0.5 (or  0.37 )
 vz max e

  6.5 for plane jet (A1)

  5 for round jet (A2)

vz  0.5  vz max
[Re] Gaussian profile

vz   r 2 
 0.5  exp  k   
 vz max   z  
2 1/2
r r  ln(0.5) 
 k    ln(0.5)      vz max

z z  k 

Then, use trigonometric function

r r
=tan     tan 1
z z

•Turbulent nature of jet flow

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 Ch 1. Fundamentals of Turbulent Jets

→ The precise jet boundaries cannot be defined due to turbulent nature of the flow.

→ Actual jet limits are statistically determined.

→ use intermittency factor 

time during which the flow is turbulent


total elapsed time of measurement

 = 1 for fully turbulent region → center part of the jet

 = 0 for nonturbulent region → edge of the jet

center of
jet

Radial distribution of intermittency factor

i) At r / z  0.16  vz  0.1( vz ) max ;   0.5

ii) At r / z  0.10  v z  0.37 v z max ;  =1.0

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 Ch 1. Fundamentals of Turbulent Jets

1.3.4 Fluid Entrainment

The amount of fluid entrained by the round jet is determined by integrating the velocity

profiles in the zone of established flow.

The volume rate of flow is given as

   vz max
Q   v z 2 rdr   2
2 rdr (a)
0 0
 r 
2

1   v z max 8 z 
 

(vz ) max
Let X  r , a  (vz )max , b 
2

8 z

1
dx  2rdr  dr  dx
2r
Then, (a) becomes


 1 dX  1 1 1 a
Q  2 a    a  (1  bX )2  0   a  b   b 
0 (1  bX )2 2  b  0

Q  8 z (1.31)

Since initial flow rate, Q0 is given as

 d 02 
Q0    V0
 4 

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 Ch 1. Fundamentals of Turbulent Jets

The ratio is given as

Q 8 z 32(0.013V0 d 0 ) z 0.42 z

  
Q0 d 02 d 02V0 d0
 V0
4

Q z
 0.42 (1.32)
Q0 d0

[Cf] A similar calculation based on the Gaussian curve gives

Q z
 0.28 (1.33)
Q0 d0

→ This is Because velocities are small near the edge of the jet by the Gaussian curve as

shown in Fig.1.4.

Q x
[Cf] For slot jet,  0.62
Q0 2b0

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 Ch 1. Fundamentals of Turbulent Jets

Homework # 1-1

Due: 2 weeks from today

1. For both plane and round jets,

a) Plot Q vs x (z)

b) Plot umax vs x

2. Prove Eq. (A1) & (A2) using Gaussian solution with k = 48.08 for plane jet and k =

72.0 for round jet.

3. For axially symmetric jet, derive Eq. 1.33.

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