POLITICS OF INDIA:

Politics in India take place within the framework of its constitution, as India is
a federal parliamentary democratic republic, in which the President of India is the
head of the country and the Prime Minister of India is the head of the government.
India follows the dual polity system, i.e. a double government which consists of
the central authority at the center and states at the periphery. The constitution
defines the organization powers and limitations of both central and state
governments, and it is well-recognized, rigid and considered supreme; i.e. laws of
the nation must conform to it.

There is a provision for a bicameral Union legislature consisting of an Upper

House, i.e. Rajya Sabha, which represents the states of the Indian federation and a
lower house i.e. Lok Sabha, which represents the people of India as a whole. The
Indian constitution provides for an independent Judiciary which is headed by the
Supreme Court. The court's mandate is to protect the constitution, to settle
disputes between the central government and the states, inter-state disputes, to
nullify any central or state laws that go against the constitution and protect
fundamental rights of citizens, issuing writs or their enforcement, in case of
violation.

The governments, union or state, are formed through elections held every five years
(unless otherwise specified), by parties that claim a majority of members in their
respective lower houses (Lok Sabha in centre and Vidhan Sabha in states). India had
its first general election in 1951, which was won by the Indian National Congress,
a political party that went on to dominate the successive elections up until 1977,
when the first non-Congress government was formed for the first time in independent
India.

The 1990s saw the end of single party domination and rise of coalition governments.
The elections for the 16th Lok Sabha, held from April 2014 to May 2014, once again
brought back single-party rule in the country, with the Bharatiya Janata Party
being able to claim a majority in the Lok Sabha.

In recent decades, Indian politics has become a dynastic affair. Possible reasons
for this could be the absence of party organizations, independent civil society
associations that mobilize support for the parties, and centralized financing of
elections.

TYPES OF PARTY SYSTEM:

[1]Dominant-party system:
A system where there is "a category of parties/political organizations that have
successively won election victories and whose future defeat cannot be envisaged or
is unlikely for the foreseeable future".

[2[Non-partisan system:
A system of government or organization such that universal and periodic elections
take place without reference to political parties.

[3]One-party system:
A system in which a single political party has the right to form the government,
usually based on the existing constitution.

[4]Two-party system:
A system where two major political parties dominate politics within a government.

[5]Multi-party system:
A system in which multiple political parties have the capacity to gain control of
government offices, separately or in coalition.

ROLE OF POLITICAL PARTIES

As with any other democracy, political parties represent different sections among
the Indian society and regions, and their core values play a major role in the
politics of India. Both the executive branch and the legislative branch of the
government are run by the representatives of the political parties who have been
elected through the elections. Through the electoral process, the people of India
choose which representative and which political party should run the government.
Through the elections any party may gain simple majority in the lower house.
Coalitions are formed by the political parties, in case no single party gains a
simple majority in the lower house. Unless a party or a coalition have a majority
in the lower house, a government cannot be formed by that party or the coalition.

Indian state governments led by various political parties as of May 2016.

India has a multi-party system, where there are a number of national as well as
regional parties. A regional party may gain a majority and rule a particular state.
If a party is represented in more than 4 states, it would be labelled a national
party. Out of the 66 years of India's independence, India has been ruled by the
Indian National Congress (INC) for 53 of those years, as of March 2014.

The party enjoyed a parliamentary majority save for two brief periods during the
1970s and late 1980s. This rule was interrupted between 1977 and 1980, when the
Janata Party coalition won the election owing to public discontent with the
controversial state of emergency declared by the then Prime Minister Indira Gandhi.
The Janata Dal won elections in 1989, but its government managed to hold on to
power for only two years.

Between 1996 and 1998, there was a period of political flux with the government
being formed first by the nationalist Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP) followed by a
left-leaning United Front coalition. In 1998, the BJP formed the National
Democratic Alliance with smaller regional parties, and became the first non-INC and
coalition government to complete a full five-year term. The 2004 Indian elections
saw the INC winning the largest number of seats to form a government leading the
United Progressive Alliance, and supported by left-parties and those opposed to the
BJP.

On 22 May 2004, Manmohan Singh [6] was appointed the Prime Minister of India
following the victory of the INC & the left front in the 2004 Lok Sabha election.
The UPA ruled India without the support of the left front. Previously, Atal Bihari
Vajpayee [7] had taken office in October 1999 after a general election in which a
BJP-led coalition of 13 parties called the National Democratic Alliance emerged
with a majority. In May 2014, Narendra Modi of BJP was elected as Prime Minister of
India.

Formation of coalition governments reflects the transition in Indian politics away

from the national parties toward smaller, more narrowly based regional parties.
Some regional parties, especially in South India, are deeply aligned to the
ideologies of the region unlike the national parties and thus the relationship
between the central government and the state government in various states has not
always been free of rancor. Disparity between the ideologies of the political
parties ruling the centre and the state leads to severely skewed allocation of
resources between the states.

Features:

1. A Multi-party System:

As a land of social and cultural pluralism, India has been a natural home for a
multi-party system. Presently there are several major active parties working in
India at the national level and in various states. Some parties are national level
parties while others are regional or local political parties.

Congress, BJP, BSP, CPI, CPM, NCP and BSP are the National level parties. LJP,
Janata Dal (U), Janata Dal (S), BJD, SP, AIADMK, DMK, Telugu Desham, SAD, RLD, RJD,
PDP, TDP, AGP, ML, and many others are regional or state level political parties.
We can legitimately say that there are almost 50 active political parties, national
as well as regional in the Indian Political System. In addition to these there are
about 400 other registered political parties.

2. Rapidly Changing Party Structures:

The party structure in India has been continuously and rapidly changing due to
splits, defections, and alliances. Almost every political party has been living
through splits. The Congress experienced four big splits in 1969, 1977, 1995 and
1999. In 1999 the Nationalist Congress Party emerged out of a split in the
Congress. In-fact, several political parties like Trinamool Congress, TMC and
several others have come out of the Congress as a result of splits.

In 1964, the Communist Party suffered a split and CPI and CPM emerged on the Indian
political scene. In 1977, the party system underwent a big change when Jan Sangh,
Bhartiya, Lok Dal, Socialist Party, Congress (O) and Congress rebels combined to
form the Janata Party. In 1978, the Congress suffered another split when Congress
(U) was formed by rebel Congressmen who were led by Devraj Urs. In 1979, however,
the Janata Party suffered a split when Janata (S), i.e., Lok Dal separated itself
from this party.

In April 1980, the former Jan Sangh members parted company and formed the Bhartiya
Janata Party (BJP). In 1988, the Janata Party, the Lok Dal and the Jana Morcha
combined to form Janata Dal. In 1990, Janata Dal (S) was formed out of the Janata
Dal. During 1991- 2001; the Janata Dal suffered atleast four splits or mass
defections. The SAD, the DMK, the TDP, the LD and several other regional parties
have also suffered splits. These have been a source of big political changes in
Indian politics. Infact, India Party System has been a continuously changing party
system.

3. Dominant Position of the Congress during 1947-89:

The Indian multi-party system initially worked as one party dominant multi-party
system. Between 1947-67, the Congress dominanted fully the Indian political scene
at the national and state levels. It got 354, 371, 361 seats in 1952, 1957 and 1962
General Elections respectively. In 1967 it got 283 seats in the Lok Sabha. A split
then came into its way which forced it to depend upon the CPI and DMK for support.
Non-Congress governments came to power in several states.

However, it proved to be a short-lived change. In 1971 elections, the Congress

again got 352 seats in the Lok Sabha. Between 1971-74, the Congress retrieved its
formidable position both at the Union and State levels. However, the emergency rule
imposed by it during June 1975 to March 1977, reduced its popularity and it
suffered a big defeat in March 1977 elections.

A united opposition (the Janata Party) was successful in defeating it. However, the
internal factionalism in the Janata Party again set the stage for the re-emergence
of the Congress as the dominant party in 1980 elections. Thereafter between 1980-
1989, the Congress again remained the dominal party in Indian Party system.
Thereafter its popularity and position began declining.

In 1989 elections it could get only 193 and in 1991 224 Lok Sabha seats. In both
these elections, it failed to secure a majority. In 1989, it decided to sit in the
opposition. But in 1991, it decided to form the government at the Centre. At the
state level also, though it improved its position as compared to its position in
1989, yet it failed to regain full strength. Between 1991-97, the popularity of the
congress party kept on changing.

After 1997, the Congress suffered a big a decline. Even today its position
continues to be weak. It continues to be a major national level political party but
its dominant position has come to end. It now depends upon the support other
parties for getting the power to rule.

4. Presence of a Recognised Opposition:

Initially when Indian Party System was working as a one-party-dominant-multi- party

system, lack of an effective opposition was its big weakness. In the first four
general elections no party other than the Congress was in a position to secure even
50 seats, the minimum constitutional requirement for getting the status of the
'opposition party'.

In 1969, when there occurred a split in the Congress, the Congress (O) got the
status of an opposition party. But this development was short-lived as in the 1971
elections the Congress-I scored a resounding victory and no other party was in a
position to get more than 25 seats. In 1974 seven political parties, combined to
form the Bhartiya Lok Dal with Ch. Charan Singh as its head. With this very end in
view, the Congress (O), Jan Sangh, BLD and Socialist Party combined to form the
Janata Party in 1977.

Later on, CFD also joined it. In 1977- elections the Janata Party scored a
majority, and the Congress with 155 seats became the opposition party. However, in
1980 elections, the Congress (I) secured a major victory and no other party could
secure 63 seats required for getting the status of a recognised opposition party.

In 1989-elections, the Congress emerged as the largest party with 193 seats. It
decided not to stake its claim for making the government and hence got recognition
as the opposition party in the Lok Sabha. In 1991 elections, the Congress scored
224 seats and again failed to score a majority, but it decided to form the
government.

Next to it came BJP, which scored 119 seats and it got the status of the opposition
party in the Lok Sabha. In June 1996, the United Front came to power in the Centre
and the BJP again became the recognised opposition party. In 1998-and 1999 i.e., in
12th and 13th Lok Sabhas again the Congress got the status as the recognised
opposition. In the 14th Lok Sabha (Present Lok Sabha) the BJP is the recognised
opposition party.

5. Recognised Special States of the Leader of Opposition:

In October 1999 Mrs. Sonia Gandhi got recognition and status (equal to a minister)
as the leader of opposition. In May 2004 Mr. L.K. Advani of the BJP became the
leader of opposition in the Lok Sabha. Under the Salary and Allowances of Leaders
of Opposition in Parliament Act 1977, the leader of opposition in each House of the
Parliament enjoys a special status. His status is equal to that of a cabinet
minister and he draws the same salary and allowances as are drawn by a cabinet
minister.

6. System of Registration of Political Parties:

Since December 1988 there has been in existence a provision for the registration of
political parties with the Election Commission. By amending the Representation of
the People Act 1951, it has been laid down that it is essential for each political
party to get itself registered with the Election Commission. A party which fails to
get registered is not accepted as a political party. Each new party has to apply
for registration within 30 days of its birth.

7. Large number of Regional Political Parties:

The existence of a large number of regional or state level political parties along
with some national level political parties is a reality of Indian Political System.
Such a feature is quite natural for a country like India which is characterised by
social pluralism. A regional party is one which enjoys its popularity in one or two
States. Biju Janata Dal (BJD) DMK, AIADMK, National Conference, Shiromani Akali
Dal, Jharkhand Mukti Morcha, Assom Gana Parishad, PMK, TRS, LJP, RLD, RPI, RSP,
MNF, NLP, Telugu Desam, Vishal Haryana Party, Bangla Congress, Utkal Congress,
Forward Bloc, IUML, Kerala Congress, Manipur National Front, DMK, AlADMK etc. are
some of the more prominent regional parties. Several States of Indian Union are
being ruled by the regional parties either individually or in coalition.

8. Power-sharing between National and Regional Political Parties:

A new development in the Indian political systems has been the emergence of a
process of power-sharing between National and Regional parties. Since June 1996, a
coalition, consisting of several regional parties and some national level parties
has been ruling at the Centre. The CPM has been ruling West Bengal in a similar
fashion for more than 30 years. Congress is sharing power with NCP in Maharashtra.

PDP in J & K, BJD and BJP are in an alliance in Orissa. The leaders of regional
parties have started playing an active and even deterministic role in the
organisation of the Central Government. Since May 2004, Congress-led UPA, an
alliance of 14 parties has been in power at the centre.

9. Similar Ideological Perceptions:

Almost all political parties have similar ideologies. In fact, the parties are not
very rigid about their ideological commitments. All the parties are committed to
uphold democracy, secularism, socialism and decentralisation, and most of them now
favour liberalisation and privatisation. All of these are willing to use the caste
factor, linguistic factor and regionalism for expanding their support bases.

10. Existence of some Communalist Parties:

A communal party is one which draws its support from amongst the members of a
particular community. In this way several Indian political parties can be called
communal parties. Muslim League, Majlise Shura, Akali Dal, IML, AIMIM are all in a
way communal parties. Some persons particularly some left ideologists hold that
even BJP is also such party because it enjoys the support of mainly (95%) of the
Hindus. The BJP and its supporters, however strongly deny such a charge and they
describe it as a positive secularist party. Even DMK and AIADMK are anti-Brahmin
parties in Tamil Nadu.

11. Internal Groupism in each Political Party:

Groupism has been present in most of the political parties. Internal groupism in
Congress has been a recognised feature. The existence of 'Leftists', 'Rightists',
'Dissidents', and 'Inner circles', within the Congress has been a historical fact.
It is also true of all other political parties. This feature has been mainly
responsible for political splits and defections. Groups owing loyalties to
different leaders are present in almost every party.

12. Personality-Cult Politics:

Personality-cult dominates party politics in India. Several political parties stand

organised around a leader. The existence of such political parties like Congress
(Indira), Congress (Jagjiwan Ram), Congress (Urs), Janata Party (JP), AD (Mann), AD
(Badal), AD (Longowal), AD (Man), Jan Sangh (Madhok), Janata Dal (A), Lok Dal (A)
Biju Janata Dal and others reflect the presence of politics of personality-cult in
Indian political parties. It has been a practice with the political leaders of
India to float their separate political parties.

13. Not fully Democratic Organisations:

Most of the parties in India do not have good democratically organised structures.
Theoretically, all the political parties stand organised in a democratic way but in
practice the 'top leaders' of a party always dominate the party organisation. Party
elections are rarely held. Political parties hold their state level and national
level conventions and conferences but in these also the 'leaders' dominate the
proceedings.

The principle of 'One leader One office' is advocated but rarely followed. Even the
political parties which are active actors in the democratic process are
undemocratic in their internal workings. This is as much true of the Congress Party
as of the CPM, CPI or the BJP.

The Election Commission has made it mandatory for the political parties to hold
organisational elections. At times, the Chief Election Commissioner directs the
political parties to complete their organisational elections by a stipulated date.

14. Lack of Party Discipline:

Lack of discipline among the party members is again a sad reality of Indian party
system. The party members do not hesitate to become rebels whenever they find a
decision unacceptable. In elections 'the dissidents' or 'the rebels' even oppose
and contest elections against the officially sponsored party candidates. The party
discipline is, at times, enforced and it takes the form of suspension or removal of
the rebels or dissidents from membership for a period of six years or so.

But, such rebels/dissidents are in a position either to return to the party or in

causing a split in the party or in joining another party which is even opposed to
their parent party. Lack of party discipline has been a source of defections,
splits, factionalism, groupism and political turncoatism in Indian politics.

15. Political Defections:

The evil of defections in the form of floor crossings after winning elections on
particular party tickets, has been present in the Indian political system. It came
to be the standard practice of the dissidents' particularly after the fourth
General Elections (1967). Post-1967 years witnessed the emergence of the era of
'Aya Rams and Gaya Rams' in Indian politics.

Defection is an undemocratic practice as it involves a breach of trust on the part

of an elected representative who after getting elected on a particular party ticket
decides to change his party loyalty and join another party for securing a berth in
the ministry or for causing a fall of the ministry or for his selfish petty
political or financial gains.

In January 1985, the evil practice of defection was sought to be buried through the
enactment of the 52nd Amendment Act. After its enactment, the evil practice of
defection suffered a decline. However, even this act provided for a 'qualified
defection' in so far as it admitted that a mass defection, involving at least one-
third of the members of a party who decide to form a new party or join hands with
other parties in the political process, was to be called a split and not a
defection and hence was to be legal and valid.

The presence of 'factions' and 'groups' within every party, the personality cult
politics, the presence of political corruption, and the existence of several
political parties, all have given rise to an environment in which politics of
'defections', continues to remain present. Even the latest amendment of the Act has
not been successful in eliminating the menace of political defections.

16. Large Number of Independent Candidates in Elections:

Another feature, which has a bearing on the working of Indian Party System, can be
described as the presence of a large number of independent candidates in the
elections. The political parties have to meet the challenge posed by locally
popular independent candidates who are contesting elections from various
constituencies. The Constitution grants to the citizens the right to contest
elections and in actual practice a large number of independent candidates come
forward to utilise this right.

17. Politics of Populism:

Almost all the political parties adopt and follow populistic policies and raise
populistic slogans for securing votes. The party in power uses its power of policy-
making for attracting votes. �Rozgar yojnas�, �Waving of Loans�, 'Power to the
People', 'Increased Reservations', 'Vote for Mandir', 'Protection of Panth',
'Protection of interests of Minorities', 'Garibi Hatao', 'Free water', 'Free-
electricity' Flour and Pulse at Rs. 4 and Rs. 20 per kg, etc. are used as election-
eve slogans for securing votes.

18. Resort to Direct Action Means and Electroal Malpractices:

In India all the political parties have been using�strikes, dharnas, gheraos,
bandhs, boycotts, passive resistance i.e. direct action and pressure means for
securing party gains. During elections some of these even resort to malpractices
like booth capturing, rigging, forced voting, threats of liquidation, poll-
violence, vendetta against opponents and forcible prevention from voting. The
practice of forming 'militant senas' also reflects also the presence of violence in
party politics and electoral politics.

19. Politics of Opportunistic Alliances:

Political parties often resort to unprincipled electoral alliances and coalitions
for securing short term gains. During elections, almost all the political parties
enter into unprincipled alliances. These do not hesitate to enter into electoral
alliances with communal parties.

During October 1999�May 2004, the ruling alliance (BJP-led National Democratic
Alliance) was a collection of several mutually opposed organisations. Trinamool
Congress left the alliance to joint hands with the Congress in West Bengal. However
after few months it rejoined the NDA. The left parties have been continuously
oppositing the Congress, yet in May 2004, these extended support from outside to
the Congress-led United Progressive Alliance. RJD of Sh. Laloo Prasad and LJSP of
Sh. Ram Vilas Paswan are totally opposed to each other in Bihar and yet both are
coalition partners in the ruling UPA. It is all politics of opportunism.

20. Dawn of the era of Coalition Politics:

The era of coalition politics has dawned in India. Since 1996 coalition governments
have been in power at the centre and in several states. Between October 1999 May
2004, the Centre was ruled by the National Democratic Alliance government. Since
May 2004 UPA coalition has been ruling at the Centre. West-Bengal has been under
the rule of a left front for more than three decades.

In Punjab SAD-BJP alliance has been in power since Feb. 2007. Congress-NCP has been
ruling Maharashtra. Congress-PDP alliance has been in power in J & K. In Orissa
BJD-BJP alliance has been ruling the state since 1999. The age of coalition
politics, which can be described as the natural outflow of a multi-party system,
has definitely arrived in the Indian political system.

21. System of Recognising Parties as National Political Parties, Regional Political

Parties and State Parties:

On the basis of the performance of various political parties, the Election

Commission grants recognition to these as National Political Parties or State
Parties. On December 2, 2000, the Election Commission revised the criteria for
granting such recognition by amending the symbol order. This new criteria has
been : A political party gets recognised as a National Political Party, either when
it secures at least 6% of the valid votes polled in any four or more states in a
general election to the Lok Sabha.

A political party gets a recognition as a State Party if it secures 6% of the valid

votes votes polled in a state (Either in a general election to the Lok Sabha or to
the legislative assembly of the concerned state) or if it wins at least 3% of the
total number of seats in the Legislative Assembly of the state or if it wins at
least three seats in the legislative assembly of the concerned state, whichever is
more. Only the recognised parties enjoy the facility of free broadcasts from the
Doordarshan and the AIR and get a free supply of copies of the electoral rolls.
Only recognised political parties use their symbol in elections.

Indian Party System has been a fast changing and developing multi party system. It
has come out of the age of one-party-dominant-multi- party system and is now
developing as a real multi-party system. The existence of several political parties
both national and regional, has kept the Indian political party scenario complex
and even confusing. Even several of its features as described above can be really
described as its defects. Indian multi-party system has been a product of the
social, economic, cultural, linguistic, religious and regional pluralism which has
been a basic feature of Indian society.
Role of Opposition Party in India:

Official Opposition party refers to the non-ruling party or coalition that has
secured the highest number of seats in the Lok Sabha. The status of opposition
party is given only when a standalone party secures atleast 10 percent of the
seats. In India, for the period of 2009-2014, the official opposition party was
Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP). The ruling party for the period of 2014-2019 is BJP.
However, there is no opposition party for the period (2014-2019), since not a
single party managed to secure atleast 10 percent of the seats.
Leader of the Opposition (India) refers to the political figure who leads the
official opposition party. Sushma Swaraj was the leader of the opposition party for
the period of 2009-3014. However, this position remains vacant for the period of
2014-2009, since there is no official opposition.

The role of opposition party in India is as important as that of the ruling party.
They ensure that the acts of the ruling party are not detrimental to the interest
of general public or nation at large.

The opposition ensures that the ruling political parties have a definite programme
and policy to offer to the people and who can show a progressive path by action and
not just by propaganda.

The role of the opposition party is not to oppose every decision of the ruling
party. Rather, it is the duty of the opposition party to support the ruling party
for the acts that are in the interest of the nation.

The political parties should work among the people, win their confidence on the
strength of their propounded goals. They must build public opinion in their favour
by suggesting alternative programmes and policies which could practically take the
country forward to the enjoyment of better standards of living.

In this context, there are a few political parties which can aspire to play a
constructive role and can hope to come to power with a swing in political education
among the masses.

The flaws of election process need to be removed. It needs to be ensured that only
the right candidate wins the election. Money plays a great role in elections. There
are unscrupulous rich politicians who buy the votes with money, throw temporary
advantages to poor people at the time of polls. They make false promises which they
know they cannot fulfill. It is, therefore, essential that the role of money power
should be entirely eliminated from the electoral process.

They opposition should guide the countrymen to more desirable objectives of socio-
economic achievement.

POLITICAL ISSUES:

[1] Social issues:

The lack of homogeneity in the Indian population causes division between different
sections of the people based on religion, region, language, caste and race. This
has led to the rise of political parties with agendas catering to one or a mix of
these groups.

Some parties openly profess their focus on a particular group; for example, the
Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam's and the All India Anna Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam's
focus on the Dravidian population, and the Shiv Sena's pro-Marathi agenda. Some
other parties claim to be universal in nature, but tend to draw support from
particular sections of the population. For example, the Rashtriya Janata Dal
(translated as National People's Party) has a vote bank among the Yadav and Muslim
population of Bihar and the All India Trinamool Congress does not have any
significant support outside West Bengal.

The narrow focus and votebank politics of most parties, even in the central
government and central legislature, sidelines national issues such as economic
welfare and national security. Moreover, internal security is also threatened as
incidences of political parties instigating and leading violence between two
opposing groups of people is a frequent occurrence.

[2] Economic issues:

Economic issues like poverty, unemployment, development are main issues that
influence politics. Garibi hatao (eradicate poverty) has been a slogan of the
Indian National Congress for a long time. The well known Bharatiya Janata
Party(BJP) encourages a free market economy. The Communist Party of India (Marxist)
vehemently supports left-wing politics like land-for-all, right to work and
strongly opposes neo-liberal policies such as globalisation, capitalism and
privatisation.

[3] Law and order:

Terrorism, Naxalism, religious violence and caste-related violence are important

issues that affect the political environment of the Indian nation. Stringent anti-
terror legislation such as TADA, POTA and MCOCA have received much political
attention, both in favour and opposed.

Terrorism had effected politics India since its conception, be it the terrorism
supported from Pakistan or the internal guerrilla groups such as Naxalites. In 1991
the former prime minister Rajiv Gandhi was assassinated during an election
campaign.The suicide bomber was later linked to the Sri Lankan terrorist group
Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam, as it was later revealed the killing was an act
of vengeance for Rajiv Gandhi sending troops in Sri Lanka against them in 1987.

The Babri Masjid demolition on December 6, 1992 by Hindu Karsevaks resulted in

nationwide communal riots in two months, with worst occurring in Mumbai with at
least 900 dead.The riots were followed by 1993 Mumbai Bomb Blasts, which resulted
in more deaths.

Law and order issues, such as action against organised crime are issues which do
not affect the outcomes of elections. On the other hand, there is a
criminal�politician nexus. Many elected legislators have criminal cases against
them. In July 2008, the Washington Post reported that nearly a fourth of the 540
Indian Parliament members faced criminal charges, "including human trafficking,
child prostitution immigration rackets, embezzlement, rape and even murder".
CONCULSION:

Few, if any, would deny that political parties are integral to representative
democracy as we know it. And yet since the 1960s it has become increasingly
commonplace to encounter references in academic literature, journalistic comment,
and polemical assertion alike to the `decline of party', a contention usually
predicated on the view that parties are `failing' in a variety of respects. We have
now reviewed in some detail the contemporary state of political parties in advanced
industrial democracies with respect to their standing in the electorate, their
organizational
development and strength, and their functional performance. It is time,
therefore, to summarize as far as possible the complexity of these findings and
to reflect on their implications for democracy.