Formulation: A Multiperspective Model*

PRIYANTHY WEERASEKERA, B.A., M.Ed., M.D. l

This paper presents a model of formulation that can be tors can interact under certain conditions to produce a specific
used by psychiatrists and other mental health professionals. condition or phenomenon, which can be expressed biologi-
A review ofthe literature indicates a needfor a more compre- cally, psychologically and systemically; the mode of expres-
hensive approach that can accommodate a variety ofperspec- sion does not infer a specific etiology. A comprehensive
tives, suggest treatment and can be easily recalled. These formulation therefore needs to carefully examine all three
issues are addressed by the multiperspective grid presented modes of expression. This new definition takes into account
in this paper. the complex phenomena that must be considered to arrive at
a comprehensive formulation,

T he teaching of case formulation to residents in psychiatry

differs from program to program, as well as within
programs, depending on the emphasis given to this area.
Over the past ten years, studies have provided the follow-
ing: survey information regarding the teaching of formulation
in the various residency programs (4,5); a variety of psycho-
Although educators may differ in their opinions of the useful- dynamic models of formulation that are being empirically
ness of this exercise, residents struggle when asked to formu- studied (6,7); and three comprehensive models that include
late a case. They present either an elaborate psychodynamic other non dynamic perspectives (3,5,8). Although these
formulation or a superficial integration of the "biopsychoso- studies have refined the area of case formulation, their rele-
cial" model. Rarely does this formulation suggest an vance to teaching trainees and their ability to provide mental
approach to treatment. It is viewed as a separate intellectual health professionals with a comprehensive, clinically useful
exercise that contributes little to the practice of differential approach is questionable. Primarily, they fail to provide a
therapeutics (1). Residents in psychiatry are not alone in this cognitive schema or framework of formulation that can be
struggle; most psychiatrists and other mental health profes- easily recalled. Most of these papers focus on the psychody-
sionals are also in need of an approach to formulation that is namic perspective and (except for a few) exclude the biolog-
pragmatic, able to examine a variety of perspectives, and most ical and other non dynamic psychological perspectives, and
of all, clinically useful. none of the papers discusses ways in which formulation can
Defining the term "formulation" has been difficult, result- lead to treatment.
ing in the decision to remove the term from the Canadian This paper will provide a model of formulation that
fellowship oral examination (2). Although many have written attempts to deal with the difficulties discussed above. The
on this topic, it is surprising to find only one paper that defines model is an elaboration of the common grid used by residents
the term, According to Cleghorn (3), a formulation is "a in psychiatry in many settings. A more elaborate discussion
description and hypothetical explanation of data that the of the model, the theoretical perspectives it represents, and
system ignores or cannot explain." A formulation is recom- it's clinical application illustrated through a case example, has
mended to supplement a DSM-III diagnosis since this classi- been extensively described elsewhere (9). The purpose of this
fication system does not infer pathogenesis or predict the paper is to briefly introduce the reader to the model.
course of an illness. Cleghorn's view is supported by this
paper and an alternate definition that takes into account the The Multiperspective Model
complexities of the formulation is presented.
Table I displays the model proposed in this paper. The
In this paper, a formulation is defined as a tentative expla-
model is eclectic in that it applies a multiperspective view to
nation or hypothesis ofthe wayan individual with a certain
understanding psychological phenomena. The x-axis of the
disorder or condition comes to present at a particular point in
grid is divided into two major headings: individual and
time. A number of factors may be involved in understanding
systemic. Under these headings are subheadings that encom-
the etiology of the disorder or condition. These may include
pass different perspectives and systems. There are four sub-
biological, psychological and systemic factors. All these fac-
headings under "individual factors": biological, behavioural,
cognitive and dynamic. The latter three were chosen because
they are theoretically distinct in their view of human behavi-
*Manuscript received September 1992, revised December 1992. our and are representative of the major forms of psychother-
'Assistant Professor, McMaster University, Hamilton, Ontario.
Address reprint request to: Dr. Weerasekera, McMaster University,
apy used to treat psychiatric disorders. Under the heading
Department of Psychiatry, 1200 Main Street West, Hamilton, Ontario L8N "systemic factors" are the four significant systems in an
3Z5 individual's life: the couple, family occupation/school and
social system. The term "system" in this model refers to the
Can J. Psychiatry, Vol. 38, June 1993 areas outside the individual that have a significant impact on

351
352 CANADIAN JOURNAL OF PSYCHIATRY Vol. 38, No.5

day-to-day life. Although the individual can also be viewed Individual Factors
as a biological system, the term, as it will be used in this paper,
refers to the systems encountered outside the individual. Biological Factors
The y-axis contains six headings, four of which are already The first column (See table I), the biological perspective,
familiar to the resident in psychiatry. The four "P"s - pre- is most familiar to psychiatrists and residents in psychiatry;
disposing, precipitating, perpetuating and protective factors they are exposed to this perspective prior to residency.
- have been used to evaluate biological, psychological and Assessment within this perspective includes a comprehensive
social factors in the commonly used grid. It is the synthesis medical and psychiatric history, physical and mental status
of these four factors that comprise the formulation. examinations and relevant investigations. Some of these vari-
ables are listed under the biological heading as determined by
The multiperspective model offers two additional dimen-
the four "P"s. For example, a positive family history of mood
sions: coping-response style and treatment. Coping-response
disorders, may biologically predispose an individual to
style has been described extensively by Lazarus (10) and
depression. A medical illness may both precipitate and
Mechanic (11), but in this paper, it will be used to refer to the
perpetuate the expression of depression. Chronic substance
individual's unique style of dealing with stress. This dimen-
abuse may also perpetuate this condition, while pregnancy
sion allows individual differences to be taken into account
could protect against depression in some cases. An individual
when making treatment decisions. For example, an action-
with a biological coping-response style may interpret his or
oriented individual is more likely to respond to a behavioural
her condition as a medical illness and may therefore be more
approach, while a more psychologically oriented individual
likely to contact a physician for medical attention. Medica-
may benefit from a cognitive or dynamic approach to treat-
tions and other medical treatments may be sought, resulting
ment. There is evidence that when treatment and a patient's
in greater compliance with this type of therapy. A biological
coping-response style are matched, the outcome is more
treatment is indicated when the assessment yields sufficient
likely to be positive. Michelson (12) found a more favourable
evidence for a strong biological formulation, a biological
outcome when behavioural and cognitive therapies were
coping response style and the availability of an effective
matched to corresponding styles in the patient's expression
biological therapy. It is also indicated when it is superior to
of their anxiety disorder. Congruency between treatment and
other therapies and can be integrated with a variety of
the patient's coping-response style may also increase compli-
psychotherapies.
ance. Attention to individual variables may also facilitate a
better therapeutic alliance, a variable that accounts for a Behavioural Factors
significant proportion of the variance in the outcome of
The next column shows the behavioural perspective.
psychotherapy (13).
According to this view, psychological problems are
This grid also includes treatment. By following the eight behavioural problems that have been learned through classi-
columns, clinicians can make decisions regarding specific cal or operant conditioning. Assessment within this perspec-
individual therapies, systemic therapies, or the integration of tive involves obtaining the frequency of various types of
a variety of therapies. A brief description of how to use this behaviours, reinforcers and punishers. These data are
grid follows. The individual and systemic factors will be gathered through self-monitoring or observation. Behaviour
discussed briefly with respect to assessment, the four "P''s, that have received clinical attention include avoidance
coping response style and treatment. The order in which this behaviour, self-injurious behaviours (in BPD and other
is discussed parallels actual clinical practice. One needs to disorders), tantrums, or acting-out (conduct disorders), inac-
assess all factors before formulating and then treating a given tivity, eating behaviours, and many others. The history of
case. reinforcement and punishment, and prior classical condition-
ing are important to examine in order to identify significant
The formulation made at assessment needs to be tested and
behavioural predisposing factors. For example, a history of
revised as new information is learned through therapy. There-
low rate of reinforcement may predispose one to depression.
fore, it is seen as a hypothesis that is confirmed or refuted as
By definition, a reinforcer is a stimulus that increases the
therapy progresses. The formulation at termination may be
frequency of the behaviour that precedes it. It can be positive
very different from the initial assessment. Formulation is
or negative. A punisher decreases the behaviour that precedes
therefore considered to be a dynamic process.
it. Decrease, loss, and inability to access reinforcers have
Before proceeding with a discussion of each column, I been implicated in depression, making these important pre-
would like to offer a word of caution. The comprehensiveness cipitating or perpetuating factors, depending on whether they
advocated by the model does not imply that one become an are acute or ongoing (14). Significant punishers such as social
expert within each perspective. This is an unrealistic and rejection may precede the development of social phobia or
unnecessary expectation. The grid is presented simply as a avoidant personality disorder. The ability to use a variety of
guide to: 1. increase awareness of alternative perspectives; 2. reinforcers may protect against depression. These concepts
offer a method of collecting and organizing data; and 3. can be used to understand etiology and guide treatment.
encourage a richer conceptualization of clinical cases that Research indicates a positive outcome with these approaches
may contribute to more effective treatments. (15,16).
r == Table I II
Multiperspective Grid
_ _ _ _ _ _-r-r- ~_---Individual Factors I SYstemic Factors I
T- I Occupational/ II
Biologicill. Behavioural 'COlmitive Dvnamic Counle Family i School ~ Social
- family history - history of : - dysfunctional - early attachment - projective - family structure - employment - history of
- genetics reinforcement and] assumptions - resolution of identification - communication history social relation
i - prenatal/ punishment I - irrational developmental - negative - family intimacy -learning - availability of
postnatal - classical beliefs stages behaviour I - open system difficulties ,network
Predisposing
- developmental conditioning - maladaptive - traumatic life I exchange I - IQ - social skills
history shcemas I events - negative - schools - cultural
- sense of self attributions I - gender
- good/bad objects II -lack of intimacy I
-trauma -loss of significant '1- activation of - relationship - affair I - individual or -loss or change in 1 -loss of social
-toxins reinforcement dysfunctional losses or - children I family crises job I support network
- vascular events - significant 'I assumptions difficulties - individual 0 illness/death - failure at school
1- immigration
Precipitating punisher - increase in - significant changes 0 finance - change in school - social violence
- classical negative ljvents 0 moves - decreased finance
conditioning to , automatic activate dynamic 0 separation! on job k!
______+ +---"n"'o'-"v"'el"-'s"'t"'im"'-"ul"'i_---;r--"th"'o~u~___ roce~___ __~__ divo,.'Crc"'e"--_ _- I _
- chronic substance ' - chronic low - negative I' - repetitive - chronic problems - chronic marital - chronic - i!1dividual
abuse reinforcement automatic patterns/themes 0 children discord dissatisfaction at I E shyness
- chronic illness environment thoughts - chronic primitive 0 finance - chronic illness work 0
I social
1
- handicaps 1-difficulty - chronic negative defenses 0 communication - chronic - undiagnosed problems
- disabilities accessing beliefs - lack of insight II 0 sexual occupational learning - environmental
Perpetuating
reinforcement - poor problem stress disabilities 0 isolation
- family/social I ' solving skills - chronic child - relationship with 0 disruption
reinforcement 11- chronic distance
I problems work/school
or decreased - financial mates
intimacy problems
- good physical - variety of - 1- corre~tive - increased I - open system
I health reinforcement expenences intimacy - flexible
- absence of - availability of , - avoid destructive - individual - intimacy and
Protective
family psychiatric reinforcement I relationships flexibility autonomy
\ history n I-insight - commitment - adapts to change
I - medications use of theranv - equal power
-visits MDs , - action oriented - capacity to be - introspective - relationship - family provides
Coping- - medication - activity oriented introspective - motivation for provides major major support
response style oriented [ - likes "to do" - reflect on self- support
I - somatizer thou hts understandin
- medication - behavioural - cognitive therapy - psychodynamic - couple therapy - family therapy - group therapy
-ECT therapy c thought psychotherapy e dynamic c structural c social skills

- surgery e relaxation stopping - psychoanalysis o behavioural c strategic training

exercise c disputing - experiential c cognitive- o systemic c self-help

c systematic o countering - client-centered, behavioural c behaviour group

Treatment
desensitization 1 techniques etc, c systemic c experiential e community

e exposure c dynamic programs

e increased I
activity II
c biofeedback II
L
354 CANADIAN JOURNAL OF PSYCHIATRY Vol. 38, No. 5

An individual with a behavioural coping-response style fixations or arrests in primitive developmental stages, inade-
could be described as an action-oriented individual. He or she quate self-object experiences, poor containing environments,
may prefer "to do" something to get well rather than take lack of a good-enough mother, attachments to bad objects,
medications or talk about their problems. This person may do lack of early good object experiences, and insecure attach-
well with behavioural therapies, which include biofeedback, ment with the primary caretaker. These experiences may
relaxation exercises, activity scheduling, systematic desensi- predispose an individual to use excessive primitive or imma-
tization and exposure and response prevention. Recently, ture defense mechanisms such as projection and splitting,
behavioural therapy has been integrated with cognitive which lead to a less differentiated experience of self and other,
therapy, resulting in cognitive-behavioural therapy. In this necessary for a mature relationship. Precipitating events, such
paper, these two therapies are discussed separately. as the loss of a significant relationship, activate these dynamic
Cognitive Factors processes established early in life. Perpetuating factors may
be persistent primitive defense mechanisms, repetition of
The cognitive perspective attributes distressing emotional
destructive relationships, or other ongoing dynamic mecha-
states to a maladaptive thought process, such as
nisms. Protective factors could be the presence of a primary
misattributions, irrational beliefs and automatic thoughts
figure, who, early in life was able to contain primitive projec-
(17). Assessment in cognitive therapy requires self-monitor-
tions, provide the necessary self-object functions, promote
ing of thought processes. Attitudes, assumptions or core
self-other differentiation and provide a secure attachment
residual beliefs (schemas) are cognitive factors that predis-
relationship (22-25).
pose an individual to a particular condition. Cognitive distor-
tions, such as negative fortune telling, have been identified in An individual with a coping-response style that involves
depression. Various cognitive distortions have been associ- introspection and motivation for self-understanding would
ated with different conditions and disorders (18,19). Certain likely be amenable to psychodynamic therapy, or psycho-
precipitating events, such as failure and loss, can activate analysis. The therapist may focus on transference, good and
these maladaptive thoughts and produce emotional distress. bad objects, projective identification, splitting, projection,
Some automatic thoughts can remain chronic and resistant to mirroring and idealizing transferences, cohesion, self-object
change. This is evident in personality disorders, where certain functions and other processes, depending on the therapist's
self-schemas are well ingrained. An individual with a positive orientation. Alternate psychotherapies, such as client-
self-schema, or few cognitive distortions, may be protected centered, Adlerian, Gestalt, experiential, reality and interper-
from various conditions, such as anxiety and depression. sonal, also focus on inner experiences without adhering to the
more traditional psychodynamic models (26,27). All these
Individuals with a cognitive coping-response style would
approaches are considered under the dynamic column.
be able to reflect on how they think and use various self-
statements to alter their maladaptive thoughts. They may Systemic Factors
already see the relationship between their thoughts and
various distressing emotions and may be using various The next section of the grid focuses on the systemic
cognitive techniques to cope. Cognitive therapy offers a factors. Four systems require assessment: the couple, the
variety of techniques to alter maladaptive thinking. These family, the school or occupation and the social network.
include disputing, countering, challenging and many others Factors Related to the Couple
(20).
Difficulty in relationships is cited as the most common
Psychodynamic Factors reason that individuals seek psychotherapy. Marital and
The final column in the individual section is the psycho- couple problems account for 40% of patients admitted to
dynamic perspective, for which there are many psychody- mental health clinics in the US (28), making this an important
namic models. The three models most frequently encountered area to assess. In couples, predisposing factors are factors
by the resident are drive-conflict theory, object-relations related to the individual or couple that predict relationship
theory and self-psychology. Cleghom and colleagues (21) difficulties, such as individual difficulties with intimacy,
have described "central enduring themes" common to all inability to compromise, destructive projective identification
these theories that can be used with all patients when trying patterns and dysfunctional interactional cycles (for example,
to understand them from a psychodynamic point of view. pursue withdrawal). Precipitating factors are events that
They suggest three broad categories: key relationships, stress the relationship, such as an extramarital affair or the
conflict and experience of the self. birth of a child. Perpetuating factors may be either extra-
In completing the grid, one can look at these general relationship factors (for example, in-laws) or intra-relation-
themes .or choose a specific theory that is most useful in ship factors (for example, sexual problems) that maintain a
understanding a particular patient. For example, drive- chronic level of stress in the relationship. Protective factors
conflict theory may be helpful in understanding anxiety and are the positive aspects of the relationship that promote good
depressive disorders, object-relations theory for BPD, and feelings within the relationship, such as shared interests,
self-psychology for narcissistic disorders. These are just mutual goals and respect for each other's individuality.
examples, and each theory may lend itself to many other Various theoretical models, similar to those related to the
conditions. Significant predisposing dynamic factors include individual factors (for example, object-relations, behaviou-
June, 1993 FORMULATION: A MULTIPERSPECTIVE MODEL 355

ral, cognitive) (28-31), and constructs (for example, inti- involve leaming difficulties or behavioural problems at
macy) (33) may be used to conceptualize difficulties in rela- school. Precipitating occupational factors include loss of
tionships. Although not a specific coping-response style, the employment, change in the status or location of the employ-
degree to which the dyadic relationship is used as a support ment or change in present job circumstance. For children, this
or coping system may be important to assess, so that, if may include a change in school or difficulties at school, such
needed, it can be strengthened through couple therapy. The as problems with a particular teacher. Perpetuating factors
specific therapy chosen will depend on the therapist's orien- include chronic occupational problems, such as dissatisfac-
tation. Meta-analysis and other research support the effective- tion with work or difficulty relating with others. In school,
ness of marital therapy (34). these could be ongoing social or academic problems such as
Factors Related to the Family an undiagnosed learning disability that interferes with school
performance. Protective factors are occupational factors that
Interest in the role the family plays in individuals' psychi-
increase self-esteem and improve the quality oflife. In adults
atric disorders is re-emerging (35,36). A variety of models
this could be secure gainful employment or a high level of job
similar to those described in the previous section exist in the
satisfaction. In children and adolescents, this includes good
literature on the family (37). Families predisposed to individ-
academic achievement, above average IQ and good social
ual or family pathology have been described as having the
relationships in school.
following: diffuse boundaries, poor communication and poor
self-other differentiation (38-40). Precipitating factors are For some individuals, involvement in work or school can
individual or family events that change the system, for exam- be seen as a coping-response style, in that it is a distraction
ple, serious illness in a family member. Family crises which from other personal problems and promotes self-esteem. For
may be intrafamilial (for example, divorce) or extrafamilial a child, good performance at school may help to alleviate
(for example, a move, neighbourhood problems) also stress family problems at home by providing an environment that
the system. Perpetuating factors include those factors that is supportive and free of conflict (42). Treatment could in-
perpetuate a dysfunctional family system, such as child clude occupational therapy, self-help groups or vocational
behavioural problems (intrafamilial) or inadequate housing counselling for adults, and special education and tutoring at
(extrafamilial). Protective factors which promote optimal school for children.
family functioning and individual growth are a strong com-
Social Factors
mitment to the family, an open family system and minimal
individual pathology. The last column on the grid examines the individual's
An individual who uses the family as a secure base or social system. This includes variables such as social support,
major support could be viewed as having a familial coping- which refers to the availability of confidants, recreational
response style. A change in the availability of this buffering playmates or groups to share experiences. Lack of social
system would make this individual more vulnerable to stress. support can result in vulnerability to certain psychiatric dis-
These individuals may be more likely to benefit from family orders (43). Also under this column, one can assess the
therapy if the presenting problem has important systemic importance of cultural factors and the ways in which they
issues relevant to the onset or maintenance of the disorder. influence etiology and treatment. For children, social rela-
The model of family therapy chosen depends on the level of tionships are important for developing autonomy, gender-role
skill and the orientation of the therapist. Behavioural ap- identity and self-esteem (44). In assessing an individual's
proaches have been studied extensively by Patterson (41) and social network, two areas need to be explored: the frequency
found to be useful with families with child behavioural prob- of social contact and the quality of that contact. Social behavi-
lems. Other approaches are beginning to be studied (37). our is also affected by gender, and these gender issues can
Occupational Factors also be discussed under this section.
Since the majority of an individual's time is spent at work Predisposing social systemic factors are: the perceived
(either inside or outside the home), university, college or availability of a social support network, the individual's ca-
school, this area can contribute greatly to stress, by precipi- pacity to engage in social relationships and the number and
tating or exacerbating a disorder. In the case of a child, quality of previous social support networks. Precipitating
success at school has been found to be an important buffer social factors are a reduction, loss or change in significant
against the development of child psychiatric disorders (42). supportive social relationships. Perpetuating factors are those
Assessment includes obtaining a complete educational and that prevent ongoing social relationships. These could be
occupational history. The number and types of jobs held, within the individual (for example, shyness, poor self-esteem,
sense of satisfaction in these jobs, and the importance of the fear of intimacy) or outside the individual (for example, social
job to the individual need to be assessed. Learning disabili- isolation, deficient community resources). Protective factors
ties, grades missed or failed and attendance at school all affect include individual factors that will increase the probability of
children's and adolescents' school performance. exposure to a social system (for example, physical attractive-
The grid lists some of the predisposing factors in this area. ness, extroversion, empathic ability) and extra-individual
In an adult, this includes a poor employment history or factors that make social support more easily accessible (for
chronic dissatisfaction with employment. In a child, this may example, supportive workplace or neighbourhood).
356 CANADIAN JOURNAL OF PSYCHIATRY Vol. 38, No. 5

Individuals who use social support on a regular basis to There are numerous examples of integrative therapies in
deal with stressful life experiences could be described as the literature, including the integration of cognitive and
having a coping-response style that is socially oriented. They behavioural therapy (51), psychoanalytic and behaviour
may be vulnerable during periods when there has been a therapy (52,53), interpersonal and cognitive therapy (54,55),
significant loss of social support. Treatment depends on the and cognitive, interpersonal and psychoanalytic therapy (56).
difficulty experienced by the individual within his or her Although it is not the purpose of this paper to present an
social system. Individual or group therapy may help remove extensive discussion of treatment integration, a discussion of
the barriers to supportive social relationships. This may how this multiperspective grid can be used as an aid or first
include social skills and assertiveness training groups, or step towards treatment integration is warranted.
community programs that increase contact among members. 1. The grid promotes the learning of a variety of perspectives.
This is the first step toward eclectism or integration. Prior
From Formulation to Treatment to using any psychotherapeutic technique, the therapist
must become familiar with the theory and therapy derived
After completing the grid along the four "P"s, and the from a particular perspective. Once this has been learned,
coping-response style is evaluated, one can move to a new psychotherapy schema is added to the clinician's
treatment. The ability to complete the grid will depend on the clinical repertoire. If a variety of therapies are learned, the
person's level of training and knowledge of the various psychotherapy schema is broadened, and new ways of
perspectives. With more experience it may become easier to organizing and using this information are possible.
complete more ofthe boxes on the grid. It is not essential that
all boxes be filled in. Only those areas that offer a plausible 2. The clinician is able to consider a wide range oftherapeu-
explanation or hypothesis need to be completed. As therapy . tic options if clinical techniques are learned from a variety
progresses, more information may become available that will of perspectives. In some cases, it may be necessary to start
either fill in an empty box or change one that has already been with one therapy and build on it as necessary. The patient's
completed. By going down each column after the grid is coping-response style may help this process by suggesting
completed, a variety of treatment options should be evident, a starting point. If additional therapies are needed, they can
from individual biological to social systemic therapy. be sequentially added or be integrated simultaneously. In
Although each of these perspectives have been discussed the first instance, one therapy would follow another; in the
separately, they can be combined creatively into a wide range second, therapies would be combined to provide a truly
of therapeutic options. The decision to choose one therapy or integrated therapy.
to integrate several therapies should be based on the most
3. Therapeutic integration can proceed as follows. While
probable formulation, the patient's coping-response style and
carrying out the first therapy recommended by the grid,
the availability of therapies that have shown some evidence
the clinician remains alert to emerging material that
of effectiveness. This movement toward integrating therapies
has been discussed elsewhere (45). A brief discussion of corresponds to other perspectives on the grid. For exam-
integration and how this model can be used as a first step ple, during a behavioural intervention, an individual
towards this process is presented below. previously unaware of his or her thoughts and feelings
may, as a result of the behavioural intervention become
more aware of the various thoughts and feelings associated
Integrating Treatment
with the problem behaviour. This marker (new awareness
The concept of integration and eclectism has been of thoughts) may alert the clinician to shift to, or integrate
discussed extensively in the literature on psychotherapy a cognitive component into the behavioural intervention,
(46,47). The past ten to 15 years have witnessed a growing thereby creating a cognitive behavioural therapy. This is
interest and clear delineation of this area as distinct within also demonstrated when integrating behavioural and psy-
psychotherapy. Initial discussions centered on defining terms chodynamic therapy. An important finding demonstrated
such as "eclectism" and "integration". Eclectism is defined in the literature is the increase in spontaneous insights that
as a technical, empirical, atheoretical mixing of various occur during behaviour therapy making an individual
clinical methods borrowed from a variety of therapies more aware of conflictual issues (52). This marker (in-
(48,49), a definition advocated by Lazarus (50). An eclectic creased insights) could signal the integration ofbehaviou-
draws from a variety of therapies using techniques without ral and psychodynamic therapy. The behaviour therapy
adhering to a particular theoretical perspective. An integra- would continue and be used to increase awareness of
tionist is more theoretically oriented and draws from a variety dynamic issues that may then be "worked through" with
of theories to create a new integrative theory and conceptually psychodynamic psychotherapy. The psychodynamic ther-
superior therapy (46). Although there is some disagreement apy works at the characterological level, while behaviour
regarding the division between eclectism and integration, therapy is aimed at changing behaviour, since insight does
some consider eclectism to be a form of integration, since it not necessarily lead to behavioural change. In a sense, the
brings together clinical techniques from a variety of perspec- two therapies, once integrated, enhance the effectiveness
tives (46). of both and may create a superior therapy. The concept of
June, 1993 FORMULATION: A MULTIPERSPECTIVE MODEL 357

a "marker" and its usefulness in psychotherapy has been after the formal training period is completed. Clinicians can
discussed by Greenberg and Safran (57). continue to learn a variety of therapies or at least be aware of
their existence so that they may provide their patients with
4. In addition to integrating individual therapies, the grid
the best possible treatment.
takes into account and points toward integrating treatment
modalities. For example, an individual suffering from The grid presented in this paper could also be used to
depressive and anxiety symptoms in the presence of assess trainees' knowledge base in different areas, allowing
chronic, severe marital distress may benefit from individ- deficiencies to be identified early and educational goals to be
ual (medication plus cognitive behavioural therapy) and set. It is not recommended that residents or clinicians develop
systemic (marital) therapy (58). The individual therapy expertise in all these areas, but that they be exposed to them
may be done first, and after some improvement, marital in training so that they are at least aware of the existence of
therapy can be added. In some cases, if there is significant alternate therapies.
marital distress leading to a crisis, it may be helpful to treat The practice of psychiatry is becoming more challenging,
the depressed spouse in the context of marital therapy. A as research in pharmacology and psychotherapy evolves.
pharmacological treatment of depression can be integrated Assessing and formulating with a multiperspective approach
with marital therapy, whereby the same therapist adminis- will increase the chances of exploring all treatment options,
ters the medication and conducts the marital therapy. which is a step towards better treatment integration. This
paper is an attempt to help the clinician with this difficult yet
Summary exciting process.
The initial formulation provides a preliminary hypothesis The use of systematic case formulation has been incorpo-
of how an individual's presenting problem can be understood. rated as a regular teaching exercise for some time at one of
As more data become available, through the patient's greater the McMaster University teaching units. This has allowed
awareness and a better therapeutic alliance, the initial formu- faculty from different theoretical perspectives to come
lation is re-examined and modified accordingly. For example, together and model this multiperspective approach. Residents
if the original formulation is weak in the cognitive or psycho- have found this to be not only useful but unique, in that it
dynamic areas, additional information obtained in therapy discourages polarization and encourages integration.
may flesh out these areas and offer a new formulation that
might suggest a new focus or shift in the therapy. A Acknowledgements
self-schema or dynamic conflict may require time and an The author wishes to thank Dr. Anthony Bellissimo and Dr.
increase in the therapeutic alliance before it emerges in Stephen Allnutt for their helpful comments on the original manu-
therapy. script.
The grid guides the clinician by first suggesting a place to
begin that takes into account the patient's characteristics that References
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