U.S.

Department
of Transportation
Federal Aviation AC 91–74
Administration Date: 12/12/02

ILOT UIDE

FLIGHT IN ICING CONDITIONS

12/12/02 AC 91–74

PREFACE

This advisory circular (AC) contains information for the pilots of

airplanes operating under parts 91, 121, 125, and 135 of Title 14 of the
Code of Federal Regulations. The purpose of this AC is to provide
pilots with a convenient reference on the principal factors related to
flight in icing conditions and the location of additional information in
related publications. It has been produced in a size and format that
makes it easily added to flight manuals and checklists or carried in
flight cases. This AC does not authorize deviations from established
company procedures or regulatory requirements.

/s/ Louis C. Cusimano, for

James J. Ballough
Director, Flight Standards Service

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

1. INTRODUCTION......................................................................................5

2. TERMINOLOGY, ACRONYMS, AND ABBREVIATIONS ................3

3. ATMOSPHERIC CONDITIONS ASSOCIATED WITH ICING .........9

4. ICING EFFECTS, PROTECTION, AND DETECTION .....................17

5. FLIGHT PLANNING ..............................................................................39

6. IN-FLIGHT OPERATIONS ...................................................................47

7. ICING CONSIDERATIONS FOR THE PHASES OF FLIGHT.........51

SUMMARY ...................................................................................................63

APPENDIX A — AIRCRAFT ACCIDENTS RELATED TO ICING. A-1

(6 PAGES)
APPENDIX B — REGULATORY ISSUES RELATED TO ICING ....B-1
(8 PAGES)

APPENDIX C — ICING CHECKLISTS............................................... C-1

(9 PAGES)

APPENDIX D — RECOMMENDED READING................................. D-1

(2 PAGES)

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1. INTRODUCTION

This advisory circular (AC) contains essential information concerning

safe flight in icing conditions, what conditions should be avoided, and
information on how to avoid or exit those conditions if encountered.
The information provided is relevant to fixed-wing aircraft, including
those operating under parts 91, 121, 125, and 135 of Title 14 of the
Code of Federal Regulations (14 CFR). The general guidance provided
here in no way substitutes for aircraft type specific information in a
particular Airplane Flight Manual (AFM) or specific Pilot’s Operating
Handbook (POH).

Pilots must determine whether the aircraft to be flown is certificated

for flight in icing conditions.

If your aircraft is not certificated for flight in icing conditions, each

flight should be planned carefully so that icing conditions are avoided.
Section 3 provides information on when and where icing conditions
may occur, and Section 5 discusses flight planning. The flight should
be planned to avoid clouds or precipitation where temperatures are near
or below freezing. During flight, the pilot should monitor the
information available (see Section 6 on in-flight operations) and be
aware of conditions that might require a change of flight plan to avoid
icing conditions. In the event of an inadvertent icing encounter, the
pilot should take appropriate action to exit the conditions, coordinating
with Air Traffic Control (ATC) as necessary.

Many pilots of aircraft certificated to operate in icing conditions have

had numerous icing encounters in which the aircraft systems coped
effectively with the icing conditions — in some cases, even with a
substantial ice buildup. However, a pilot should not relax his/her
vigilance in icing conditions because of such experiences. A thin ice
accretion on critical surfaces, developing in a matter of minutes, can
sometimes have dramatic effects on stall speeds, stability, and control.
Wind tunnel testing indicates that if such accretions are particularly
rough, they can have more adverse effects than larger accretions that are
relatively smooth.

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2. TERMINOLOGY, ACRONYMS, AND ABBREVIATIONS

ADIABATIC COOLING. A process by which a parcel of air cools.

When a parcel of air is lifted, pressure is reduced due to the elevation
increase. This reduction in pressure causes the parcel of air to expand
in volume and, in turn, the parcel cools to maintain an energy balance
because no energy is added to the parcel.

AIRMAN’S METEOROLOGICAL INFORMATION (AIRMET). In-flight

weather advisories concerning weather phenomena of operational
interest to all pilots and especially to pilots of aircraft having limited
deicing/anti-icing capability because of lack of equipment,
instrumentation, or pilot qualifications. AIRMETs concern weather of
less severity than that covered by significant meteorological
information (SIGMET) or Convective SIGMET. AIRMETs may
include moderate icing.

AUTOMATED SURFACE OBSERVING SYSTEM (ASOS)/AUTOMATED

WEATHER OBSERVATION SYSTEM (AWOS). A suite of sensors
which measure, collect, and disseminate weather data to help
meteorologists, pilots, and flight dispatchers prepare and monitor
weather forecasts, plan flight routes, and provide necessary information
for correct takeoffs and landings. The basic difference between these
two automated weather systems is that the ASOS is comprised of a
standard suite of weather sensors and is a product of a National
Weather Service (NWS), Department of Defense (DoD), and Federal
Aviation Administration (FAA) joint venture. The AWOS is a suite of
weather sensors of many different configurations that are procured by
the FAA or purchased by individuals, groups, airports, etc.

AVIATION WEATHER SERVICE PROGRAM. Aviation weather service

provided by the National Weather Service (NWS) and the Federal
Aviation Administration (FAA) that collects and disseminates pertinent
weather information for pilots, aircraft operators, and ATC. Available
aviation weather reports and forecasts are displayed at NWS offices
and FAA Flight Service Stations (FSS).

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CENTER WEATHER ADVISORY (CWA). An unscheduled weather

advisory issued by Center Weather Service Unit meteorologists for use
by ATC in alerting pilots of existing or anticipated adverse weather
conditions within the next 2 hours. A CWA may modify a SIGMET.

CLEAR ICE. A glossy, clear, or translucent ice formed by the relatively

slow freezing of large supercooled water droplets. The terms “clear”
and “glaze” have been used for essentially the same type of ice
accretion, although some reserve “clear” for thinner accretions which
lack horns and conform to the airfoil.

COLD FRONT. Any nonoccluded front that moves in such a way that
colder air replaces warmer air.

CONVECTION. An atmospheric motion that is predominantly vertical,

resulting in the transport and mixing of atmospheric properties.

CUMULUS CLOUDS. Clouds in the form of detached domes or towers,

usually well defined. Cumulus clouds develop vertically in the form of
rising mounds of which the bulging upper part often resembles a
cauliflower; the sunlit parts of these clouds are mostly brilliant white.
Their bases may be relatively dark and nearly horizontal.

FREEZING DRIZZLE. Freezing drizzle consists of supercooled liquid

water drops with diameters smaller than 500 micrometers (0.5 mm) and
greater than 50 micrometers (0.05 mm).

NOTE: The upper boundary is quite widely

accepted, but the lower boundary is a source for
debate, with other values, such as 50 micrometers
or 200 micrometers, being used for the lower
boundary. When encountered by an aircraft in
flight, freezing drizzle can cause a dangerous
accretion of ice.

FREEZING RAIN. Freezing rain consists of supercooled liquid water

drops with diameters of 500 micrometers (0.5 mm) or greater, and a
typical representative diameter of 2 mm. The droplets tend to break up

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if their size exceeds approximately 6 mm. When encountered by an

aircraft in flight, freezing rain can cause a dangerous accretion of icing.

FRONT. The boundary between two air masses. A front can be

classified as cold, warm, occluded, or stationary.

HAZARDOUS WEATHER INFORMATION. Summary of SIGMETs,

Convective SIGMETs, urgent pilot weather reports, CWAs, AIRMETs,
and any other weather, such as isolated thunderstorms rapidly
developing and increasing in intensity or low ceilings and visibilities
becoming widespread, that is considered significant and is not included
in a current hazardous weather advisory.

ICING ENVELOPES. These icing envelopes, found in 14 CFR part 25,

appendix C, are used for the certification of aircraft for flight in icing
conditions. They specify atmospheric icing conditions in terms of
altitude, temperature, liquid water content (LWC), and droplet size
represented by the median volume diameter (MVD). (The envelopes
use the term mean effective diameter (MED), but this equates to the
median volume diameter for the instrumentation and assumptions
current at the time the envelopes were established.) There are two
classes of icing envelopes: continuous maximum and intermittent
maximum. The continuous maximum is for stratus-type clouds, and
the intermittent maximum is for cumulus-type clouds.

IMPINGE. The striking and adherence of a droplet on an aircraft

surface. The impingement rate is the rate at which droplets of a given
size impinge a particular surface. In general, impingement rates are
higher for larger droplets and smaller components, such as antenna.

LIGHT ICING. The rate of accumulation may create a problem if flight

is prolonged in this environment. Occasional use of deicing/anti-icing
equipment removes/prevents accumulation.

LIQUID WATER CONTENT (LWC). The total mass of water in all the
liquid cloud droplets within a unit volume of cloud. LWC is usually
discussed in terms of grams of water per cubic meter of air (g/m3).

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MEDIAN VOLUME DIAMETER (MVD). The diameter such that half the
liquid water in a region of cloud is contained in smaller drops, and half
in larger drops.

MIXED ICE. Simultaneous appearance of rime and clear ice or an ice

formation that has the characteristics of both rime and clear ice.
MODERATE ICING. The rate of accumulation is such that even short
encounters become potentially hazardous and use of deicing/anti-icing
equipment or flight diversion is necessary.
OCCLUDED FRONT. The front formed by a cold front overtaking a
warm front and lifting the warm air above the earth’s surface. An
occlusion (or frontal occlusion) forms when an air mass is trapped
between two colder air masses and is forced to higher and higher
levels.

ONE-MINUTE WEATHER. The most recent 1-minute update weather

broadcast based on ASOS/AWOS measurements and available to a
pilot from an uncontrolled airport ASOS/AWOS.

OROGRAPHIC CLOUD. A cloud that usually results from air flowing

upslope from terrain and being cooled adiabatically.

PILOT BRIEFING. A service provided by an FSS to assist pilots with

flight planning. Briefing items may include weather information,
notices to airmen (NOTAMs), military activities, flow control
information, and other items, as requested.

PILOT REPORT (PIREP). A report from a pilot of meteorological

phenomena encountered by aircraft in flight, usually transmitted in a
prescribed format. The letters “UA” identify the message as a routine
PIREP while the letters “UUA” identify an urgent PIREP.

RIME ICE. A rough, milky, opaque ice formed by the instantaneous

freezing of small, supercooled water droplets.

SEVERE ICING. The rate of accumulation is such that deicing/anti-

icing equipment fails to reduce or control the hazard. Immediate flight
diversion is necessary.

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SIGNIFICANT METEOROLOGICAL INFORMATION (SIGMET).

Information about in-flight weather of operational significance to the
safety of all aircraft. SIGMET may include severe icing. (See CWA
and AIRMET.)

STAGNATION POINT. The point on a surface where the local air

velocity is zero. The region of maximum icing collection efficiency is
in the vicinity of this point.

STATIONARY FRONT. A front that has little or no movement because

the opposing forces of the two air masses are relatively balanced.

STRATUS CLOUDS. Clouds that form layers with a fairly uniform

base. Stratus clouds can appear in ragged patches and may produce
drizzle, rain, or snow.

SUBLIMATION. A process where ice turns directly into water vapor

without passing through a liquid state.

SUPERCOOLED DRIZZLE DROP (SCDD). Drizzle drops aloft within

supercooled clouds. The term currently is not in wide use.

SUPERCOOLED LARGE DROP (SLD). A supercooled droplet with a

diameter greater than 50 micrometers (0.05 mm). SLD conditions
include freezing drizzle drops and freezing raindrops.
SUPERCOOLED LIQUID WATER (SLW). Liquid water at temperatures
below 0 °C. SLW is found in clouds, freezing drizzle, and freezing
rain in the atmosphere. This water freezes on aircraft surfaces. Most
aircraft icing occurs in supercooled clouds, which consist of SLW,
sometimes with ice crystals.
SUPPLEMENTAL WEATHER SERVICE LOCATION. An airport facility
staffed with contract personnel who take weather observations and
provide current local weather to pilots via telephone or radio.

TELEPHONE INFORMATION BRIEFING SERVICE (TIBS). A telephone

recording of meteorological and/or aeronautical information obtained
by calling an FSS.

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WARM FRONT. Any nonoccluded front that moves in such a way that
warmer air replaces colder air.

WEATHER ADVISORY. In standard aviation weather forecast

terminology, a warning of hazardous weather conditions not predicted
in the forecast area that may affect air traffic operations. These reports
are prepared by the NWS.

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3. ATMOSPHERIC CONDITIONS ASSOCIATED WITH ICING

AIRCRAFT ICING CONDITIONS.

Nearly all aircraft icing occurs in supercooled clouds. These are clouds
in which liquid droplets are present at temperatures below 0 °C (32 °F).
At temperatures close to 0 °C (32 °F), the cloud may consist entirely of
such droplets, with few or no ice particles present. At decreasing
temperatures, the probability increases that ice particles will be found
in significant numbers along with the liquid droplets. In fact, as the ice
water content increases, the liquid water content tends to decrease,
since the ice particles grow at the expense of the water particles. At
temperatures below about -20 °C (-4 °F), most clouds are made up
entirely of ice particles.

The general rule is that the more ice particles and the fewer liquid
droplets that are present, the less ice accumulation on the airframe.
This is because the ice particles tend to bounce off an aircraft surface,
while the supercooled droplets freeze and adhere. As a result, ice
accumulation is often greatest at temperatures not too far below 0 °C
(32 °F), where liquid water content can be abundant, and is usually
negligible at temperatures below about -20 °C (-4 °F).

An exception to the general rule just stated may be made for surfaces
heated by a thermal ice protection system (or by aerodynamic heating
near the stagnation point of an aircraft component at speeds in excess
of perhaps 250 knots). For such surfaces, ice particles may melt upon
impact and then run back to colder aft regions and freeze.

Aircraft sometimes accumulate little or no ice even when flying in

clouds at temperatures not far below 0 °C (32 °F). One explanation is
that although such clouds are usually composed predominantly of
liquid water droplets, they sometimes consist solely of ice particles, in
which case ice accumulation will be minimal.

The greater the liquid water content of the cloud, the more rapidly ice
accumulates on aircraft surfaces. The size of the droplets also is

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important. Larger droplets have greater inertia and are less influenced
by the airflow around the aircraft than smaller droplets. The result is
that larger droplets will impinge on more of the aircraft surface than
smaller droplets.

Every supercooled cloud contains a broad range of droplets, starting

from between 1 and 10 micrometers (millionth of a meter) and usually
not exceeding 50 micrometers (by comparison, the thickness of the
average human hair is approximately 100 micrometers). A single
droplet size must be chosen as representative, and in icing terminology
this is the median volume diameter (MVD), the diameter such that half
the liquid water is in smaller drops, and half in larger drops. An icing-
certificated aircraft is certificated for flight in stratus-type clouds with
MVDs up to 40 micrometers and for cumulus-type clouds with MVDs
up to 50 micrometers. The MVD distribution is such that aircraft that
undergo icing certification are not evaluated for operations in clouds
with a significant amount of liquid water in droplets with diameters
larger than 100 micrometers. Such conditions are sometimes
encountered, and accidents and incidents in such conditions have been
documented. These conditions are referred to as freezing drizzle aloft
in cloud or supercooled large droplets (SLD) in cloud. On pages 36-37
of this pocket guide, there is a discussion of some cues developed for
aircraft with unpowered controls and pneumatic deicing boots, mainly
relating to the location of the airframe ice, which the flightcrew can use
in attempting to determine if such droplets may be present in a cloud.

An aircraft can also encounter SLD conditions in freezing drizzle

(droplets with a diameter of 50 to 500 micrometers) or freezing rain
(droplets with a diameter of 500 micrometers and larger) below a cloud
deck. These droplets are, by definition, larger than those for which any
aircraft is certificated, and accidents and incidents have occurred
following sustained flight in freezing drizzle or freezing rain.

CLOUD TYPES AND AIRCRAFT ICING.

Air can rise because of many factors, including convection, orographic
lifting (i.e., air forced up a mountain), or lifting at a weather front. As
the air rises, it expands and cools adiabatically. If a parcel of air

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reaches its saturation point, the moisture within the parcel will
condense, and the resulting droplets form a cloud. Cloud water
droplets are generally very small, averaging 20 micrometers in
diameter, and are of such small mass that they can be held aloft by
small air currents within clouds.

If rising air is moist (water vapor plentiful) and lifting is vigorous, the
result can be clouds with substantial liquid water content and,
sometimes, large droplets. The greater the liquid water content, the
more rapid the icing; and the larger the droplets, the greater the extent
of icing. Tops of clouds often contain the most liquid water and largest
droplets, because the droplets which reach the tops have undergone the
most lifting. However, if the temperatures are cold enough at the tops
(below around -15 °C (5 °F)), ice particles will usually start to form,
which tends to deplete the liquid water.

Several types of clouds and the hazardous aircraft icing conditions that
may be associated with them are discussed below.

Stratus Clouds.
Stratus clouds, sometimes called layer clouds, form a stratified layer
that may cover a wide area. The lifting processes which form them are
usually gradual, and so they rarely have exceptionally high liquid water
contents. Icing layers in stratus clouds with a vertical thickness in
excess of 3,000 feet are rare, so a change of altitude of a few thousand
feet may take the aircraft out of icing.

Lake-effect stratus clouds are exceptional in that they may have very
high liquid water content because of the moisture available when they
form over lakes. In the continental United States, lake-effect stratus
clouds are most common in the Great Lakes region, particularly in
early winter when cold northwesterly winds blow over the unfrozen
lakes.

Drizzle-size drops occasionally occur in stratus clouds, and pilots

should always be on the lookout for cues that might indicate the
presence of these drops (see pages 36–37 for a list of cues developed
for aircraft with unpowered controls and pneumatic deicing boots).

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Cumulus Clouds.
Cumulus clouds, which often form as a result of vigorous convection,
can have high liquid water content. If they are traversed by an aircraft,
the icing can be rapid. Because they tend to be of limited horizontal
extent, it may be possible to avoid many of them. Because of the
vertical development of cumulus clouds, icing conditions can be found
in layers thousands of feet in depth, but with much less horizontal
development than in stratus clouds.

This class of clouds includes the cumulonimbus, or thunderstorm,

clouds. Updrafts in such clouds can be great and result in very large
liquid water contents. Thus a large icing threat can be added to the
other excellent reasons to stay out of such clouds. The thunderhead
anvil can spread out from the core for several miles and is composed
mainly of ice crystals. These crystals will not adhere to unheated
surfaces when they hit, but they may melt on a heated surface, run back
and refreeze. The ice content in the anvils can be high, and ingestion
of the ice crystals has resulted in uncommanded thrust reductions.

Orographic Clouds, Wave Clouds, and Cirrus Clouds.

Orographic clouds form when moist air is lifted by flowing up the side
of a mountain. As the parcel of air is lifted, it cools and forms a cloud.
Such clouds can contain a large volume of water and, in some cases,
large droplets.

Wave clouds, recognized by their “wavy” tops, can have high liquid
water contents. Continued flight along a wave may result in airframe
icing.

Cirrus clouds, found at very high, cold altitudes, are composed entirely
of ice particles. Flight through these clouds should not result in
structural icing, although the possibility exists for runback icing from
the refreezing of particles which melted on thermally or
aerodynamically heated surfaces.

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FREEZING RAIN AND FREEZING DRIZZLE.

Freezing rain forms when rain becomes supercooled by falling through
a subfreezing layer of air. Ordinarily, air temperatures decrease with
increasing altitude, but freezing rain requires a temperature inversion,
which can occur when a warmer air mass overlies a colder air mass.
This situation can occur along a warm front, where a warm air mass
overruns a cold air mass. When flying in freezing rain, normally there
is warm air (above 0 °C (32 °F)) above.

Freezing raindrops are defined as drops of diameter 500 micrometers

(0.5 mm) or larger. A typical diameter is 2 mm, and the few that grow
much larger than about 6 mm tend to break up. Using 20 micrometers
(0.02 mm) as a typical diameter for a cloud droplet, the diameters of
rain and cloud drops differ by a factor of approximately 100, and the
volume and mass differ by a factor of about 1,000,000. The size
difference is shown in Figure 1. Droplet mass affects how far aft of the
stagnation point (leading edge surfaces) droplets will strike the aircraft.
The mass of freezing rain is typically 1,000,000 times that of cloud
droplets. Because of this, freezing rain will result in ice forming in
areas far aft of where it would form in ordinary supercooled clouds.

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Typical raindrop
2 millimeters

Typical cloud droplet

0.02 millimeters

Figure 1. Droplet size comparison.

Freezing drizzle also can form through the same process. It consists of
supercooled liquid water drops which have diameters smaller than
500 micrometers (0.5 mm) and greater than 50 micrometers (0.05 mm).

However, freezing drizzle is perhaps more commonly formed by a

different process, known as the collision-coalescence process. When,
through condensation, some droplets in a cloud grow to approximately
30 micrometers in diameter, they begin to settle, falling fast enough so
that they collide with some smaller, slower droplets. If the droplets
coalesce, the result is a larger droplet, which now has an even better
chance of capturing smaller droplets. Under favorable conditions, this
process can produce drizzle-size drops in a supercooled cloud, usually
near the top, where the larger droplets generally are found in any cloud.

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Statistics vary, but some studies have reported that freezing drizzle
aloft forms more than 50 percent of the time by the collision-
coalescence process. Thus, in freezing drizzle, the pilot cannot assume
that a warm layer (above 0 °C (32 °F)) exists above the aircraft.

The diameters of representative cloud and drizzle drops differ by a

factor of about 10 and the volume and mass by a factor of about 1,000.
The greater inertia and impingement efficiency of the drizzle drops will
result in icing beyond the usual icing limits for typical cloud droplets.
When drizzle drops are found within a supercooled cloud, they can
result in accretions that cause very rapid and dangerous drag increases
for some aircraft and roll control anomalies for others. These
situations may be caused by the roughness, shape, and extent of the
accretion that forms. This is an instance of SLD icing as discussed on
pages 13–14. (See pages 36–37 for a list of cues developed for aircraft
with unpowered controls and pneumatic deicing boots.)

FRONTS.
When air masses of differing temperatures, pressures, or relative
humidities meet, a front is formed. If the front moves so that warmer
air replaces colder air, it is called a warm front; if it moves so that
colder air replaces warmer air, it is called a cold front. An occluded
front forms when an air mass is trapped between two colder air masses
and is forced to higher and higher levels. In all three cases, significant
lifting occurs, and, if sufficient moisture and subfreezing temperatures
are present, icing conditions are created.

Along a warm front, the warmer air tends to slide gradually over the
cold front, forming stratus clouds conducive to icing (see Figure 2). In
a cold front, the cold air plows under the warm air, lifting it more
rapidly and resulting in the formation of cumulus clouds with high
liquid water content if the lifted air is moist (see Figure 3). SLD in the
form of freezing rain and freezing drizzle are sometimes found in the
vicinity of fronts, as explained above.

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Figure 2. Warm front.

Figure 3. Cold front.

Because of the icing and other hazards associated with fronts, they are
best avoided, if possible. When flying through a front, the shortest
route through the front should be taken, instead of flying along the
front, to reduce the time spent in potential icing conditions.

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4. ICING EFFECTS, PROTECTION, AND DETECTION

FORMS OF ICING.
Aircraft icing in flight is usually classified as being either structural
icing or induction icing. Structural icing refers to the ice that forms on
aircraft surfaces and components, and induction icing refers to ice in
the engine’s induction system.

Structural Icing.
Ice forms on aircraft structures and surfaces when supercooled droplets
impinge on them and freeze. Small and/or narrow objects are the best
collectors of droplets and ice up most rapidly. This is why a small
protuberance within sight of the pilot can be used as an “ice evidence
probe.” It will generally be one of the first parts of the airplane on
which an appreciable amount of ice will form. An aircraft’s tailplane
will be a better collector than its wings, because the tailplane presents a
thinner surface to the airstream.

The type of ice that forms can be classified as clear, rime, or mixed,
based on the structure and appearance of the ice. The type of ice that
forms varies depending on the atmospheric and flight conditions in
which it forms.

Clear ice. A glossy, transparent ice formed by the relatively slow

freezing of supercooled water (see Figure 4). The terms “clear” and
“glaze” have been used for essentially the same type of ice accretion.
This type of ice is denser, harder, and sometimes more transparent than
rime ice. With larger accretions, clear ice may form “horns” (see
Figure 5). Temperatures close to the freezing point, large amounts of
liquid water, high aircraft velocities, and large droplets are conducive
to the formation of clear ice.

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Figure 4. Clear ice.

Figure 5. Clear ice buildup with horns.

Rime ice. A rough, milky, opaque ice formed by the instantaneous or

very rapid freezing of supercooled droplets as they strike the aircraft
(see Figure 6). The rapid freezing results in the formation of air
pockets in the ice, giving it an opaque appearance and making it porous
and brittle. For larger accretions, rime ice may form a streamlined
extension of the wing. Low temperatures, lesser amounts of liquid
water, low velocities, and small droplets favor formation of rime ice.

Figure 6. Rime ice.

Mixed ice. Mixed ice is a combination of clear and rime ice formed on
the same surface.

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It is the shape and roughness of the ice that is most important from an
aerodynamic point of view. This is discussed in the section on effects
of icing.

Induction Icing.
Ice in the induction system can reduce the amount of air available for
combustion. The most common example of reciprocating engine
induction icing is carburetor ice. Most pilots are familiar with this
phenomenon, which occurs when moist air passes through a carburetor
venturi and is cooled. As a result of this process, ice may form on the
venturi walls and throttle plate, restricting airflow to the engine. This
may occur at temperatures between 20 °F (-7 °C) and 70 °F (21 °C).
The problem is remedied by applying carburetor heat, which uses the
engine’s own exhaust as a heat source to melt the ice or prevent its
formation. Fuel-injected aircraft engines usually are less vulnerable to
icing but still can be affected if the engine’s air source becomes
blocked with ice. Manufacturers provide an alternate air source that
may be selected in case the normal system malfunctions.

In turbojet aircraft, air that is drawn into the engines creates an area of
reduced pressure at the inlet, which lowers the temperature below that
of the surrounding air. In marginal icing conditions (i.e., conditions
where icing is possible), this reduction in temperature may be sufficient
to cause ice to form on the engine inlet, disrupting the airflow into the
engine. Another hazard occurs when ice breaks off and is ingested into
a running engine, which can cause damage to fan blades, engine
compressor stall, or combustor flameout. When anti-icing systems are
used, runback water also can refreeze on unprotected surfaces of the
inlet and, if excessive, reduce airflow into the engine or distort the
airflow pattern in such a manner as to cause compressor or fan blades
to vibrate, possibly damaging the engine. Another problem in turbine
engines is the icing of engine probes used to set power levels (for
example, engine inlet temperature or engine pressure ratio (EPR)
probes), which can lead to erroneous readings of engine
instrumentation (see the description of the Air Florida B-737 accident
in Appendix A).

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Ice also may accumulate on both the engine inlet section and on the
first or second stage of the engine’s low-pressure compressor stages.
This normally is not a concern with pitot-style engine airflow inlets
(that is, straight-line-of-sight inlet design). However, on turboprop
engines that include an inlet section with sharp turns or bird-catchers,
ice can accumulate in the aerodynamic stagnation points at the bends in
the inlet duct. If ice does accumulate in these areas, it can shed into the
engine, possibly resulting in engine operational difficulties or total
power loss. Therefore, with these types of engine configurations, use
of anti-icing or deicing systems per the AFM is very important.

General Effects of Icing on Airfoils.

The two figures in this section depict important information on the
effects of ice contamination on an airfoil. (For this AC, an airfoil is a
cross-section of a wing or tailplane.) Figure 7 shows how ice often
affects the coefficient of lift for an airfoil. Note that at very low angles
of attack, there may be little or no effect of the ice on the coefficient of
lift. Thus, when cruising at a low angle of attack (AOA), ice on the
wing may have little effect on the lift. However, note that the
maximum coefficient of lift (CLmax) is significantly reduced by the ice,
and the AOA at which it occurs (the stall angle) is much lower. Thus,
when slowing down and increasing the AOA for approach, the pilot
may find that ice on the wing which had little effect on lift in cruise
now causes stall to occur at a lower AOA and higher speed. Even a
thin layer of ice at the leading edge of a wing, especially if it is rough,
can have a significant effect in increasing stall speed. For large ice
shapes, especially those with horns, the lift may also be reduced at a
lower AOA as well.

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Clean Airfoil
CL
(coefficient of lift)

Airfoil With Ice

Angle of Attack

Figure 7. Lift curve.

Figure 8 shows how ice affects the coefficient of drag of the airfoil.
Note that the effect is significant even at very small AOAs.

A significant reduction in CLmax and a reduction in the AOA where stall

occurs can result from a relatively small ice accretion. A reduction of
CLmax by 30 percent is not unusual, and a large horn ice accretion can
result in reductions of 40 percent to 50 percent. Drag tends to increase
steadily as ice accretes. An airfoil drag increase of 100 percent is not
unusual, and, for large horn ice accretions, the increase can be
200 percent or even higher.

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Airfoil With Ice

CD
(coefficient of drag)

Clean Airfoil

Angle of Attack

Figure 8. Drag curve.

Ice on an airfoil can have other effects not depicted in these curves.
Even before airfoil stall, there can be changes in the pressure over the
airfoil that may affect a control surface at the trailing edge.
Furthermore, on takeoff, approach, and landing, the wings of many
aircraft are multi-element airfoils with three or more elements. Ice may
affect the different elements in different ways and also affect the way
in which the flows over the elements interact.

Effects of Icing on Wings.

The effect of icing on a wing depends on whether the wing is protected
and the kind and extent of protection provided.

Unprotected wing.

An aircraft with a completely unprotected wing will not be certificated

for flight in icing conditions, but it may inadvertently encounter icing

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conditions. Since a cross-section of a wing is an airfoil, the remarks

above on airfoils apply to a wing with ice along its span. The ice
causes an increase in drag, which the pilot detects as a loss in airspeed.
An increase in power is required to maintain the same airspeed. (The
drag increase is also due to ice on other parts of the aircraft.) The
longer the encounter, the greater the drag increase; even with increased
power, it may not be possible to maintain airspeed. The ice on the
wing also causes a decrease in CLmax, possibly on the order of
30 percent, for an extended encounter. The rule of thumb is that the
percentage increase in stall speed is approximately half the decrease in
CLmax, so the stall speed may go up by about 15 percent. If the aircraft
has relatively limited power (as is the case with many aircraft with no
ice protection), it may soon approach stall speed and a very dangerous
situation.

Note that a similar scenario applies to aircraft which are certificated for
flight in icing conditions if the wing ice protection system fails in icing
conditions.

Deiced wing.

The FAA recommends that the deicing system be activated at the first
indication of icing. Between system activation, and after each
activation, some residual ice continues to adhere. Therefore, the wing
is never entirely “clean.” However, if the system is operated properly,
the ice buildup on the wing is limited, and the drag increase from this
buildup should be limited as well. At the AOA typical of cruise, the
intercycle or residual ice may have very little effect on lift. At the
higher AOA characteristic of approach and landing, the decrease in
CLmax will translate into an increase in stall speed. Thus the pilot
should consider continuing activation of the deicing system for a
period time after exiting the icing conditions so that the wing will be as
clean as possible and any effect on stall speed minimized. If the icing
conditions cannot be exited until late in the approach, or significant
icing appears to remain on the wing after activating the system, an
increase in the aircraft’s stall speed is a possibility and adjustment of
the approach speed may be appropriate. Consult the AFM or POH for
guidance.

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Anti-iced wing.

An anti-icing system is designed to keep a surface entirely free of ice

throughout an icing encounter. Anti-icing protection for wings is
normally provided by ducting hot bleed air from the engines into the
inner surface of the wing’s leading edge and thus is found mainly on
transport turbojets and business jets, but not on turbopropeller or piston
airplanes. Even on transport and business jets, there are often sections
along the span of the wing which are not protected. An important part
of icing certification for these planes is checking that the protected
sections are extensive enough and properly chosen so that ice on the
unprotected areas will not affect the safety of flight.

Effects of Icing on Roll Control.

This section is in effect a continuation of the previous one, since ice on
the wings forward of the ailerons can affect roll control. The ailerons
are generally close to the tip of the wing, and wings are designed so
that stall starts near the root of the wing and progresses outward. In
this way, the onset of stall does not interfere with roll control of the
ailerons. However, the tips are usually thinner than the rest of the
wing, and so they most efficiently collect ice. This can lead to a partial
stall of the wings at the tips, which can affect the ailerons and thus roll
control.

If ice accumulates in a ridge aft of the boots but forward of the

ailerons, possibly due to flight in SLD conditions, this can affect the
airflow and interfere with the proper functioning of the ailerons, even
without a partial wing stall at the tip. This is the phenomenon that the
NTSB found to be responsible for the accident of an ATR-72
turbopropeller aircraft in Roselawn, Indiana in October 1994 (see
Appendix A). Flight test investigations following the accident
suggested two ways in which the ailerons might be affected by ice in
front of them. One has been termed “aileron snatch,” in which an
imbalance of forces at the aileron is felt by the pilot of an aircraft
without powered controls as a sudden change in the aileron control
force. Provided the pilot is able to adjust for the unusual forces, the
ailerons may still be substantially effective when they are deflected.

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The other is that ailerons may be affected in a substantial degradation

in control effectiveness, although without the need for excessive
control forces.

Tailplane Icing.
Most aircraft have a nose-down pitching moment from the wings
because the center of gravity (CG) is ahead of the center of pressure. It
is the role of the tailplane to counteract this moment by providing
“downward” lift (see Figure 9). The result of this configuration is that
actions which move the wing away from stall, such as deployment of
flaps or increasing speed, may increase the negative AOA of the tail.
With ice on the tailplane, it may stall after full or partial deployment of
flaps (see Figure 10).

C of L

CG

Weight Tail Download

Figure 9. Tail down moment.

Since the tailplane is ordinarily thinner than the wing, it is a more

efficient collector of ice. On most aircraft the tailplane is not visible to
the pilot, who therefore cannot observe how well it has been cleared of
ice by any deicing system. Thus it is important that the pilot be alert to
the possibility of tailplane stall, particularly on approach and landing.
Tailplane stall is discussed in detail in Section 7.

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AC 91–74 12/12/02

CG

Icing
Aircraft nose
pitches down Weight

Figure 10. Pitchover due to tail stall.

On some transport turbojets, the tailplane has no ice protection.

However, the tailplane on these aircraft is quite thick, and so a less
efficient collector of ice. Furthermore, these aircraft are subjected to
extensive certification testing and analysis to ensure that the tailplane
will not be placed at such an extreme angle in actual operations so as to
experience a stall, even with a large ice accretion.

Propeller Icing.
Ice buildup on propeller blades reduces thrust for the same
aerodynamic reasons that wings tend to lose lift and increase drag
when ice accumulates on them. The greatest quantity of ice normally
collects on the spinner and inner radius of the propeller. Propeller
areas on which ice may accumulate and be ingested into the engine
normally are anti-iced rather than deiced to reduce the probability of
ice being shed into the engine.

Antenna Icing.
Because of their small size and shape, antennas that do not lay flush
with the aircraft’s skin tend to accumulate ice rapidly. Furthermore,

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they often are devoid of an internal anti-icing or deicing capability for

protection. During flight in icing conditions, ice accumulations on an
antenna may cause it to begin to vibrate or cause radio signals to
become distorted. Besides the distraction caused by vibration (pilots
who have experienced the vibration describe it as a “howl”), it may
cause damage to the antenna. If a frozen antenna breaks off, it can
damage other areas of the aircraft in addition to causing a
communication or navigation system failure.

Cooling Inlet Icing.

Some types of electronic equipment generate significant amounts of
heat and require independent sources of cooling, which often use
external air scoops. These cooling inlets are susceptible to icing and
may or may not be heated as part of the airplane’s icing protection
system. Pilots should check their airplane’s AFM to determine if the
cooling inlets are protected from ice.

EFFECTS OF ICING ON CRITICAL SYSTEMS.

Pitot Tube.
The pitot tube is particularly vulnerable to icing because even light
icing can block the entry hole of the pitot tube where ram air enters the
system. This will affect the airspeed indicator and is the reason most
airplanes are equipped with a pitot heating system. The pitot heater
usually consists of coiled wire heating elements wrapped around the air
entry tube. If the pitot tube becomes blocked, the airspeed indicator
would still function; however, it would be inaccurate. At altitudes
above where the pitot tube became blocked, the airspeed indicator
would display a higher-than-actual airspeed. At lower altitudes, the
airspeed indicator would display a lower-than-actual airspeed.

Static Port.
Many aircraft also have a heating system to protect the static ports to
ensure the entire pitot-static system is clear of ice. If the static port
becomes blocked, the airspeed indicator would still function; however,
it would be inaccurate. At altitudes above where the static port became

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blocked, the airspeed indicator would indicate a lower-than-actual

airspeed. At lower altitudes, the airspeed indicator would display a
higher-than-actual airspeed. The trapped air in the static system would
cause the altimeter to remain at the altitude where the blockage
occurred. The vertical speed indicator would remain at zero. On some
aircraft, an alternate static air source valve is used for emergencies. If
the alternate source is vented inside the airplane, where static pressure
is usually lower than outside static pressure, selection of the alternate
source may result in the following erroneous instrument indications:
(1) the altimeter reads higher than normal, (2) the indicated airspeed
reads greater than normal, and (3) the vertical-speed indicator
momentarily shows a climb.

Stall Warning Systems.

Stall warning systems provide essential information to pilots. A loss of
these systems can exacerbate an already hazardous situation. These
systems range from a sophisticated stall warning vane to a simple stall
warning switch. The stall-warning vane (also called an “AOA sensor”
since it is a part of the stall warning system) can be found on many
aircraft. The AOA provides flightcrews with an AOA display or feeds
AOA data to computers that interpret this information and provide stall
warning to the crew when the AOA becomes excessive. These devices
consist of a vane, which is wedgelike in shape and has freedom to
rotate about a horizontal axis, and are connected to a transducer that
converts the vane’s movements into electrical signals transmitted to the
airplane’s flight data computer. Normally, the vane is heated
electrically to prevent ice formation. The transducer is also heated to
prevent moisture from condensing on it when the vane heater is
operating. If the vane collects ice, it may send erroneous signals to
such equipment as stick shakers or stall warning devices. Aircraft that
use a stall horn may not give any indication of stall if the stall indicator
opening or switch becomes frozen. Even when an aircraft’s stall
warning system is operational, it may be ineffective because the wing
will stall at a lower angle of attack due to ice on the airfoil.

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Windshields.
Anti-icing generally is provided to enable the flightcrew to see outside
the aircraft in case icing is encountered in flight. On high-performance
aircraft that require complex windshields to protect against bird strikes
and withstand pressurization loads, the heating element often is a layer
of conductive film or thin wire strands through which electric current is
run to heat the windshield and prevent ice from forming.

Aircraft that operate at lower altitudes and lower speeds generally have
other systems of window anti-icing/deicing. One system consists of an
electrically heated plate installed onto the airplane’s windshield to give
the pilot a narrow band of clear visibility. Another system uses a bar at
the lower end of the windshield to spray deicing fluid onto it and
prevent ice from forming.

CERTIFICATION FOR FLIGHT IN ICING CONDITIONS.

An aircraft which is “certificated for flight in icing conditions” goes
through an extensive procedure intended to ensure that it can safely
operate throughout those icing conditions encompassed by the icing
envelopes specified in appendix C to 14 CFR part 25. This process
typically includes extensive analysis (done today with sophisticated
computer modeling), tunnel testing, dry-air testing, testing behind an
icing tanker, and flight in natural icing conditions. Its objective is not
only to verify that the aircraft has functioning ice protection, but also to
verify that the aircraft will have acceptable performance and handling
qualities in all the environmental conditions covered by the icing
envelopes.

What Is Covered. The icing envelopes are mainly based on various

types of stratus and cumulus supercooled clouds. The envelopes
specify maximum amounts of liquid water and drop sizes expected at
certain temperatures and altitude ranges. The envelopes were
formulated during the 1950s, based on contemporary research, and
more recent research generally is consistent with the envelopes. It has
been estimated that these envelopes encompass 99.9 percent of all
conditions encountered in research programs in stratus and cumulus
clouds.

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What Is Not Covered. First, the pilot should bear in mind that 99.9
percent is not 100 percent, and so vigilance in exceptional conditions is
always wise. Second, the cloud measurements on which the envelopes
were based generally did not include SLD conditions. Recent research
shows that SLD (in particular, freezing drizzle aloft within cloud) is
more common in supercooled clouds than had been thought. (See
pages 36–37 for some cues of SLD conditions.) Third, freezing rain or
freezing drizzle may be encountered beneath the clouds. Neither of
these icing conditions is included in the icing envelopes.
Significance of Icing Certification.
Icing certification is an extensive, painstaking, and expensive process.
It includes testing and analysis to check that aircraft can operate safely
for extended periods of time in the conditions covered by the icing
envelopes. For example, certification includes testing and analysis to
show that an aircraft can hold in significant icing conditions for up to
45 minutes. Nonetheless, pilots of certificated aircraft should not be
casual about operations in icing conditions, particularly extended
operations. It is always possible to encounter an unusual condition for
which the aircraft has not been certificated, such as liquid water
content outside the envelopes, which is sometimes indicated by a very
rapid rate of accumulation. This can result in runback and ice
accumulation aft of protected surfaces. SLD may result in droplets
impinging aft of protected surfaces and causing ice accumulation.
These surfaces may be very effective ice collectors, and ice
accumulations may persist as long as the aircraft remains in icing
conditions. Note also that icing conditions can develop very quickly
and may not be immediately recognized. For example, even though the
rate of accumulation may be quite gradual, a thin, extremely rough
accretion can develop on a critical surface in minutes. This can be very
hazardous, particularly on approach and landing.

Ice Protection Equipment on Airplanes Not Certificated for Icing.

Many aircraft are required to have ice protection for their propulsion
systems in case of an inadvertent icing encounter, and nearly all
aircraft have pitot heat. Some general aviation aircraft also have ice
protection systems on their wings and tailplane, providing an additional

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safety margin. The FAA recommends that aircraft that are not
certificated for flight in icing conditions but that are equipped with
deicing/anti-icing equipment exit those conditions as expeditiously as
possible, coordinating with ATC as necessary, just as would an aircraft
with no ice protection.

ANTI-ICING SYSTEMS.
Anti-icing systems operate on the principle that ice should not be
allowed to accumulate on the aircraft or certain aircraft systems when
flying through icing conditions. Usually, anti-icing is accomplished
using electric heat, hot air, or chemicals.

Electric Systems.
Electric systems normally are used for smaller areas such as propellers,
antennas, static ports, air temperature probes, pitot tubes, and
windshields. Some types of propellers are deiced using rubber boots
with embedded heater wires to break the adhesion of ice to the
propeller blades. Among these, sometimes the blades are heated
alternately in sections to avoid an imbalance of the propeller while
sections of ice are being removed and dislodged from the propeller by
centrifugal force. Often, on aircraft that have such systems, the skin
surrounding the airframe is reinforced with doublers to strengthen the
skin where ice is most likely to be flung from the propellers. However,
the initial imbalance caused by ice accumulation and the loud noise
created by ice shedding and hitting the airframe can be unsettling to
passengers and distracting to flightcrews.

Hot Air Systems.

Hot air systems are used for larger areas of the aircraft, such as engine
nacelles and wing leading edges. Bleed air from the engines is the
most common type of anti-icing protection for wings of transport and
business turbojets. Hot air is distributed to “piccolo tubes,” which
consist of a perforated pipe installed directly behind the airplane’s skin.
Such hot-air systems are quite effective in preventing the formation of
ice. One drawback is that tapping air from the engine reduces the
amount of available thrust, which may have a significant effect on

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AC 91–74 12/12/02

single-engine climb performance in twin turboprops and turbofans.

This may require the engine to be at a higher than normal power setting
on descent (see the particular AFM for the appropriate settings).

Chemical Systems.
Chemical systems apply a chemical agent that lowers the freezing point
of water found on aircraft surfaces and decreases the friction
coefficient of those surfaces to prevent ice from adhering to the
surfaces. Examples of such chemical agents are isopropyl alcohol and
ethylene glycol.

While an aircraft’s AFM or POH is the ultimate authority on the

operation of anti-icing systems, a good rule of thumb is to activate anti-
icing systems at the first signs of visible moisture encountered during
conditions conducive to icing. This will prevent the buildup of any
appreciable amounts of ice.

DEICING SYSTEMS.
The operating philosophy behind deicing systems differs from that of
anti-icing systems because deicing systems depend on a certain amount
of ice accumulation before they can be activated. Because ice is
permitted to accrete between cycles and because after each cycle there
is some residual ice, the wing or the tailplane is never entirely “clean.”
However, if the systems are operated properly, the intercycle ice
buildup on the airfoil should be limited, along with the accompanying
drag increases. But because other parts of the aircraft, including part of
the span of the wing, are not protected from ice, a drag increase from
those areas will still be present. This is accounted for in the icing
certification process, and the pilot can fly the aircraft safely by
following the operating procedures in the AFM or POH. Residual ice
and the ice that accumulates between deicing cycles can be expected to
have some effect on CLmax, but note that this effect is significant only at
higher AOA. At the AOA typical of cruise, this ice should have very
little effect on lift. At the higher AOA characteristic of approach and
landing, the decrease in CLmax will translate into an increase in stall
speed. Thus, the pilot should cycle the deicing system on approach

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after exiting the icing conditions so that the wing will be as clean as
possible and any effect on stall speed minimized. If the icing
conditions cannot be exited until late in the approach, or if significant
icing appears to remain on the wing after cycling the system, the pilot
should assume an increase in the aircraft’s stall speed and adjust the
approach speed accordingly. Pilots should consult the AFM or POH
for guidance.

Electroimpact System.
The electroimpact system deices a surface using pulses of energy to
produce rapid flexing movements of the airplane’s skin surface, which
break the bond of accumulated ice. The shattered ice is then carried
away by the airflow.

Pneumatic Boots.
Pneumatic boots, pictured in Figure 11, consist of rubber tubes
attached to critical aircraft surfaces, such as the leading edges of wings
and horizontal and vertical stabilizers. The tubes may be either
chordwise or spanwise. The pneumatic boots are collapsed during
normal operations, with suction provided by a vacuum pump to avoid
disruption of airflow over the wings. When the system is activated in
flight, a timer-operated valve selectively inflates all tubes or half of the
tubes intermittently to crack the ice and then allow the airflow over the
wings to blow off the broken ice.

A traditional concern in the operation of pneumatic boots has been “ice

bridging.” This is attributed to the formation of a thin layer of ice
which is sufficiently plastic to deform to the shape of an expanded
deicing boot without being fractured or shed during the ensuing tube
deflation. As the deformed ice hardens and accretes additional ice, the
boot may be ineffective in shedding the “bridge” of ice. Traditional
advice on avoiding this problem has been to wait for a layer of ice of a
predetermined thickness to form before cycling the boot. This
thickness has been variously prescribed as one quarter inch, one half
inch, and even an inch.

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Recent studies have established that there are few if any documented
cases of ice bridging on modern boot designs. Known cases are
confined to boots of designs dating back a quarter century or more.
Furthermore, it is recognized that a layer of ice a half inch thick,
especially if rough, can have a significant effect on aircraft
performance, stability, and control. As a consequence, some
manufacturers now advise that the boots be cycled as soon as icing is
encountered, rather than waiting for a prescribed thickness to accrete.
Furthermore, residual and intercycle ice are inherent in the use of any
available deicing system, including pneumatic boots. Proper operation
of the boots is necessary to minimize the effect of this ice. It is
essential that the pilot consult the AFM or POH (the POH must be
consistent with the operating limitations section of the AFM) for
guidance on proper use of the system.

All
Tubes
Deflated

All
Tubes
Inflated

Figure 11. Wing boot.

MAINTENANCE CONSIDERATIONS.
Some anti-icing and deicing systems are known to be very reliable,
while others may require a lot of maintenance to remain effective.
Pneumatic boots, for example, are known for their susceptibility to

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damage from many sources and should be inspected carefully. The

rubber used for the boots is subject to degradation from atmospheric
pollution, which results in the rubber cracking and losing some of its
elastic properties. Other problems are defects, delaminations, or tears
in the rubber caused by the impact of objects, such as foreign matter
found on airport ramps. Pilots should have maintenance personnel
evaluate any defects in the boots when they are found.

Flightcrews always should ensure their airplane’s anti-icing and

deicing equipment is in a serviceable condition. The airplane’s
Minimum Equipment List (MEL) should be consulted for details on
what is permitted to be inoperable and what equipment deficiencies
constitute a “no go” item.

ICE DETECTION.
Electronic.
Many modern aircraft come equipped with electronic ice detectors. A
common in-flight ice detector consists of a probe that vibrates at a
specific frequency. When ice begins to form on the probe, the
frequency of the probe’s vibration will change because of the increased
mass of ice on the probe, and an indicator will light in the cockpit.
These detectors are activated for a short time period, generally
1 minute, after which the probe is heated electrically to melt the
accreted ice. The process is then repeated. If the aircraft is flying in
continued icing conditions, ice will continue to form on the probe, and
the light in the cockpit will remain on.

Visual.
Strategically located protuberances also may serve as ice indicators.
There is usually some unprotected protuberance or surface visible to
the crew, such as windshield wipers, pod pylons, or landing lights that
can serve as an icing reference because they tend to build up ice first.
If there is no such protuberance visible to the crew, manufacturers may
provide one for this purpose. These ice detectors, referred to as “ice
evidence probes,” are typically in plain view of the cockpit and
normally collect ice more readily than larger components or surfaces.

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If ice begins to accumulate on such an ice detector, the flightcrew

should assume the rest of the aircraft also is accumulating ice and take
appropriate action. These detectors only serve their purpose if pilots
include them in their scan during flight in potential icing conditions.

Visual cues of SLD conditions.

If SLD is known to be present, most aircraft with unpowered controls

and pneumatic boots on their wings should request a route or altitude
change to exit the conditions. This action may be prudent for other
aircraft as well. The cues listed below were developed for aircraft with
unpowered controls and pneumatic deicing boots as indicative of SLD
conditions. Most concern the accretion of ice in areas aft of where it
would usually be found. Such “aft accretions” could sometimes be the
result of runback due to high liquid water rather than SLD. However,
excessive runback icing may have effects similar to SLD, so similar
pilot action may be appropriate. The cues are:

· Ice may become visible on the upper or lower surface of the

wing, aft of the active part of the deicing boots. Pilots should
look for irregular or jagged lines of ice or for pieces of ice
shedding off the airplane. During night operations, adequate
illumination should be used to observe all areas.

· The aft limit of ice accumulation on a propeller spinner that is

not heated will reveal ice extending beyond normal limits.

· Unheated portions of side windows may begin to accumulate

granular dispersed ice crystals or a translucent or opaque
coating over the entire window. This icing may be
accompanied by other ice patterns on the windows, such as
ridges. These patterns may occur from within a few seconds to
half a minute after exposure to SLD conditions.

· Ice coverage may become unusually extensive, with visible ice

fingers or feathers on parts of the airframe that normally would
not be covered by ice.

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· The aircraft’s performance may degrade. Pilots should remain

vigilant when icing conditions are present, and any alteration
of the aircraft’s performance should be monitored closely as a
sign of icing on the airplane.

While the pilot should be aware of these general cues, there may be
specific cues that are characteristic of SLD icing on particular aircraft
types. The pilot should consult the aircraft AFM or POH for
descriptions of any such cues.

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5. FLIGHT PLANNING

This section describes sources of flight planning information as well as

elements pilots can identify from the material made available to them
to adequately manage their in-flight icing risk.

GENERAL AVIATION RESOURCES.

The primary means available to general aviation pilots for obtaining
preflight planning information is the FSS. An FSS briefer is
available via telephone by dialing 1-800-WX-BRIEF (1-800-992-
7433). The briefer will provide weather information that may
include the location of frontal systems, available PIREPs, cloud
coverage, temperatures, and wind direction and speed.

Another source of information is the Direct User Access Terminal

(DUAT), which is an information system that enables pilots to conduct
their own weather briefings. The computer-based system acquires and
stores a number of NWS and FAA products commonly used in pilot
weather briefings and can be accessed through the World Wide Web.
Pilots also can file and amend flight plans while logged into the
system. Further information about DUAT can be obtained from any
FSS, Flight Standards District Office (FSDO), or on the Web.

AIR CARRIER DISPATCH SERVICES.

U.S. air carriers that are authorized to conduct domestic or flag
operations must have professional dispatch services that provide their
pilots with relevant weather data for each flight. Sometimes these
dispatchers rely on forecasts developed by the NWS, but some air
carriers have an expanded capability, with their own meteorologists on
staff who analyze raw data in addition to available forecasts to build a
more detailed picture of existing and predicted weather conditions,
including icing conditions.

NOTE: 14 CFR part 121 supplemental and

part 135 commuter/on-demand operations do not
require dispatchers.

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PIREPS.
PIREPs are the only direct evidence of aircraft icing in a given area.
Thus, they constitute an extremely valuable source of information for
flight planning.

The AFM lists the following essential elements for all PIREPs:
message type, location, time, flight level, type of aircraft, and at least
one weather element encountered. When not required, elements
without reported data are omitted. All altitudes are referenced to mean
sea level unless otherwise noted. Distances are in nautical miles and
time is in Coordinated Universal Time. The phenomenon is coded in
contractions and symbols. A PIREP usually is transmitted as an
individual report but can be appended to a surface aviation weather
report or placed into groups of PIREPs.

To report the intensity of icing in a PIREP, the following descriptions

should be used:

· LIGHT. The rate of ice accumulation requires occasional

cycling of manual deicing systems to minimize ice accretions
on the airframe. A representative accretion rate for reference
purposes is accumulations of up to one inch (2.5 cm) per hour
(1/2 mm in 5 minutes) on the outer wing. The pilot should
consider exiting the condition.

· MODERATE. The rate of ice accumulation requires frequent

cycling of manual deicing systems to minimize ice accretions
on the airframe. A representative accretion rate for reference
purposes is 1 to 3 inches (2.5 to 7.5 cm) per hour (1/2 mm
every 20 to 60 seconds) on the outer wing. The pilot should
consider exiting the condition as soon as possible.

· SEVERE. The rate of ice accumulation is such that ice

protection systems fail to remove the accumulation of ice and
ice accumulates in locations not normally prone to icing, such
as areas aft of protected surfaces and areas identified by the
manufacturer. Immediate exit from the condition is necessary.

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PIREP CAUTIONS.
Although PIREPs are excellent sources of information on in-flight
icing, there are situations when these reports can be misleading. Two
possibilities are discussed below.

1. An aircraft encounters icing conditions in an area where there were

no recent icing PIREPs.

There are several possible reasons for this:

a. No aircraft recently flew in the area.

b. Some aircraft recently flew in the area but did not encounter the
icing conditions. This is a common occurrence, especially if the area
has limited air traffic. Icing conditions are extremely variable in both
space and time. A slight change in altitude or flightpath or the passage
of just a few minutes can mean the difference between encountering
and not encountering icing. There are many documented cases of
aircraft flying through approximately the same area at similar altitudes
at approximately the same time with one aircraft experiencing
substantial icing and the other experiencing none.

c. An aircraft encountered icing, but the pilot did not report it.

2. An aircraft encounters icing conditions that are more serious than

those reported in any recent PIREPs in the given area.

Again, there are several possible reasons for this.

a. Icing conditions are extremely variable in space and time, as

previously noted.

b. PIREPs depend on the type and ice protection of the reporting

aircraft. If the pilot’s aircraft is smaller, has less power, or has less ice
protection than the reporting aircraft, it may experience more serious
icing than the reporting aircraft in the same exact meteorological
conditions. For example, a Boeing 747 may report light icing when
flying through conditions that would cause a Mooney to experience
severe icing.

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c. PIREPs are subjective, depending on the pilot’s observations,

how the pilot operates the ice protection on the aircraft, and the pilot’s
experience level with in-flight icing. For example, there are
documented cases of pilots reporting “light” icing conditions when ice
was accreting on an ice evidence probe at a rate of approximately an
inch a minute. Also, observation and assessment of icing is more
difficult at night.

d. Although PIREPs from similar aircraft are most relevant to the

pilot’s aircraft, direct translation to the pilot’s aircraft may still present
difficulties. In addition to pilot subjectivity, other relevant questions
are: Was the reporting aircraft flying slowly, or climbing, at a high
AOA (which is conducive to accumulation over a larger area of the
aircraft)? What kind of ice protection does the reporting aircraft have,
and is it functioning properly?

When icing conditions exist, reporting may alert other crews to

maintain vigilance. Flightcrews should ensure that when submitting a
PIREP of observed icing conditions, they accurately state the
conditions and effects of the icing observed and report them in a timely
fashion to make the PIREP as useful as possible.

ICING FORECASTS.
Icing forecasts are prepared by aviation meteorologists at the NWS
Aviation Weather Center (AWC), local FSSs, major airlines, and
private companies. In addition, guidance products are available on the
Web. Icing AIRMETs, prepared at AWC, cover a 6-hour forecast
window and are updated four times daily. Because they cover an
extended time period and may cover an area of several states, they are
necessarily somewhat broad. Consulting a local FSS or NWS for a
more specific preflight briefing will provide more detail and allow
interaction with the briefer for more specific questions.

Technologies for forecasting icing are undergoing rapid development.

PIREPs remain the major source of information for icing location and
severity. The forecaster matches the PIREP to local weather features,
assesses where those features will be moving during the forecast

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period, and estimates areas of expected icing, assigning their type and
severity in this manner. Automated methods for assessing these icing
attributes are under development and are available as experimental
products (for example, on various Web sites).

TERMINOLOGY USED IN ICING FORECASTS.

The AWC uses the same terms for icing intensity in its forecasts as
those given in the AIM for use in PIREPs. These forecasts are based
on (1) weather analysis, using both traditional tools and those
developed in recent years by the research community; and (2) PIREPs.

Since icing intensity is aircraft-dependent, a standard needs to be

adopted by the NWS for all icing forecasts. Currently, there is one
standard for AIRMET in which light or moderate icing is related to
anticipated operational effects on a reciprocating engine, straight wing
aircraft of intermediate size: nevertheless, pilots of other aircraft are
expected to familiarize themselves with AIRMETs also. However,
there is no similar standard for severe icing in SIGMETs. Therefore,
any SIGMET for severe icing must be interpreted as forecasting severe
icing for all classes of aircraft.

Icing PIREPs are valuable to forecasters for the same reasons they are
valuable to pilots. The PIREPs constitute the only direct observation
of the phenomenon that is forecast. Thus, the weather forecasters
carefully evaluate the results of their weather analysis against the
PIREPs for the forecast area and modify their forecasts if necessary.
SIGMETs for severe icing rarely are issued unless there has been a
PIREP of severe icing in the forecast area.

Icing forecasts also use the previously defined terms clear, rime, and
mixed to describe types of ice. A convention that has evolved in
forecasting practice is to associate ice type mainly with cloud drop
size, essentially ignoring other factors such as temperature, liquid water
content, drop size, and aircraft velocity. Thus, a forecast of rime icing
(RIME ICG) indicates “smaller” drop sizes, whereas a forecast of
mixed (MXD ICG) or clear (CLR ICG) indicates “larger” drop sizes,

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with the line of demarcation not firmly established. The phrase “icing
in precipitation” (ICGIP) is sometimes added to indicate freezing rain
and drizzle aloft: that is, SLD.

PREFLIGHT PLANNING INFORMATION.

All pilots, whether they are general aviation (GA) or air carrier pilots,
are responsible for obtaining as much information as possible about all
meteorological conditions, including icing conditions, before departure.
Some important meteorological facts that pilots should be aware of
with respect to icing are described below.

Location of Fronts.
Fronts play an important part in the formation of icing conditions.
Pilots should be aware of a front’s location, type, speed, and direction
of movement. Pilots should try to keep a mental picture of where the
front is moving and look for indications of frontal activity or frontal
passage, such as a wind shift or temperature change.

Cloud Layers.
While information on the types of clouds present may not be available
without direct observation, the bases and tops of clouds might be
known. This information is valuable because pilots need to know
whether they will be able to climb above the icing layers of the clouds
or descend beneath those layers into warmer air if icing is encountered.

Freezing Levels.
It is critically important for pilots to obtain the freezing levels for the
areas in which they will be flying to be able to make educated
decisions on how to exit icing conditions if they are encountered. It is
also important for pilots to know if there are any temperature
inversions aloft that might alter the normal relationship between
altitude and air temperature. Pilots should be aware of multiple
freezing levels and their locations.

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AIRMET and SIGMET.

AIRMET is information of significant weather phenomena but
describes conditions at intensities lower than those that trigger
SIGMET. AIRMET is intended for dissemination to all pilots in the
preflight and en route phase of flight. SIGMET and Convective
SIGMET advise of weather that is potentially hazardous for all aircraft,
such as severe icing. A SIGMET for severe icing applies to all aircraft,
from small GA aircraft to transport jets (see also the discussion under
“Terminology Used in Icing Forecasts”).

Air Temperature and Pressure.

Icing tends to be found in low-pressure areas and at temperatures at or
around freezing. For areas of low pressure, pilots can scan the surface
analysis charts, and for freezing levels, the winds aloft chart can be
used because the wind direction and speed grouping also provide air
temperature at that altitude.
Alternatives.
When contemplating flight into possible icing conditions in certificated
aircraft or aircraft otherwise equipped with functioning anti-ice or
deicing equipment protecting each propeller, windshield, wing,
stabilizer, or other surface and each airspeed, altimeter, rate of climb,
or flight attitude instrument system, a major consideration of preflight
planning is to have alternative courses of action if conditions are worse
than expected. These alternatives could be a change in altitude,
heading, airspeed, or an alternate airport with adequate runway length.

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6. IN-FLIGHT OPERATIONS

AVAILABLE IN-FLIGHT INFORMATION.

Flight Watch.
There are numerous sources of meteorological information available to
pilots while in flight. A principal source of this information is Flight
Watch. Flight Watch is an FSS-provided en route flight advisory
service designed to provide, upon request, timely weather information
pertinent to the type, route, and altitude of flight. The FSSs providing
this service are listed in the Airport/Facility Directory and can be
contacted on radio frequency 122.0 MHz.

Hazardous In-flight Weather Advisory Service.

The Hazardous In-flight Weather Advisory Service (HIWAS) provides
continuous, recorded hazardous in-flight weather forecasts over
selected VHF Omnidirectional Radio (VOR) outlets within the HIWAS
broadcast area. This broadcast area is a geographical zone of
responsibility, including one or more HIWAS outlet areas (defined as
the area within a 150-nautical mile radius of the HIWAS outlet)
assigned to an FSS for hazardous weather advisory broadcasting.

Transcribed Weather Broadcast.

The Transcribed Weather Broadcast (TWEB) is a continuous recording
of meteorological and aeronautical information broadcast on
low/medium frequencies and VOR facilities for pilots. The TWEB is
based on a route-of-flight concept that, among other information,
includes adverse conditions, route forecasts, outlooks, and PIREPs that
may contain useful icing-related information.

Air Carrier Dispatch.

Air carrier flightcrews normally can contact their dispatch facilities on
specified company frequencies or through their airplane’s onboard
Aircraft Communications Addressing and Reporting System (ACARS).

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Dispatch can then relay icing information, changes in front movement

or speed, or recent icing PIREPs.

PILOT STRATEGIES.
Flight into icing conditions is to be avoided if the aircraft is not
certificated for flight into such conditions or otherwise equipped in
accordance with section 91.527 (b). However, even if the aircraft can,
by regulation, operate into icing conditions, it should not be regarded
by pilots as blanket authority to fly through any weather conducive to
aircraft icing.

Icing in Stratiform Clouds.

Because the icing conditions in stratiform clouds often are confined to
a relatively thin layer, either climbing or descending may be effective
in exiting the icing conditions within the clouds. A climb may take the
aircraft into a colder section of cloud that consists exclusively of ice
particles. These generally constitute little threat of structural icing
because it is unlikely that the ice particles will adhere to unheated
surfaces. The climb also may take the aircraft out of the cloud
altogether to an altitude where the ice gradually will sublimate or shed
from the airframe depending on the conditions. A descent may take the
airplane into air with temperatures above freezing, within or below the
cloud, where the ice can melt.

Icing in Cumuliform Clouds.

Hazardous icing conditions can occur in cumulus clouds, which
sometimes have very high liquid water content. Therefore, it is not
advisable to fly through a series of such clouds, nor to execute holds
within them. However, because these clouds normally do not extend
very far horizontally, any icing encountered in such a cloud may be of
limited duration, and it may be possible to deviate around the cloud.

Snow.
Normally snow is not a hazard with respect to icing, unless it begins to
adhere to aircraft surfaces. If snow does begin to stick, it should then
be treated as an icing encounter because ice may begin to form under

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this accumulation of snow. This is a rare situation for which no

aircraft is evaluated in the icing-certification process. If it occurs, the
aircraft should exit the conditions as quickly as possible, coordinating
with ATC as necessary.

Freezing Rain and Drizzle.

Freezing rain forms when rain becomes supercooled by falling through
a subfreezing layer of air. Thus, it may be possible to exit the freezing
rain by climbing into the warm layer.
Because freezing drizzle often forms by the collision-coalescence
process, the pilot should not assume that a warm layer of air exists
above the aircraft. A pilot encountering freezing drizzle should exit the
conditions as quickly as possible either vertically or horizontally. The
three possible actions are to ascend to an altitude where the freezing
drizzle event is less intense; to descend to an area of warmer air; or to
make a level turn to emerge from the area of freezing drizzle.

Communications with ATC.

If an aircraft that is not certificated for flight in icing conditions or is
not equipped as specified in section 91.527(b) inadvertently encounters
ice, controllers will not know if the aircraft is certificated or equipped
for icing, the severity of the conditions, or what anti-icing or deicing
equipment is installed on the aircraft. Therefore, it is imperative that
ATC be thoroughly informed and a change in altitude or heading
requested as soon as possible in order to exit the icing conditions.
Communications from the pilot should focus on the icing conditions,
whether an alteration of the current course and altitude is required, and,
if necessary, an alternate landing site selected. In the congested
airspace that exists in some parts of the country, along with the
intensity of radio communications in such areas, it is possible that a
pilot who encounters icing will not receive a clearance in time to exit
the conditions before the safety of the flight is compromised. In such
cases, pilots should declare an emergency to ATC and inform the
controller of what actions are being taken by the pilot to cope with the
emergency. If an aircraft certificated for flight in icing conditions
encounters freezing rain or freezing drizzle, flightcrews should advise

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ATC and should not attempt sustained flight in these conditions. Final
authority and responsibility for the safety of a flight rests with the
pilot-in-command. Therefore, the pilot should not hesitate to reject a
controller’s instructions if, in the judgment of a reasonable pilot, those
instructions would result in an unsafe condition. To make correct
decisions, pilots should have at their disposal as much information as
possible, including the capability of the aircraft and its systems, and an
awareness of the current and evolving weather situation.

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7. ICING CONSIDERATIONS FOR THE PHASES OF FLIGHT

The following is a description of icing considerations as they apply to

the phases of flight. This section focuses primarily on how to safely
fly an aircraft certificated for flight in icing conditions, and when it is
advisable to exit those conditions. The following is only a sampling of
icing-related items to consider when planning a flight. Pilots should
consult the aircraft’s AFM or POH for approved checklists.

PREFLIGHT.
The first step in preparing for any flight is to obtain a thorough weather
briefing. This becomes especially crucial when icing conditions are
likely. When obtaining a weather briefing, make special note of the
following items:

· Freezing level. Pilots should locate freezing levels on forecast

maps. This will assist in developing a contingency plan in the
event icing is encountered.

· AIRMET and SIGMET. These advisories will alert a pilot to

areas of moderate and severe icing.

· PIREPs. PIREPs are an excellent source of information on

icing location and type.

· Precipitation. Knowing the location and type of precipitation

forecast will assist in avoiding areas conducive to icing.

Icing conditions require some additional considerations.

· When determining routes of flight, make note of airports along

the way and highlight them on the chart for easy identification
in case an alternate is needed.

· When choosing alternate airports, remember that if structural

icing occurs, higher approach speeds and, consequently, longer
runways may become necessary.

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· Consider carrying a high intensity D-cell battery flashlight for

use in locating ice accumulation on the aircraft at night or in
low visibility conditions.

· Consider using a transceiver as a backup radio in case of a

communications loss caused by an antenna icing up and
breaking off.

· If the aircraft is loaded near maximum gross weight, climb

performance will be degraded, possibly increasing time spent
in icing conditions.

· Extra fuel may be necessary because excess drag caused by ice

formation may require extra power, increasing fuel
consumption.

· When performing an aircraft preflight inspection, remove all

frost, snow, and ice from the aircraft surfaces because even
very small amounts may adversely affect the aerodynamic
properties of a wing. Placing an aircraft in a heated hangar is a
good method of removing frost, snow, and ice; however, a pilot
should ensure the aircraft is dry before removing it from the
hangar to prevent the moisture from refreezing on the surface.

Frost may appear on an aircraft even if the air temperature is well

above freezing. This can occur if the airplane is flown in temperatures
below freezing, causing the fuel to become cold-soaked. In flight or
after landing, ice and frost can form on the wing in the same fashion
that condensation forms on a cold soft drink can. Certain airplanes
may be more vulnerable to ice formation from cold-soaked fuel than
others.

Frost, snow, or ice also can be removed with freezing-point depressant

fluids. See AC 120-58, Pilot Guide for Large Aircraft Ground Deicing,
or AC 135-17, Pilot Guide — Small Aircraft Ground Deicing, for
discussion of the proper use of the fluids and protection provided under
various environmental conditions as summarized in holdover time
tables. Anti-icing fluids are designed to be shed by the time the aircraft

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reaches rotation speed; consequently, they provide no protection once

the aircraft is airborne. Caution should be exercised when choosing an
anti-icing fluid because Type II and IV fluids are not appropriate for
use on aircraft with slow rotation speeds.
Ensure there is no ice that may interfere with control surface
movement, braking, or steering. Check the pitot heat, pitot tube
opening, and stall warning system. Check for proper functioning of
any anti-icing or deicing systems.

TAXI.
Always perform a pretakeoff check of the anti-ice/deice systems in
accordance with the AFM or POH prior to takeoff. While taxiing in
snow or ice, leave extra space around your aircraft and taxi at a slower
rate. Be careful when braking to prevent the wheels from skidding.
When stopping, begin to brake earlier than normal because the aircraft
may require more distance to stop. Leave additional space in front of
the aircraft during an engine run-up; the aircraft may begin to slide on
ice. Carefully check the braking action of the aircraft to ensure that
snow or ice is not building up on any of the components of the brake
system. If the aircraft is equipped with wheel fairings, be aware that
snow may accumulate in the wheel fairings and freeze during flight.
Make sure that all controls have full range of motion, and, if
applicable, check that the carburetor heat is working. If the aircraft is
not equipped with a windshield anti-icing or deicing system, turn the
defroster on high and leave it on. This may help to prevent ice from
forming on the windshield during flight.

TAKEOFF AND CLIMBOUT.

Depending on the recommendations of the manufacturer, the POH, or
the AFM, on small aircraft and on certain light aircraft, it may be
advisable during climbout to apply the brakes and cycle the landing
gear to break loose any snow, slush, or ice that may have accumulated
during takeoff. Verify that the airspeed indicator is working properly
and that the pitot heat is on. Because of ATC restrictions and other
traffic, climbout may not always be expeditious. Airplanes are
vulnerable to ice accumulation during the initial climbout in icing

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conditions because their lower speeds often translate into a higher

AOA. This exposes the underside of the airplane and its wings to the
icing conditions and allows ice to accumulate further aft than it would
in cruise flight. Consequently, any ice that forms may be out of the
pilot’s view and go undetected.

CRUISE.
An aircraft certificated for flight in icing conditions whose ice
protection system is operating properly will be able to cruise for some
time in most icing conditions. However, if it is possible to exit the
icing conditions by a change in altitude or a minor change in flightpath,
this is certainly advisable. During any icing encounter, the behavior of
the aircraft should be carefully monitored by the pilot. The aircraft
will have some unprotected areas that will collect ice. Although ice in
such areas should not compromise the safety of flight, it may cause
enough increase in drag to require the pilot to apply more power to
maintain flight speed. Residual or intercycle ice on deiced areas can
have a similar effect. Typically, adding power is the recommended
action, since reduction in flight speed is associated with an increase in
AOA, which on many aircraft will expose larger unprotected areas on
the underside of the aircraft to the collection of ice. If for any reason
(ice protection failure, improper use of protection system in extreme
icing conditions, etc.) the point is reached where it is no longer
possible to maintain airspeed through addition of power, the pilot
should exit icing conditions immediately. On an aircraft equipped with
in-flight deicing systems, there will at all times be residual or some
stage of intercycle ice on the wings.

Airspeed in cruise can have a significant effect on the nature of an

icing encounter. An aircraft that cruises at a fast airspeed will increase
the rate of ice accumulation. However, if the airspeed is sufficiently
fast, the “ram air” heat may begin to increase skin temperatures
sufficiently to melt some of the ice and prevent accumulation in those
areas. Generally, only very high-performance aircraft can attain such
speeds. During the flight, periodically verify that all anti-icing and/or
deicing systems are working. During the en route portion of the flight,
have an exit plan that is regularly reevaluated as necessary.

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Even if the encounter is short and the icing not heavy, the pilot should
exercise particular awareness of the behavior of the airplane.
Configuration changes following cruise in icing conditions, such as
spoiler/flap deployment, should be made with care. This is because ice
on the aircraft which had little effect in cruise may have a much
different and potentially more hazardous effect in other configurations.
Remember that for normal cruise configurations and speeds, both the
wing and tailplane are ordinarily at moderate AOA, making wing or
tailplane stall unlikely. After configuration changes and in
maneuvering flight, wings or tailplane (especially after flap
deployment) may be at more extreme AOA, and even residual or
intercycle ice may cause stall to occur at a less extreme angle than on a
clean aircraft.

Care should be exercised when using an autopilot in icing conditions,

whether in cruise or other phases of flight. When the autopilot is
engaged, it can mask changes in handling characteristics due to
aerodynamic effects of icing that would be detected by the pilot if the
airplane were being hand flown. In an aircraft that relies on
aerodynamic balance for trim, the autopilot may mask control
anomalies that would otherwise be detected at an early stage. If the
aircraft has non-boosted controls, a situation may develop in which
autopilot servo-control power is exceeded, the autopilot disconnects
abruptly, and the pilot is suddenly confronted by an unexpected control
deflection. Pilots may consider periodically disengaging the autopilot
and hand flying the airplane when operating in icing conditions. If this
is not desirable because of cockpit workload levels, pilots should
monitor the autopilot closely for abnormal trim, trim rate, or airplane
attitude.

DESCENT.
Pilots should try to stay on top of a cloud layer as long as possible
before descending into the clouds. This may not be possible for an
aircraft that uses bleed air for anti-icing systems because an increase in
thrust may be required to provide sufficient bleed air. This increased
thrust may reduce the descent rate of high-performance aircraft whose
high-lift attributes already make descents lengthy without the use of

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aerodynamic speed brakes or other such devices. The result may be a

gradual descent, extending the aircraft’s exposure to icing conditions.

If configuration changes are made during this phase of flight, they

should be made with care in icing conditions, noting the behavior of
the airplane. See the discussion in the preceding section.

HOLDING.
During holding, an airplane may be more vulnerable to ice
accumulation because of the slower speeds and lower altitudes during
this phase of flight.

Caution concerning the use of the autopilot, as described above, is also

applicable to holding during or after flight in icing conditions.

If configuration changes (such as deployment of flaps) are made before

or during the hold and after or during flight in icing conditions, the
pilot should be prepared for any unusual behavior of the airplane
during or after the change. If the aircraft reacts adversely to a change
of configuration, the pilot should return the aircraft to its original
configuration. See the discussion above.

APPROACH AND LANDING.

During or after flight in icing conditions, when configuring the airplane
for landing, the pilot should be alert for sudden aircraft movements.
Often ice is picked up in cruise, when the aircraft’s wing and the
tailplane are likely at a moderate AOA, making a relatively ice-tolerant
configuration. If effects in cruise are minor, the pilot may feel
comfortable that the aircraft can handle the ice it has acquired.
Extension of landing gear may create excessive amounts of drag when
coupled with ice. Flaps and slats should be deployed in stages,
carefully noting the aircraft’s behavior at each stage. If anomalies
occur, it is best not to increase the amount of flaps or slats and perhaps
even to retract them depending on how much the aircraft is deviating
from normal performance. Additionally, before beginning the
approach, deicing boots should be cycled because they may increase
stall speed and it is preferable not to use these systems while landing.

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Once on the runway, pilots also should be prepared for possible loss of
directional control caused by ice buildup on landing gear.

Another concern during approach and landing may be forward

visibility. Windshield anti-icing and deicing systems can be
overwhelmed by some icing encounters or may malfunction. Pilots
have been known to look out side windows or, on small GA aircraft,
attempt to remove ice accumulations with some type of tool (plotter,
credit card). Pilot workload can be heavy during the approach and
landing phase. Autopilots help to reduce this load. The advantages of
a reduced workload must be balanced against the risks associated with
using an autopilot during or after flight in icing conditions. An
unexpected autopilot disconnect because of icing is especially
hazardous in this phase of flight due to the airplane being flown at a
low altitude.

Accident statistics reveal that the majority of icing-related accidents

occur in the final phases of flight. Contributing factors are
configuration changes, low altitude, higher flightcrew workload, and
reduced power settings. Loss of control of the airplane is often a
factor. The ice contamination may lead to wing stall, ice-contaminated
tailplane stall (ICTS), or roll upset. Wing stall and roll upset may
occur in all phases of flight. However, available statistics indicate that
ICTS rarely occurs until approach and landing. If an airplane has
accumulated ice on the wings and tailplane, it may be best to perform a
no-flap landing at a higher than normal approach speed. However,
because of the higher approach speed, longer runways may be needed
for this procedure.

Wing Stall.
The wing, when contaminated with ice, will ordinarily stall at a lower
AOA, and thus at a higher airspeed. Even small amounts of ice,
particularly if rough, may have some effect. An increase in approach
speeds may be advisable if any ice remains on the wings. How much
of an increase depends both on the aircraft type and the amount of ice.
The pilot should consult the AFM or POH.

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An increased landing speed will mean a longer landing roll, so if

possible, the pilot may want to consider a longer runway for increased
rollout distances.

This discussion of ice-contaminated wing stall is considerably shorter

than the discussion of ICTS that follows. This is not because the latter
is more frequent. Statistics indicate that incidents or accidents due to
ice-contaminated wing stall are the more common result of flight in
icing conditions. However, pilots have extensive training in
recognizing and coping with wing stalls, but little or no training for
tailplane stalls, which are very unusual on most designs when the
tailplane is clean. It is also important to recognize that although pilots
have extensive training in recognizing and coping with stalls of clean
wings, the stall of an ice-contaminated wing will often be markedly
different and may call for aggressive pitch down inputs quite unlike
those used in the case of a clean wing stall. The stall characteristics of
an aircraft with ice-contaminated wings may be markedly degraded,
and serious roll control problems are not unusual.

As explained in the section “Effects of Structural Icing,” the accretion

may be asymmetric between the two wings; therefore, the outer part of
a wing, which is ordinarily thinner and thus a better collector of ice,
may stall first rather than last. The effectiveness of ailerons may be
reduced due to ice formations in front of them on the wing.

Ice-Contaminated Tailplane Stall (ICTS).

The basic aerodynamics of ICTS were described briefly in the section
“Effects of Structural Icing.” ICTS occurs when a tailplane with
accumulated ice is placed at a sufficiently negative AOA and stalls.

This angle would not be expected to be reached without at least partial

deployment of the flaps. There are few, if any, known incidents of
ICTS in cruise (when flaps would not ordinarily be deployed).
However, when the flaps are deployed, tailplane ice which previously
had little effect other than a minor contribution to drag now can put the
tailplane at or dangerously close to stall.

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As the pilot prepares for the deployment of flaps after or during flight
in icing, he/she should carefully assess the behavior of the aircraft for
any buffet or other signs of wing stall. The initial deployment of the
flaps should be only partial. Vibration or buffeting that follow
deployment are much more likely to be due to incipient tailplane stall
than wing stall if there was no vibration buffet before deployment. The
reason is that after deploying the flaps, the wing will be at a less
positive angle, and so farther from stall, while the tailplane will be at a
more negative angle, and so closer to stall.

There are a number of specific cues associated with ICTS to which a

pilot should be sensitive, particularly during this phase of flight. Most
of these cues are less readily detected with the autopilot engaged.

· Elevator control pulsing, oscillations, or vibrations

· Abnormal nose-down trim change

· Any other unusual or abnormal pitch anomalies (possibly

resulting in pilot-induced oscillations)

· Reduction or loss of elevator effectiveness

· Sudden change in elevator force (control would move nose

down if unrestrained)

· Sudden uncommanded nose-down pitch

The pilot should observe the following guidelines for action if these
cues are encountered:

· Flaps tend to alter the airflow reaching the tailplane and should
be retracted immediately to the previous setting, and the
appropriate nose-up elevator pressure should be applied.

· Airspeed should be increased appropriately for the reduced

flap extension setting.

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AC 91–74 12/12/02

· Sufficient power should be applied for the airplane’s

configuration and conditions. (High engine power settings
may adversely affect the response to ICTS conditions at high
airspeed in some aircraft designs. Manufacturer’s
recommendations in the AFM or POH should be observed
regarding power settings.)

· Nose-down pitch changes should be made slowly, even in

gusting conditions, if circumstances allow.

· If a pneumatic deicing system is used, the system should be

cycled several times to clear the tailplane of ice.

Note that some of the measures for recovery from ICTS are the
opposite of those for recovery from wing stall. Thus distinguishing
between the two is very important. If for any reason there is a large or
rough ice accretion on both the wing and tailplane (perhaps because of
ice protection system failure), approach and landing must be managed
with great care. Deployment of flaps permits the aircraft to be flown
with wings at a less positive attack, decreasing the probability of wing
stall. However, the AOA at the tailplane is more negative, putting it
closer to stall. Similarly, at any particular flap setting, lower speeds
put the aircraft closer to wing stall and higher speeds put it closer to
tailplane stall. Thus there is a restricted operating window with respect
to use of the flaps and to airspeed. The pilot should be familiar with
any guidance provided in the AFM or POH.

Increased power increases susceptibility to ICTS in some designs

(depending on configuration), but not in others. Again, the pilot should
consult the AFM or POH.

When ICTS or wing stall is a possibility, uncoordinated flight such as

side or forward slips should be avoided and, to the extent possible,
crosswind landings should be restricted because of their adverse effect
on pitch control and the possibility of reduced directional control.
Landing with a tailwind component may result in more abrupt
nose-down control inputs and should be avoided if possible.

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If an airplane has ice on the wings and tail, the pilot may be wise to
exercise limited or no deployment of flaps, which will likely result in a
higher than normal approach speed. Because of the higher speed
approach, longer runways may be needed for this procedure.

Roll Upsets.
Roll upsets caused by ice accumulations forward of the ailerons also
are possible during an icing encounter, particularly in SLD conditions.
During the slow speeds associated with approach and landing, such
control anomalies can become increasingly problematic. Pilots can
remedy roll upsets using the following guidelines:

· Reduce the AOA by increasing airspeed or extending wing

flaps to the first setting if at or below VFE (maximum flap
extension speed). If in a turn, the wings should be rolled level.

· Set the appropriate power, and monitor the airspeed and AOA.

· If the flaps are extended, do not retract them unless it can be

determined that the upper surface of the airfoil is clear of ice.
Retracting the flaps will increase the AOA at a given airspeed.

· Verify that the wing ice protection is functioning normally and

symmetrically through visual observation of each wing. If
there is a malfunction, follow the manufacturer’s instructions.

Note that these procedures are similar to those for wing stall recovery,
and in some respects opposite from those for recovery from the ICTS.
Application of the incorrect procedure during an event can seriously
compound the upset. Correct identification and application of the
proper procedure is imperative. It is extremely important that the pilot
maintain awareness of all possibilities during or following flight in
icing.

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SUMMARY

Ice-contaminated aircraft have been involved in many accidents.

Takeoff accidents have usually been due to failure to deice or anti-ice
critical surfaces properly on the ground. Proper deicing and anti-icing
procedures are addressed in two other pilot guides, AC 120-58 and
AC 135-17. This Pilot Guide focuses on ice that forms in flight, and
should be useful to all pilots of fixed-wing aircraft. This guidance
should help educate pilots about the potential hazards of in-flight icing,
ways to avoid such hazards, and how to cope with potential hazards
effectively.

The pilot of an aircraft which is not certificated or equipped for flight

in icing conditions should avoid all icing conditions. This guide
provides guidance on how to do this, and on how to exit icing
conditions promptly and safely should they be inadvertently
encountered.

The pilot of an aircraft which is certificated for flight in icing

conditions can safely operate in the conditions for which the aircraft
was evaluated during the certification process but should never become
complacent about icing. Even short encounters with small amounts of
rough icing can be very hazardous. The pilot should be familiar with
all information in the AFM or POH concerning flight in icing
conditions and follow it carefully. Of particular importance are proper
operation of ice protection systems and any airspeed minimums to be
observed during or after flight in icing conditions. There are some
icing conditions for which no aircraft is evaluated in the certification
process, such as SLD conditions within or below clouds, and sustained
flight in these conditions can be very hazardous. The pilot should be
familiar with any information in the AFM or POH relating to these
conditions, including aircraft-specific cues for recognizing these
hazardous conditions within clouds.

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Appendix A

APPENDIX A — AIRCRAFT ACCIDENTS RELATED TO ICING

AMERICAN EAGLE ATR–72 (ROSELAWN, INDIANA).

Of the recent air carrier accidents, the one with arguably the most
significant implications regarding in-flight icing is the October 31,
1994, crash of an ATR–72 turbopropeller transport aircraft. The
aircraft was on a flight from Indianapolis, Indiana, to Chicago’s
O’Hare International Airport, flying with the autopilot engaged and in
a holding pattern, descending to 8,000 feet through supercooled clouds
and SLD. Later analysis by the NTSB estimated that the supercooled
drops in the area ranged between 0.1 mm and 2 mm in size.

Before the aircraft entered the hold, its engine RPM was increased to
86 percent as called for in the ATR–72’s AFM for flight in icing
conditions (specified as true air temperature (TAT) of less than 7 °C in
the presence of visible moisture). As the aircraft began holding, the
flaps were extended to 15 degrees to lower the aircraft’s AOA, and the
engine RPM was reduced to 77 percent, presumably because the crew
determined they were no longer flying in icing conditions. After
holding for over half an hour, the aircraft was cleared to descend to
8,000 feet, and the crew retracted the flaps to avoid a flap overspeed
warning.

According to the NTSB, the encounter with the icing conditions in the
hold resulted in a ridge of ice accreting aft of the aircraft’s wing
deicing boots and in front of the aircraft’s unpowered ailerons. As the
aircraft descended to its cleared altitude, its AOA increased and the
airflow began to separate in the area of the right aileron. This resulted
in a sudden and unexpected aileron hinge reversal that exceeded the
autopilot’s ability to control the aircraft, and it disconnected. This left
the flightcrew in a full right-wing-down position within a quarter of a
second, which was followed by a series of unsuccessful attempts to
correct the aircraft’s attitude, resulting in a descent that at times
reached 24,000 feet per minute and precipitated the structural failure of
the aircraft’s elevators. The aircraft then impacted a soybean field at
high speed resulting in the deaths of all 68 passengers and crew.

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AC 91–74 12/12/02
Appendix A

The NTSB’s investigation resulted in several findings, but ultimately,

the most important regarding the effects of icing conditions on aircraft
was the degree to which the conditions affected a properly certificated
aircraft and the limited information available to the flightcrew with
respect to the severity of the conditions they were experiencing.

AIR FLORIDA B–737 (WASHINGTON, DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA).

Although this accident is well known because it illustrates the dangers
of taking off without proper ground deicing, for the purposes of this
AC, the accident offers another lesson with respect to icing and its
hazards. On January 13, 1982, almost an hour after the B-737 had been
deiced, it took off from Washington’s National Airport in
light-to-moderate snowfall with temperatures below freezing. In
addition to snow and ice forming on the aircraft fuselage during the
extended taxi, ice had collected in the compressor inlet pressure probes
of the two engines, apparently because the flightcrew neglected to turn
on the engine anti-icing system. These inlets are used in conjunction
with exhaust pressure to determine engine thrust settings for display in
the cockpit as an Exhaust Pressure Ratio (EPR). As one of its
functions, the engine’s anti-icing system is designed to maintain a flow
of heated air over the compressor inlet to prevent the formation of ice
on these probes.

As the flightcrew increased the engine throttles to takeoff thrust, the

engines actually were developing less thrust than was indicated on the
EPR gauges. This thrust deficit, combined with the accumulation of
snow and ice on the wings, resulted in a stall immediately after
rotation, with the aircraft climbing only to 200 or 300 feet before
stalling and colliding with the 14th Street bridge.

While this accident, like almost all others, was caused by a combination
of factors, it serves as an example to pilots that icing hazards affect not
only aircraft aerodynamics but also aircraft instrumentation. In fact,
studies conducted after the accident indicated that an immediate
combined application of full power and lowered aircraft attitude
theoretically could have allowed a safe recovery in a situation similar to
this accident.
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Appendix A

NORTHWEST ORIENT B–727 (THIELLS, NEW YORK).

Because this accident was a ferry flight and only the flightcrew of three
was killed, it has not gained the notoriety of other airline crashes.
However, it is significant to the subject matter of this AC because it is
an example of how a well-trained, professional flightcrew neglected to
use the anti-icing equipment available on a modern aircraft and then
became confused and disoriented by the anomalous instrument
indications that resulted.

On December 1, 1974, the aircraft in question was slated to conduct a

nighttime ferry flight from New York’s John F. Kennedy International
Airport to Buffalo, New York, to position for a return charter flight.
After a normal takeoff, the aircraft was climbing to its assigned altitude
of 31,000 feet when ATC received a series of radio transmissions from
the flightcrew in which they declared an emergency and stated that
they were out of control and in a stall. The aircraft descended rapidly,
broke up in flight, and crashed in a forest near Bear Mountain,
New York.

NTSB investigators examining the aircraft wreckage the next morning

discovered that the two pitot head heater switches were in the “off”
position. An analysis of the aircraft flight data recorder and cockpit
voice recorder (CVR) revealed that the before-takeoff checklist was
followed incorrectly by the first officer, resulting in the pitot heat being
turned off instead of on as required by the checklist.

Investigators determined that as the aircraft was climbing through

16,000 feet at 305 knots and at a climb rate of 2,500 feet per minute,
airspeed and vertical speed indicators began to climb, without any
change to the engine power settings, to a point that actually exceeded
the aircraft’s capability. This created confusion among the flightcrew,
but the CVR revealed that they attributed the aircraft’s performance to
the aircraft’s light load. As the aircraft reached 23,000 feet, the Mach
overspeed warning came on and the crew continued to pull on their
yokes to trade speed for altitude. This resulted in an excessive AOA
followed by a stall. The flightcrew became disoriented and confused
by the series of alarms and contradictory indications, resulting in a

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AC 91–74 12/12/02
Appendix A

spiral dive from which they could not recover. The encounter with
icing conditions was further exacerbated because the B–727 has
tail-mounted pitot tubes for the elevator feel system that also were
blocked with ice. The feel system modulates the amount of force the
pilots have to exert on the elevator controls with changes in speed.
Because the pitot tubes were covered with ice, smaller movements of
the controls resulted in higher control movements and eventually
higher vertical acceleration forces on the aircraft.

While the loss of a pitot static system is something that all

instrument-rated pilots are trained to cope with, the insidious nature of
such system malfunctions can result in confusion because the
instruments often provide erroneous readings without necessarily
indicating a system failure. Pilots must remain vigilant for such
unusual indications from their instruments and instead rely on attitude
flying.

MITSUBISHI MU–2B–36 (MALAD CITY, IDAHO).

A Mitsubishi MU–2 departed Salt Lake City, Utah, on
January 15, 1996, and climbed to 16,000 feet on a part 91 IFR flight to
Pocatello, Idaho. While in cruise flight, the airplane encountered
structural icing conditions. According to radar data, the MU–2 began
slowing from a cruise speed of about 190 knots with slight deviations
from heading and altitude. The airspeed decreased to about 100 knots
and the flightcrew declared an unspecified emergency; then radio
contact was lost. The airplane began a right turn, then entered a steep
descent and crashed. All aboard the airplane were killed as a result of
the impact. The pilot of a Beech 1900 about 12 minutes in trail of the
MU–2 stated that he encountered moderate rime ice at 16,000 feet.
The Beech pilot activated the pneumatic boots 3 times and descended
to 12,000 feet to exit the icing conditions. The MU–2 AFM warned
that during flight in icing conditions, stall warning devices may not be
accurate and should not be relied on, and, to minimize ice
accumulation, pilots should maintain a minimum cruise speed of
180 knots or exit the icing conditions. An investigation determined
that the captain of the MU–2 was aware of deficiencies in the timer for

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Appendix A

the pneumatic boots, along with other maintenance deficiencies.

Although icing conditions were forecast in the destination area, no
icing was forecast for the en route portion of the flight.

The NTSB determined that the probable cause of the accident was
continued flight by the flightcrew into icing conditions with known
faulty pneumatic equipment, structural (airframe) ice, and failure of the
flightcrew to maintain adequate airspeed, which resulted in the loss of
aircraft control and collision with terrain. The en route icing condition,
which was not forecast, was also cited as a factor relating to the
accident.

PIPER PA–34–200T (DES MOINES, IOWA).

The pilot of this flight, which took place on January 9, 1996, said that
upon crossing the runway threshold and lowering 25 degrees of flaps,
“the airplane pitched down.” The pilot “immediately released the flaps
and added power, but the airplane was basically uncontrollable at this
point.” The pilot reduced power and lowered the flaps before striking
the runway on its centerline and sliding 1,000 feet before coming to a
stop. The accident resulted in serious injury to the pilot, the sole
occupant.

Examination of the wreckage revealed heavy impact damage to the

airplane’s forward fuselage, engines, and wings. Approximately
one-half inch of rime ice was observed adhering to the leading edges of
the left and right horizontal stabilizers and along the leading edge of
the vertical stabilizer.

The NTSB determined the probable cause of the accident was the
pilot’s failure to use the airplane’s deicing system, which resulted in an
accumulation of empennage ice and a tailplane stall. Factors relating
to this accident were the icing conditions and the pilot’s intentional
flight into those known conditions.

A–5 (and A-6)

12/12/02 AC 91–74
Appendix B

APPENDIX B — REGULATORY ISSUES RELATED TO ICING

Parts 91, 121, and 135 specify the responsibilities of flightcrews
concerning flight in icing conditions. Pilots are advised to check the
current regulations for revisions. They are noted here for reference
only and to illustrate the degree of similarity between parts 91, 121,
125, and 135 with respect to regulation of flight into icing conditions.
An important distinction in each of these regulations is the restriction
on flight into “known or forecast” conditions. Because of the
limitations of icing forecasts, it is admittedly difficult for pilots to be
certain whether the conditions in which they are flying actually will
result in an icing encounter, and it is even more difficult to determine
the severity of the possible encounter. Pilots can get caught
inadvertently in icing conditions that exceed these legal limits.
General operating and flight rules for GA aircraft are found in part 91,
but not all rules within part 91 are applicable to all GA aircraft.
Section 91.501 states that the rules in subpart F apply only to large and
turbojet-powered multiengine airplanes that are not covered by
parts 121, 125, 129, 135, and 137. Section 91.527, Operating in icing
conditions, falls within subpart F and thus is not applicable to all GA
aircraft.

1. Part 91 Icing Regulations.

a. IFR. No pilot may fly an airplane under IFR into known or

forecast moderate icing conditions unless one or more of the following
apply:

(1) The aircraft has ice protection provisions that meet the
requirements in section 34 of Special Federal Aviation Regulation
(SFAR) No. 23.

(2) The aircraft has ice protection provisions that meet the
requirements for transport category airplane type certification.

(3) The aircraft has functioning deicing or anti-icing

equipment protecting each propeller, windshield, wing, stabilizing
B–1
AC 91–74 12/12/02
Appendix B

surface, control surface, airspeed instrument, altimeter, rate of climb

instrument, and flight attitude instrument system.

b. VFR. No pilot may fly an airplane under VFR into known light
or moderate icing conditions unless one or more of the following
apply:

(1) The aircraft has ice protection provisions that meet the
requirements in section 34 of SFAR 23.

(2) The aircraft has ice protection provisions that meet the
requirements for transport category airplane type certification.

(3) The aircraft has functioning deicing or anti-icing

equipment protecting each propeller, windshield, wing, stabilizing
surface, control surface, airspeed instrument, altimeter, rate of climb
instrument, and flight attitude instrument system.

c. Severe Icing. No pilot may fly an airplane into known or

forecast severe icing conditions unless:

(1) The airplane has ice protection provisions that meet the
requirements in section 34 of SFAR 23.

(2) The airplane has ice protection provisions that meet the
requirements for transport category airplane type certification.

NOTE: See section 91.527, Operating in icing

conditions, regarding the above regulations.

d. Aircraft Not Certificated for Flight in Icing Conditions.

(1) Aircraft certificated since the mid-1970s that are not

certificated for flight in icing conditions will have a limitation in the
AFM or POH and possibly a placard on the aircraft stating that flight
into known icing conditions is prohibited. Such limitations are binding

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Appendix B

under section 91.9, Civil aircraft flight manual, marking, and placard
requirements.

(2) Aircraft certificated prior to the mid-1970s that are not

certificated for flight in icing conditions may not have any prohibitions
stated in the AFM or POH. If not, they are not covered by either
section 91.527 or section 91.9. However, given that information on the
dangers of aircraft icing has been widely disseminated for many years,
certain actions, such as taking off with wings coated with ice, could be
interpreted as prohibited under section 91.13, Careless or reckless
operation.
2. Part 121 Icing Regulations (see section 121.341, Equipment for
operations in icing conditions).

a. Icing Conditions. No person may fly an airplane in icing

conditions unless one or more of the following apply:

(1) The aircraft has functioning deicing or anti-icing

equipment protecting each propeller, windshield, wing, stabilizing
surface, control surface, airspeed instrument, altimeter, rate of climb
instrument, and flight attitude instrument system.

(2) The aircraft is type certificated under the transport

category airworthiness requirements relating to ice protection.

(3) The aircraft is a non-transport category airplane type

certificated after December 31, 1964, which meets the provisions
detailed below.

b. Non-Transport Category Airplanes Type Certificated After

December 31, 1964.

(1) IFR. No pilot may fly a non-transport category airplane

under IFR type certificated after December 31, 1964, into known or
forecast light or moderate icing conditions unless one or more of the
following apply:

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AC 91–74 12/12/02
Appendix B

(a) The aircraft has ice protection provisions that meet

section 34 of appendix A to part 135.

(b) The aircraft has ice protection provisions that meet the
requirements for transport category airplane type certification.

(c) The aircraft has functioning deicing or anti-icing

equipment protecting each propeller, windshield, wing, stabilizing
surface, control surface, airspeed instrument, altimeter, rate of climb
instrument, and flight attitude instrument system.

(2) VFR. No pilot may fly a non-transport category airplane

under VFR type certificated after December 31, 1964, into known light
or moderate icing conditions unless one or more of the following
apply:

(a) The aircraft has ice protection provisions that meet

section 34 of appendix A to part 135.

(b) The aircraft has ice protection provisions that meet the
requirements for transport category airplane type certification.

(c) The aircraft has functioning deicing or anti-icing

equipment protecting each propeller, windshield, wing, stabilizing
surface, control surface, airspeed instrument, altimeter, rate of climb
instrument, and flight attitude instrument system.

(3) Severe Icing. No pilot may fly a non-transport category

airplane type certificated after December 31, 1964, into known or
forecast severe icing conditions unless one or more of the following
apply:
(a) The aircraft has ice protection provisions that meet
section 34 of appendix A to part 135.

(b) The aircraft has ice protection provisions that meet the
requirements for transport category airplane type certification.

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Appendix B

c. Nighttime Icing Conditions. No person may operate an

airplane in icing conditions at night unless:
(1) Means are provided for illuminating or otherwise
determining the formation of ice on safety-critical parts of the wings.

(2) Any illumination used is of a type that will not cause glare
or reflection that would handicap crewmembers in the performance of
their duties.

3. Part 125 Icing Regulations (see section 125.221, Icing

conditions: Operating limitations).

a. Frost, Ice, and Snow Accumulation. No pilot may take off an

airplane that has frost, ice, or snow adhering to any propeller,
windshield, wing, stabilizing surface, control surface, powerplant
installation, airspeed instrument, altimeter, rate of climb instrument, or
flight attitude instrument system unless:

(1) Frost adhering to the wings, stabilizing surfaces, or control

surfaces has been polished to make it smooth.

(2) The Administrator has authorized takeoffs with frost under

the wing in the area of the fuel tanks.

b. Anticipated Frost, Ice, or Snow Accumulation. When

conditions are such that frost, ice, or snow may reasonably be expected
to adhere to the airplane, no certificate holder may authorize an
airplane to take off, nor may any pilot take off, unless the pilot has
completed the testing required under section 125.287(a)(9) and one or
more of the following apply:

(1) A pretakeoff contamination check established by the

certificate holder and approved by the Administrator for the specific
airplane type has been completed within 5 minutes prior to beginning
takeoff. A pretakeoff contamination check is a check to make sure the
wings and control surfaces are free of frost, ice, or snow.

B–5
AC 91–74 12/12/02
Appendix B

(2) The certificate holder has an approved alternative

procedure under which the airplane is determined to be free of frost,
ice, or snow.

(3) The takeoff complies with the certificate holder’s

approved deicing/anti-icing program (which must comply with
section 121.629(c)).

c. IFR. No pilot may fly an airplane under IFR into known or

forecast light or moderate icing conditions unless one or more of the
following apply:

(1) The aircraft has ice protection provisions that meet

appendix C of part 125.

(2) The aircraft has ice protection provisions that meet the
requirements for transport category airplane type certification.

(3) The aircraft has functioning deicing or anti-icing

equipment protecting each propeller, windshield, wing, stabilizing
surface, control surface, airspeed instrument, altimeter, rate of climb
instrument, and flight attitude instrument system.

d. VFR. No pilot may fly an airplane under VFR into known light
or moderate icing conditions unless one or more of the following
apply:
(1) The aircraft has ice protection provisions that meet
appendix C of part 125.

(2) The aircraft has ice protection provisions that meet the
requirements for transport category airplane type certification.

(3) The aircraft has functioning deicing or anti-icing

equipment protecting each propeller, windshield, wing, stabilizing
surface, control surface, airspeed instrument, altimeter, rate of climb
instrument, and flight attitude instrument system.

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Appendix B

e. Severe Icing. No pilot may operate into known or forecast

severe icing conditions unless one or more of the following apply:

(1) The aircraft has ice protection provisions that meet

appendix C of part 125.

(2) The aircraft has ice protection provisions that meet the
requirements for transport category airplane type certification.

4. Part 135 Icing Regulations (see section 135.227, Icing

conditions: Operating limitations).

a. IFR. No pilot may fly an airplane under IFR into known or

forecast light or moderate icing conditions unless one or more of the
following apply:

(1) The aircraft has ice protection provisions that meet

section 34 of appendix A to part 135.

(2) The aircraft has ice protection provisions that meet the
requirements for transport category airplane type certification.

(3) The aircraft has functioning deicing or anti-icing

equipment protecting each propeller, windshield, wing, stabilizing
surface, control surface, airspeed instrument, altimeter, rate of climb
instrument, and flight attitude instrument system.

b. VFR. No pilot may fly under VFR into known light or

moderate icing conditions unless one or more of the following apply:

(1) The aircraft has ice protection provisions that meet

section 34 of appendix A to part 135.

(2) The aircraft has ice protection provisions that meet the
requirements for transport category airplane type certification.

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AC 91–74 12/12/02
Appendix B

(3) The aircraft has functioning deicing or anti-icing

equipment protecting each propeller, windshield, wing, stabilizing
surface, control surface, airspeed instrument, altimeter, rate of climb
instrument, and flight attitude instrument system.

c. Severe Icing. No pilot may operate into known or forecast

severe icing conditions unless one or more of the following apply:

(1) The aircraft has ice protection provisions that meet

section 34 of appendix A to part 135.

(2) The aircraft has ice protection provisions that meet the
requirements for transport category airplane type certification.

d. Helicopters.

(1) IFR. No pilot may fly a helicopter under IFR into known
or forecast icing conditions unless it has been type certificated and
appropriately equipped to operate in icing conditions.

(2) VFR. No pilot may fly a helicopter under VFR into

known icing conditions unless it has been type certificated and
appropriately equipped to operate in icing conditions.

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12/12/02 AC 91–74
Appendix C

APPENDIX C — ICING CHECKLISTS

The following checklists contain icing-specific items that should be

considered before operating in possible icing conditions. The
checklists are intended to supplement pilot information. These
checklists should not replace or supersede AFM or POH.

PISTON AIRCRAFT NOT CERTIFICATED OR EQUIPPED FOR FLIGHT IN

ICING CONDITIONS.
Preflight.
· Always obtain a thorough preflight weather briefing. Evaluate
cloud types, bases, and tops; types of precipitation; freezing
levels; and pilot reports.

· Pack additional items in your flight bag such as a large

flashlight, spare fresh batteries, and transceiver.

· During preflight planning, identify alternate airports along the

route of flight to be used if unscheduled weather is
encountered. If possible, choose airports with long runways.

· Always know how to escape icing conditions (either climb or

descend into warmer areas, make a 180-degree turn, etc.).

· During the preflight inspection, clean all ice, frost, and snow
off the aircraft.

· Check that pitot heat is operable.

· Check pitot/static openings, fuel drains, and stall warning

sensors to ensure they are not clogged with ice.

· Clear any accumulated ice or snow from brakes and wheel

fairings.

· Check controls externally for ice/snow binding.

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AC 91–74 12/12/02
Appendix C

Taxi/Takeoff/In-Flight.
· Use brakes carefully during taxi to prevent skidding.

· Ensure that carburetor heat or alternate air is working.

· Check controls for full range of motion.

· After takeoff, if recommended by the manufacturer, cycle

landing gear to clear snow or slush from wheel wells.

· During flight, monitor engine RPM. A drop in RPM or

manifold pressure may indicate induction icing. Apply
carburetor heat or alternate air if required.

· If ice is encountered in-flight, exit the conditions immediately.

· Use visual cues to identify ice formation. If ice forms on the

wing, there is a possibility the tail may be accumulating ice as
well.

· Stay alert for any performance or handling degradation that

may be an indicator of ice accumulation.

· Remember that recovery procedures from an ice-induced

tailplane stall are opposite from those for an ice-induced wing
stall.

· If using an autopilot, when workload permits, periodically

disengage and manually fly the aircraft to identify possible
handling changes caused by ice.

Approach and Landing.

· Be prepared for unexpected attitude changes when changing
the airplane’s configuration. If the aircraft’s performance
characteristics change suddenly, return to the previous
configuration.

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Appendix C

· If landing with an accumulation of ice on the tailplane, perform

a no-flap landing at a higher approach speed. Use a longer
runway if available.

· After touchdown, use brakes sparingly to prevent skidding.

PISTON AIRCRAFT CERTIFICATED OR EQUIPPED FOR FLIGHT IN

ICING CONDITIONS.
Preflight.
· Always obtain a thorough preflight weather briefing. Evaluate
cloud types, bases, and tops; types of precipitation; freezing
levels; and pilot reports.

· Pack additional items in your flight bag such as a large

flashlight, spare fresh batteries, and transceiver.

· During preflight planning, identify alternate airports along the

route of flight to be used if unscheduled weather is
encountered. Choose airports with longer runways.

· Always know how to escape icing conditions (either climb or

descend to warmer areas, make a 180 degree turn, etc.).

· During the preflight inspection, clean all ice, frost, and snow
off of the aircraft.

· Check that pitot heat and static heat are operable.

· Check pitot/static openings, fuel drains, and stall warning

sensors to ensure they are not clogged with ice.

· Cycle deicing and anti-icing systems to check for proper

operation.

· Clear any accumulated ice or snow from brakes and wheel

fairings.

· Check controls externally for ice/snow binding.

C–3
AC 91–74 12/12/02
Appendix C

Taxi/Takeoff/In-Flight.
· Use brakes carefully during taxi to prevent skidding.

· Ensure that carburetor heat or alternate air is working.

· Check controls for full range of motion.

· After takeoff, if recommended by the manufacturer, cycle

landing gear to clear snow or slush from wheel wells.

· During flight, monitor engine RPM. A drop in RPM or

manifold pressure may indicate induction ice. Apply
carburetor heat or alternate air if required.

· Refer to the AFM or POH for proper operation of anti-icing

and deicing systems. However, a rule of thumb is that they
should be activated at the first sign of visible moisture with air
temperatures around freezing.

· Use visual cues to identify ice formation and regularly check

for ice accumulation behind protected areas on the aircraft. If
ice forms on the wing, there is a possibility that the tail may be
accumulating ice as well.

· Stay alert for any performance or handling degradation that

may be an indicator of ice accumulation.

· Remember that recovery procedures from an ice-induced

tailplane stall are opposite from those for an ice-induced wing
stall.

· If using an autopilot, if workload permits, periodically

disengage and manually fly the aircraft to identify handling
changes caused by airframe icing.

C–4
12/12/02 AC 91–74
Appendix C

Approach and Landing.

· Be prepared for unexpected attitude changes when changing
the airplane’s configuration. If the aircraft begins to roll or
pitch unexpectedly, return to the previous configuration.

· If landing with an accumulation of ice, use a higher approach

speed. Use a longer runway if available.

· After touchdown, use brakes sparingly to prevent skidding.

TURBO-PROPELLER AIRCRAFT.
Preflight.
NOTE: For more complex aircraft flying with
professional flightcrews, pilots always should refer
to the AFM or POH and company guidance
materials for flight in icing conditions.

· For ground deicing operations, refer to company manuals,

AC 135-17, and AC 120-58 for guidance.

· Always obtain a thorough preflight weather briefing. Look for

cloud types, bases, and tops; types of precipitation; freezing
levels; and pilot reports.

· During the preflight inspection, clean all ice, frost, and snow
off of the aircraft.

· Check that pitot heat and static heat are operable.

· Check pitot/static openings, fuel drains, and stall warning

sensors to ensure they are not clogged with ice.

· Cycle anti-icing and deicing systems to check for proper

operation.

· Clear any accumulated ice or snow from brakes and wheel

fairings.

C–5
AC 91–74 12/12/02
Appendix C

Taxi/Takeoff/In-Flight.
· Use brakes carefully during taxi to prevent skidding.

· Check controls for full range of motion.

· After takeoff, if recommended by the manufacturer, cycle

landing gear to clear snow or slush from wheel wells.

· Refer to the AFM or POH for proper operation of anti-icing

and deicing systems. However, a rule of thumb is that they
should be activated at the first sign of visible moisture with air
temperatures around freezing.

· Power settings with bleed air on should be set according to the

POH or AFM reference section.

· Use visual cues to identify ice formation and regularly check

for ice accumulation behind protected areas on the aircraft.

· Stay alert for ice formations on wings that may cause control
problems.

· If there is a need to use wing deicing systems, there is a

possibility that the tail may be accumulating ice as well.

· Remember that recovery procedures from an ice-induced

tailplane stall are opposite from those for an ice-induced wing
stall.

· If using an autopilot, if workload permits, periodically

disengage and manually fly the aircraft to identify handling
changes caused by ice. Some pilots have been known to rest
their leg against the airplane’s trim wheel to monitor the
amount of trim being put in by the autopilot.

· Use airspeed bug to monitor changes to airspeed.

C–6
12/12/02 AC 91–74
Appendix C

Approach and Landing.

· Be prepared for unexpected attitude changes when changing
the airplane’s configuration. If the performance characteristics
change suddenly, return to the previous configuration.

· If landing with an accumulation of ice, use a higher approach

speed. Use a longer runway if available.

· Cycle boots just before final approach.

· After touchdown, use brakes sparingly to prevent skidding.

TURBOJET AIRCRAFT.
Preflight.
NOTE: For more complex aircraft flown by
professional flightcrews, pilots should always refer
to the AFM or POH and company guidance
materials as the authority for procedures for flight
into icing conditions. Icing will pose a greater
hazard to turbojet airplanes before takeoff because
these aircraft can fly around or quickly pass
through areas where icing conditions are
encountered in-flight. Therefore, particular
attention should be paid to ground deicing.

· For ground deicing operations, refer to company procedures,

AC 135-17, and AC 120-58 for guidance.

· Ensure that deicing fluids are not sprayed into engines,

auxiliary power units, pitot inlets, probe openings, or static
ports.

· Do not spray heated fluids onto cold windows.

· Deicing fluid fumes are toxic. If the aircraft is being sprayed

with passengers on board, close all outside vents.

C–7
AC 91–74 12/12/02
Appendix C

· Always obtain a thorough preflight weather briefing. Look for

cloud types, bases, and tops; types of precipitation; freezing
levels; and pilot reports.

· During the preflight inspection, ensure that all ice, frost, and
snow is off the aircraft.

· Ensure that heated flight information warning sensors, AOA,

pitot/static, etc., are operating properly.

· Check pitot/static openings, fuel drains, and stall warning

sensors to ensure they are not clogged with ice.

· Cycle anti-icing and deicing systems to check for proper

operation.

· Clear any accumulated ice or snow from brakes and wheel

fairings.

Taxi/Takeoff/In-Flight.
· Ensure that controls have full range of motion.

· Refer to the AFM or POH for proper operation of anti-icing

and deicing systems. A rule of thumb is that they should be
activated at the first sign of visible moisture with air
temperatures around freezing.

· Power settings with bleed air on should be set according to the

POH or AFM reference section.

· Use visual cues to identify ice formation and regularly check

for ice accumulation behind protected areas on the aircraft.

· Stay alert for ice formations in front of control surfaces that

may cause control problems.

C–8
12/12/02 AC 91–74
Appendix C

· If there is a need to use wing deicing systems, there is a

possibility that the empennage may be accumulating ice as
well.

· Remember that recovery procedures from an ice-induced

tailplane stall are opposite from those for an ice-induced wing
stall.

· If using an autopilot, if workload permits, periodically

disengage and manually fly the aircraft to identify handling
changes caused by ice. This is especially important if operated
in slow flight or in a holding pattern.

Approach and Landing.

· Be prepared for unexpected attitude changes when changing
the airplane’s configuration. If the aircraft’s performance
characteristics change suddenly, return to the previous
configuration.

· Cycle boots before final approach, if equipped.

· In accordance with the POH or AFM, use a higher approach

speed into the landing when carrying an accumulation of ice.
Use a longer runway if available.

· After touchdown, use brakes sparingly in case of ice buildup in

brakes.

C–9 (and C-10)

12/12/02 AC 91–74
Appendix D

APPENDIX D — RECOMMENDED READING

This AC was developed as an easy-to-read resource on flight in icing
conditions. As of the date of publication, this AC contains the most
current information available. The suggested reading list that follows
may not have been updated recently but may contain other useful and
valid information. For more detailed information, pilots are referred to
the following U.S. Government publications:
1. Aeronautical Information Manual
2. AC 00–6A, Aviation Weather For Pilots and Flight
Operations Personnel
3. AC 00–45E, Aviation Weather Services

4. AC 20–29B, Use of Aircraft Fuel Anti-icing Additives

5. AC 20–73, Aircraft Ice Protection

6. AC 20–113, Pilot Precautions and Procedures to be taken

in Preventing Aircraft Reciprocating Engine Induction
System and Fuel System Icing Problems

7. AC 20-117, Hazards Following Ground Deicing and

Ground Operations in Conditions Conducive to Aircraft
Icing

8. AC 23.143-1, Ice Contaminated Tailplane Stall (ICTS)

9. AC 23.1419–2A, Certification of Part 23 Airplanes for

Flight in Icing Conditions

10. AC 91-51A, Effect of Icing on Aircraft Control and

Airplane Deice and Anti-Ice Systems

11. AC 135–9, FAR Part 135 Icing Limitations

12. NTSB Aircraft Accident Report AAR-96-01, In-flight

Icing Encounter and Loss of Control Simmons Airlines,
d.b.a. American Eagle Flight 4184 Avions de Transport
D–1
AC 91–74 12/12/02
Appendix D

Regional (ATR) Model 72–212, N401AM Roselawn,

Indiana; October 31, 1994

13. P–8740–24, Tips on Winter Flying — FAA Accident

Prevention Program Publication

14. P–8740–53, Introduction to Pilot Judgment — FAA

Accident Prevention Program Publication

For related reading materials, pilots are referred to the following

publications:

1. Buck, Robert N., Weather Flying, McGraw-Hill,

Fourth Edition; 1998.

2. De Remer, Dale, Aircraft Systems for Pilots, Jeppesen

Sanderson, Inc., 1996.

3. Flight Safety Digest, Protection Against Icing:

A Comprehensive Overview, June-Sept. 1997, Flight
Safety Foundation, 1997.

4. Hurt Jr., H.H., Aerodynamics for Naval Aviators, U.S.

Navy, 1991.

5. Job, Macarthur, Air Disaster (Volume I), Aerospace

Publications Pty Ltd., 1994.

6. Job, Macarthur, Air Disaster (Volume II), Aerospace

Publications Pty Ltd., 1996.

7. MaChado, Rod, Instrument Pilot’s Survival Manual, The

Aviation Speakers Bureau, 1997.

8. Newton, Dennis, Severe Weather Flying, McGraw-Hill,

1983.

9. Wild, Thomas W., Transport Category Aircraft Systems,

Jeppesen Sanderson, Inc., 1990.

D–2