Basics of

Networking
Network

• Interconnection of two or more devices is called as a network.

• The communication between two or more interconnected devices is called

networking.

• An internetwork is a connection of two or more networks.

• Internetworking means communication between different networks.

Types of Networks

• LAN
Local Area Networks are used to connect networking devices that are in a
very close geographic area such as a floor of a building, a building itself or
within a campus.
• MAN
Metropolitan Area Network are used to connect networking devices that
may span around the entire city.
• WAN
Wide Area Networks which connects two or more LANs present at different
geographical locations.
LAN

Banjara Hills

HUB LAN
MAN

Banjara Hills Ameerpet

LAN LAN
HUB SWITCH

MAN
WAN

www.cms.com
Hyderabad vijayawada

WAN

Router Router
HUB SWITCH

LAN LAN
Basic requirements to form a network

• NIC (Network interface card) also called as LAN card

• Media

• Networking devices (Hub, Switch, Router, etc.)

• Protocols

• Logical Address (IP address)

NIC(Network Interface Card)

• NIC is the interface between the computer and the network

• It is also known as the Lan card or Ethernet card

• Ethernet cards have a unique 48 bit address called as MAC (Media access
control) address
– MAC address is also called as Physical address or hardware address

– The 48 bit MAC address is represented as 12 Hexa-decimal digits

– Example: 0 0 1 6 . D 3 F C . 6 0 3 F

• Network cards are available in different speeds

– Ethernet (10 Mbps)

– Fast Ethernet (100 Mbps)

– Gigabit Ethernet (1000 Mbps)

Media

• The purpose of the media is to transport bits from one machine to another.

Media

Guided Unguided

Co-axial Twisted pair Fiber Infrared RF

UTP STP
Media

Co-axial cable

UTP Cable

Fiber optic
Networking devices

The various types of networking devices are:

• Repeater
• Hub
• Bridge
• Switch
• Router
Hub / Repeater

• It is not an Intelligent Device.

• It works with bits.

• Uses broadcast for communication.

• Bandwidth is shared.

• Half-duplex communication.
Functions of HUB

HUB Data

Data
Functions of HUB

Data

HUB Data

Data
Switch

• It is an Intelligent device.

• It maintains MAC address table (hardware address).

• Each port of the switch has fixed bandwidth.

• It works with Flooding and Unicast.

• Supports full duplex communication

Functions of a Switch

• MAC Address Learning

• Forwarding
Functions of Switch

1
2 8
3 7
4 5 6
 Functions of Switch

MAC ADDRESS TABLE

Source MAC
001C.C01A.0002
PORT MAC-ADDRESS
1 Data
DATA
Destination MAC 8 1
2
001C.C01A.0004
3 7
4 5 6 2 001C-C01A-0002

Source MAC 3
001C.C01A.0002
S Data
Destination MAC
DATA 4
001C.C01A.0004 5
001C-C01A-0002

6
D
7
001C-C01A-0004
8
 Functions of Switch

MAC ADDRESS TABLE

PORT MAC-ADDRESS
1
2 8 Fa0/1
3 7
4 5 6 Fa0/2 001C-C01A-0002
Fa0/3
D Fa0/4 001C-C01A-0004
001C-C01A-0002 Fa0/5
Fa0/6
S Data
Fa0/7
001C-C01A-0004
Fa0/8
Difference between Bridge and Switch

Bridge Switch

• Bridges are software based • Switches are hardware

based
• Bridges have less number • Switches have more ports
of ports
• Generally used for • Generally used for
connecting two different connecting single topology
topology (Segment) (Segment)
Router

• It is an Intelligent device

• It works with Logical Addressing (i.e. IP, IPX, AppleTalk)

• It works with Fixed bandwidth

Interconnecting Network Devices

PC HUB Bridge Switch Router

PC Cross Cable Straight Cross Cable Straight Cross Cable

HUB Straight Cross Cable Straight Cross Straight

Bridge Cross Cable Straight Cross Cable Straight Cross Cable

Switch Straight Cross Straight Cross Cable Straight

Router Cross Cable Straight Cross Cable Straight Cross Cable

Topology

Topology is a physical layout of the systems connected in a network.

Different types of topology are:

• Bus

• Ring

• Mesh

• Star
Bus Topology

• In bus topology all devices are connected to a single cable or backbone.

• It supports half duplex communication.

• A break at any point along the backbone will result in total network failure.
Ring Topology

• In ring topology each computer or device is connected to its neighbor

forming a loop.
• Failure of a single device or a break anywhere in the cable causes the full
network to stop communicating
Mesh Topology

• In mesh topology each device is directly connected to all other devices

• The disadvantage is the number of NIC’s required on each device and the
complex cabling.
Star Topology

• The most commonly used topology

• It consist of one centralized device which can be either a switch or a hub.
• The devices connect to the various ports on the centralized devices.

HUB/Switch
IP Address

• IP Address is a Logical Address

• It is a Network Layer address (Layer 3)

• Two Versions of IP:

• IP version 4 is a 32 bit address

• IP version 6 is a 128 bit address

IP version 4

• Bit is represent by 0 or 1 (i.e. Binary)

• IP address in binary form (32 bits):

01010101000001011011111100000001
• 32 bits are divided into 4 Octets:

First Octet Second Octet Third Octet Forth Octet

01010101. 00000101. 10111111. 00000001

• IP address in decimal form:
85.5.191.1
IPv4 address range

Taking Example for First Octet :

Total 8 bits, Value will be 0’s and 1’s
i.e. 2⁸ = 256 combination
27 2 6 25 24 23 22 21 20
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 = 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 = 1 Total IP Address Range
0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 = 2 0.0.0.0
0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 = 3 to
0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 = 4 255.255.255.255

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 = 255
IP Address Classification

• IP Addresses are divided into 5 Classes

• CLASS A

• CLASS B Used in LAN & WAN

• CLASS C

• CLASS D Reserved for Multicasting

• CLASS E Reserved for Research & Development

Priority Bit

• Priority Bit is used for IP Address classification.

• Most significant bit(s) from the first octet are selected for Priority Bit(s).

• Class A priority bit is 0

• Class B priority bits are 10

• Class C priority bits are 110

• Class D priority bits are 1110

• Class E priority bits are 1111

Class A Range

• In Class A : First bit of the first octet is reserved as priority bit, bit value is
zero.
• 0xxxxxxx. xxxxxxxx. xxxxxxxx. xxxxxxxx
27 2 6 25 24 23 22 21 20
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 = 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 = 1
Class A Range
0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 = 2
0 . 0 . 0 . 0 to
0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 = 3
127.255.255.255
0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 = 4
Exception
0.X.X.X and 127.X.X.X networks
0 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 = 127 are reserved
Class B Range

• In Class B : First two bits of the first octet are reserved as priority bits, bit
value as 10.
• 10xxxxxx. xxxxxxxx. xxxxxxxx. Xxxxxxxx
27 2 6 25 24 23 22 21 20
1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 = 128
1 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 = 129
1 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 = 130
1 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 = 131
1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 = 132 Class B Range
128 . 0 . 0 . 0 to
1 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 = 191 191 . 255 . 255 .255
Class C Range

• In Class C : First three bits of the first octet are reserved as priority bits, bit
value as 110.
• 110xxxxx. xxxxxxxx. xxxxxxxx. Xxxxxxxx
27 2 6 25 24 23 22 21 20
1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 = 192
1 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 = 193
1 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 = 194
1 1 0 0 0 0 1 1 = 195
1 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 = 196 Class C Range
192 . 0 . 0 . 0 to
1 1 0 1 1 1 1 1 = 223 223 . 255 . 255 .255
Class D Range

• In Class D : First four bits of the first octet are reserved as priority bits, bit
value as 1110.
• 1110xxxx. xxxxxxxx. xxxxxxxx. Xxxxxxxx
27 2 6 25 24 23 22 21 20
1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 = 224
1 1 1 0 0 0 0 1 = 225
1 1 1 0 0 0 1 0 = 226
1 1 1 0 0 0 1 1 = 227
1 1 1 0 0 1 0 0 = 228 Class D Range
224 . 0 . 0 . 0 to
1 1 1 0 1 1 1 1 = 239 239 . 255 . 255 .255
Class E Range

• In Class E : First four bits of the first octet are reserved as priority bits, bit
value as 1111.
• 1111xxxx. xxxxxxxx. xxxxxxxx. Xxxxxxxx
27 2 6 25 24 23 22 21 20
1 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 = 240
1 1 1 1 0 0 0 1 = 241
1 1 1 1 0 0 1 0 = 242
1 1 1 1 0 0 1 1 = 243
1 1 1 1 0 1 0 0 = 244 Class E Range
240 . 0 . 0 . 0 to
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 = 255 255 . 255 . 255 .255
Octet Format

• IP address is divided into Network & Host Portion

CLASS A is written as N.H.H.H

CLASS B is written as N.N.H.H

CLASS C is written as N.N.N.H

CLASS A – No. Networks & Hosts

• Class A Octet Format is N . H . H . H

Network bits : 8 Host bits : 24
• No. of Networks
= 2no of network bits– Priority bit
= 28-1 (-1 is Priority Bit for Class A)
= 27
= 128 – 2 (-2 is for 0 & 127 Network)
= 126 Networks

• No. of Host
= 2no of host bits -2
= 224 – 2 (-2 is for Network ID & Broadcast ID)
= 16777216 - 2
= 16777214 Hosts/Network
CLASS B – No. Networks & Hosts

• Class B Octet Format is N . N . H . H

Network bits : 16 Host bits : 16
• No. of Networks
= 2no of network bits– Priority bit
= 216-2 (-2 is Priority Bit for Class B)
= 214
= 16384 Networks

• No. of Host
= 2no of host bits -2
= 216 – 2 (-2 is for Network ID & Broadcast ID)
= 65536 - 2
= 65534 Hosts/Network
CLASS C – No. Networks & Hosts

• Class C Octet Format is N . N . N . H

Network bits : 24 Host bits : 8
• No. of Networks
= 2no of network bits– Priority bit
= 224-3 (-3 is Priority Bit for Class C)
= 221
= 2097152 Networks

• No. of Host
= 2no of host bits -2
= 28 – 2 (-2 is for Network ID & Broadcast ID)
= 256 - 2
= 254 Hosts/Network
Network & Broadcast Address

• Network address: IP address with all bits as ZERO in the host portion.

• Broadcast address: IP address with all bits as ONES in the host portion.

• Valid IP Addresses lie between the Network Address and the Broadcast
Address.

• Only Valid IP Addresses are assigned to hosts/clients

Example - Class A

• Class A : N.H.H.H
Network Address :
0xxxxxxx.00000000.00000000.00000000
Broadcast Address :
0 x x x x x x xClass
. 1 1A1 1 1 1 1 1 . 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 . 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
10.0.0.0 Network Address
10.0.0.1
10.0.0.2
10.0.0.3
Valid IP Addresses

10.255.255.254
10.255.255.255 Broadcast Address
Example - Class B

• Class B : N.N.H.H
Network Address :
10xxxxxx.xxxxxxxx.00000000.00000000
Broadcast Address :
1 0 x x x x x Class
x . x xBx x x x x x . 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 . 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
172.16.0.0 Network Address
172.16.0.1
172.16.0.2
172.16.0.3 Valid IP Addresses

172.16.255.254
172.16.255.255 Broadcast Address
Example - Class C

• Class C : N.N.N.H
Network Address :
110xxxxx.xxxxxxxx.xxxxxxxx.00000000
Broadcast Class
AddressC :
1 1 0 x x x x 192.168.1.0
x . x x x x x x x x . x x x x x x x x . 1 1Network
1 1 1 1 1Address
1
192.168.1.1
192.168.1.2
192.168.1.3
Valid IP Addresses

192.168.1.254
192.168.1.255 Broadcast Address
Private IP Address

• There are certain addresses in each class of IP address that are reserved for
Private Networks. These addresses are called private addresses.
• These addresses are not Routable (or) valid on Internet.

Class A
10.0.0.0 to 10.255.255.255
Class B
172.16.0.0 to 172.31.255.255
Class C
192.168.0.0 to 192.168.255.255
Subnet Mask

• Subnet Mask differentiates the Network and Host portions of an IP address

• Represented with all 1’s in the network portion and with all 0’s in the host
portion.
Subnet Mask - Examples

• Class A : N.H.H.H
11111111.00000000.00000000.00000000
Default Subnet Mask for Class A is 255.0.0.0

• Class B : N.N.H.H
11111111.11111111.00000000.00000000
Default Subnet Mask for Class B is 255.255.0.0

• Class C : N.N.N.H
11111111.11111111.11111111.00000000
Default Subnet Mask for Class C is 255.255.255.0
How Subnet Mask Works ?

IP Address : 192.168.1.1
Subnet Mask : 255.255.255.0
ANDING PROCESS :
192.168.1.1 = 11000000.10101000.00000001.00000001
255.255.255.0 = 11111111.11111111.11111111.00000000
==================================================
192.168.1.0 = 11000000.10101000.00000001.00000000
==================================================

The output of an AND table is 1 if both its inputs are 1.

For all other possible inputs the output is 0.

Subnetting

• Creating Multiple independent Networks from a Single Network.

• Converting Host bits into Network Bits
i.e. Converting 0’s into 1’s
• Subnetting can be performed in two ways.
– FLSM (Fixed Length Subnet Mask)
– VLSM (Variable Length subnet mask)
• Subnetting can be done based on requirement .
– Number of Networks required?
– Number of Hosts required?
Scenario for subnetting

• CMS Technologies is having 100 PCs

• Which IP address Class is preferred for the network ?

Answer : Class C.

• In CMS Technologies there are 2 Departments with 50 PCs each

CMS Technologies – 192.168.1.0/24

– MCSE 192.168.1.1 to 192.168.1.50

– CISCO 192.168.1.51 to 192.168.1.100

Scenario for subnetting

HUB

LAN
Scenario for subnetting

192.168.1.10

192.168.1.20 192.168.1.60

192.168.1.30 192.168.1.70
HUB

192.168.1.40 LAN 192.168.1.80

192.168.1.50 192.168.1.90

192.168.1.100
Scenario (…continued)

• Administrator’s Requirement :
Inter-department communication should not be possible ?
Solution.
Allocate a different Network to each Department
i.e.

– MCSE 192.168.1.1 to 192.168.1.50

– CISCO 192.168.2.1 to 192.168.2.50

Scenario for subnetting

HUB

LAN
Scenario for subnetting

192.168.1.1

192.168.1.2 192.168.2.1

192.168.1.3 192.168.2.2
HUB

192.168.1.4 LAN 192.168.2.3

192.168.1.50 192.168.2.4

192.168.2.50
Main Aim of Subnetting

• Problem with the previous Scenario is :-

• Wastage of IP addresses if it is public(Approximately 400)

Power table

POWER TABLE

21 = 2 29 = 512 217 = 131072 225 = 33554432

22 = 4 210 = 1024 218 = 262144 226 = 67108864

23 = 8 211 = 2048 219 = 524288 227 = 134217728

24 = 16 212 = 4096 220 = 1048576 228 = 268435456

25 = 32 213 = 8192 221 = 2097152 229 = 536870912

26 = 64 214 = 16384 222 = 4194304 230 = 1073741824

27 = 128 215 = 32768 223 = 8388608 231 = 2147483648

28 = 256 216 = 65536 224 = 16777216 232 = 4294967296

Some Important Values

VALUES IN SUBNET MASK

Bit Value Mask
1 128 10000000
2 192 11000000
3 224 11100000
4 240 11110000
5 248 11111000
6 252 11111100
7 254 11111110
8 255 11111111
Requirement of Networks is 2 ?
Example – 1

Class C : N.N.N.H
110xxxxx.xxxxxxxx.xxxxxxxx.xxxxxxxx
Class C : 192.168.1.0
No. of Subnet
= 2n – 2 ≥ Req. of Subnet
= 22 – 2 ≥ 2 (-2 is for First & Last Subnet Range)
= 4–2
= 2 Subnet
No. of Host
= 2h – 2 (-2 is for Network ID & Broadcast ID)
= 26 – 2
= 64 – 2
= 62 Hosts/Subnet
Example – 1 (Continued…)

• Customized Subnet Mask =

255. 255. 255. 192

1 1 1 11111 . 1 1 1 11111. 1 1 1 11111 . 1 1 0 00000

If you convert 2 Host Bits to Network Bits
Range of Networks 2 Subnet & 62 Hosts/Subnet
Network ID Broadcast ID
192.168.1.0 Customized Subnet Mask
192.168.1.0 192.168.1.63
255.255.255.192
192.168.1.64 192.168.1.127
192.168.1.128 Subnet192.168.1.191
Range Valid Subnets
192.168.1.255
192.168.1.64 to 192.168.1.127
192.168.1.192  MCSE
192.168.1.192 192.168.1.255
192.168.1.128 to 192.168.1.191  CISCO
Requirement of subnet is 14?
Example -2

CLASS C: N.N.N.H
110xxxxx.xxxxxxxx.xxxxxxxx.xxxxxxxx
Class C : 192.168.1.0
No. of Subnet
= 2n – 2 ≥ Req. of Subnet
= 24 – 2 ≥ 14(-2 is for First & Last Subnet Range)
= 16– 2
= 14 Subnet
No. of Host
= 2h – 2 (-2 is for Network ID & Broadcast ID)
= 24 – 2
= 16 – 2
= 14 Hosts/Subnet
EXAMPLE – 2 (Continued…)

Customized Subnet Mask =

If you convert 4 Host Bits to Network Bits
255. 255. 255. 240
14 Subnet & 14 Hosts/Subnet
1 1 1 11111 . 1 1 1 11111. 1 1 1 11111
Customized . Mask
Subnet 1 1 1 10000
Range of Networks 255.255.255.240
Network ID Subnet Range ID
Broadcast
192.168.1.0 192.168.1.16 to 192.168.1.31
192.168.1.0 192.168.1.32192.168.1.15
to 192.168.1.47
192.168.1.16192.168.1.48 192.168.1.31
to 192.168.1.63
192.168.1.64 192.168.1.47
192.168.1.32 to 192.168.1.79
192.168.1.48 192.168.1.63
192.168.1.240 to 192.168.1.255 Valid Subnets
192.168.1.224 192.168.1.239
192.168.1.240 192.168.1.255

192.168.1.240 192.168.1.255
Requirement of Hosts is 40 ?
Example – 3

Class C : N.N.N.H
1 1 0 x x xx x .x x x xx x x x . x xx x x xx x .x x x xx x x x
Class C : 192.168.1.0
No. of Host
= 2h – 2 ≥ Req. of Host
= 26 – 2 ≥ 40 (-2 is for Network ID & Broadcast ID)
= 64 – 2
= 62 Hosts/Subnet
No. of Subnet
= 2n – 2 (-2 is for First & Last Subnet Range)
= 22 – 2
= 4–2
= 2 Subnet
Example – 3 (Continued…)

Customized Subnet Mask =

255. If you convert 2 Host
255. Bits to Network
255. 192Bits
2 Subnet & 62 Hosts/Subnet
1 1 1 11111 . 1 1 1 11111. 1 1 1 11111 . 1 1 0 00000

Range of Networks Customized Subnet Mask

Network ID 255.255.255.192
Broadcast ID
192.168.1.0 192.168.1.63
192.168.1.64 Subnet192.168.1.127
Range
Valid Subnets
192.168.1.128
192.168.1.64 to192.168.1.191
192.168.1.127
192.168.1.192
192.168.1.128 to192.168.1.255
192.168.1.191
Requirement of Hosts is 2 ?
Example – 2

Class C : N.N.N.H
1 1 0 x x xx x .x x x xx x x x . x xx x x xx x .x x x xx x x x
Class C : 192.168.1.0
No. of Host
= 2h – 2 ≥ Req. of Host
= 22 – 2 ≥ 2 (-2 is for Network ID & Broadcast ID)
= 4–2
= 2 Hosts/Subnet
No. of Subnet
= 2n – 2 (-2 is for First & Last Subnet Range)
= 26 – 2
= 64 – 2
= 62 Subnet
Example – 2 (Continued…)

• Customized Subnet Mask =

255. 255. 255. 252

1 1 1 11111 . 1 1 1 11111. 1 1 1 11111 . 1 1 1 111 00

Range of Networks
Network ID Broadcast ID
192.168.1.0 192.168.1.3
192.168.1.4 192.168.1.7
192.168.1.8 192.168.1.11
192.168.1.12 192.168.1.15
Valid Subnets

192.168.1.248 192.168.1.251
192.168.1.252 192.168.1.255
Requirement of Networks is 2 ?
Example – 4

Class B : N.N.H.H
1 0 x x x x x x .x x xx x x xx . xx x x xx x x .x xx x x xx x
Class B : 172.16.0.0
No. of Subnet
= 2n – 2 ≥ Req. of Subnet
= 22 – 2 ≥ 2 (-2 is for First & Last Subnet Range)
= 4–2
= 2 Subnet
No. of Host
= 2h – 2 (-2 is for Network ID & Broadcast ID)
= 214 – 2
= 16384 – 2
= 16382 Hosts/Subnet
Example – 4 (Continued…)

• Customized Subnet Mask =

255. 255. 192. 0

1 1 1 11111 . 1 1 1 11111 . 1 1 0 00000 . 0 0 0 00000

Range of Networks
Network ID Broadcast ID
172.16.0.0 172.16.63.255
172.16.64.0 172.16.127.255 Valid Subnets
172.16.128.0 172.16.191.255
172.16.192.0 172.16.255.255
Requirement of Hosts is 126 ?
Example – 5

Class B : N.N.H.H
1 0 x x x x x x .x x xx x x xx . xx x x xx x x .x xx x x xx x
Class B : 172.16.0.0
No. of Host
= 2h – 2 ≥ Req. of Host
= 27 – 2 ≥ 126 (-2 is for Network ID & Broadcast ID)
= 128 – 2
= 126 Hosts/Subnet
No. of Subnet
= 2n – 2 (-2 is for First & Last Subnet Range)
= 29 – 2
= 512 – 2
= 510 Subnet
Example – 2 (Continued…)

• Customized Subnet Mask =

255. 255. 255. 128

1 1 1 11111 . 1 1 1 11111. 1 1 1 11111. 1 0 0 00000

Range of Networks
Network ID Broadcast ID
172.16.0.0 172.16.0.127
172.16.0.128 172.16.0.255
172.16.1.0 172.16.1.127
172.16.1.128 172.16.1.255
Valid Subnets

172.16.255.0 172.16.255.127
172.16.255.128 172.16.255.255
VLSM

• Subnetting a subnet is called as Variable Length Subnet Mask

• VLSMs provide the capability to include more than one subnet mask within
a major network
Scenario

• ZOOM Technologies is having 100 PC

ZOOM Technologies – 192.168.1.0/24

– MCSE
– CISCO
– FIREWALL
– SOLARIS
– TRAINING
Administrator’s requirement : Inter-department communication should not
be possible ?
Best Solution is :
FLSM i.e. Subnetting
Scenario (…continued)

• Now we are also having sub departments ZOOM Technologies

– MCSE
– CISCO
– CCNA
– CCNP
– FIREWALL
– ISA
– Checkpoint
– NetASQ
– Clavister
– Cisco PIX
– SOLARIS
– Linux
– Unix
– Solaris
– TRAINING
Scenario (…continued)

Administrator does not want inter-department communication in the sub

departments ?

Answer : You will use the subnet range to further divide it into smaller ranges,
this time its Subnetting of a Subnet i.e. VLSM.
Calculation of FLSM

Class C : N.N.N.H
1 1 0 x x xx x .x x x xx x x x . x xx x x xx x .x x x xx x x x
Class C : 192.168.1.0
No. of Subnet
= 2n – 2 ≥ Req. of Subnet
= 23 – 2 ≥ 5 (-2 is for First & Last Subnet Range)
= 8–2
= 6 Subnet
No. of Host
= 2h – 2 (-2 is for Network ID & Broadcast ID)
= 25 – 2
= 32 – 2
= 30 Hosts/Subnet
Example – 1 (Continued…)

• Customized Subnet Mask =

255. 255. 255. 224

1 1 1 11111 . 1 1 1 11111. 1 1 1 11111 . 1 1 1 00000

Range of Networks
Network ID Broadcast ID
192.168.1.0 192.168.1.31
192.168.1.32 192.168.1.63
192.168.1.64 192.168.1.95
192.168.1.96 192.168.1.127
192.168.1.128 192.168.1.159 Valid Subnets
192.168.1.160 192.168.1.191
192.168.1.192 192.168.1.223
192.168.1.224 192.168.1.255
Assigning of the Ranges

ZOOM Technologies
– MCSE 192.168.1.32 – 1.63/27
– CISCO 192.168.1.64 – 1.95/27
– CCNA
– CCNP
– FIREWALL 192.168.1.96 – 1.127/27
– ISA
– Checkpoint
– NetASQ
– Clavister
– Cisco PIX
– SOLARIS 192.168.1.128 – 1.159/27
– Linux
– Unix
– Solaris
– TRAINING 192.168.1.160 – 1.191/27
Calculation of VLSM for CISCO Dept.

Class C : N.N.N.H
1 1 0 x x xx x .x x x xx x x x . x xx x x xx x .x x x xx x x x
Class C : 192.168.1.64
No. of Subnet
= 2n ≥ Req. of Subnet
= 21 ≥ 2
= 2
= 2 Subnet
No. of Host
= 2h – 2 (-2 is for Network ID & Broadcast ID)
= 24 – 2
= 16 – 2
= 14 Hosts/Subnet
VLSM (Continued…)

Customized Subnet Mask =

255. 255. 255. 240

1 1 1 11111 . 1 1 1 11111. 1 1 1 11111. 1 1 1 10000

Range of Networks
Network ID Broadcast ID
192.168.1.64 192.168.1.79 Valid Subnets
192.168.1.80 192.168.1.95
Assigning of the Ranges

ZOOM Technologies
– MCSE 192.168.1.32 – 1.63/27
– CISCO 192.168.1.64 – 1.95/27
– CCNA 192.168.1.64 – 1.79/28
– CCNP 192.168.1.80 – 1.95/28
– FIREWALL 192.168.1.96 – 1.127/27
– ISA
– Checkpoint
– NetASQ
– Clavister
– Cisco PIX
– SOLARIS 192.168.1.128 – 1.159/27
– Linux
– Unix
– Solaris
– TRAINING 192.168.1.160 – 1.191/27
Calculation of VLSM for Firewall Dept.

Class C : N.N.N.H
1 1 0 x x xx x .x x x xx x x x . x xx x x xx x .x x x xx x x x xx
110xxxxx.xxxxxxxx.xxxxxxxx.xxxxxx
Class C : 192.168.1.96
No. of Subnet
= 2n ≥ Req. of Subnet
= 23 ≥ 5
= 8
= 8 Subnet
No. of Host
= 2h – 2 (-2 is for Network ID & Broadcast ID)
= 22 – 2
= 4–2
= 2 Hosts/Subnet
VLSM (Continued…)

Customized Subnet Mask =

255. 255. 255. 252

1 1 1 11111 . 1 1 1 11111. 1 1 1 11111 . 1 1 1 111 00

Range of Networks
Network ID Broadcast ID
192.168.1.96 192.168.1.99
192.168.1.100 192.168.1.103
192.168.1.104 192.168.1.107
192.168.1.108 192.168.1.111 Valid Subnets
192.168.1.112 192.168.1.115
192.168.1.116 192.168.1.119
192.168.1.120 192.168.1.123
192.168.1.124 192.168.1.127
Assigning of the Ranges

ZOOM Technologies
– MCSE 192.168.1.32 – 1.63/27
– CISCO 192.168.1.64 – 1.95/27
– CCNA 192.168.1.64 – 1.79/28
– CCNP 192.168.1.80 – 1.95/28
– FIREWALL 192.168.1.96 – 1.127/27
– ISA 192.168.1.96 – 1.99/30
– Checkpoint 192.168.1.100 – 1.103/30
– NetASQ 192.168.1.104 – 1.107/30
– Clavister 192.168.1.108 – 1.111/30
– Cisco PIX 192.168.1.112 – 1.115/30
– SOLARIS 192.168.1.128 – 1.159/27
– Linux
– Unix
– Solaris
– TRAINING 192.168.1.160 – 1.191/27
Calculation of VLSM for Solaris Dept.

Class C : N.N.N.H
1 1 0 x x xx x .x x x xx x x x . x xx x x xx x .x x x xx x x x
Class C : 192.168.1.128
No. of Subnet
= 2n ≥ Req. of Subnet
= 22 ≥ 3
= 4
= 4 Subnet
No. of Host
= 2h – 2 (-2 is for Network ID & Broadcast ID)
= 23 – 2
= 8–2
= 6 Hosts/Subnet
VLSM (Continued…)

• Customized Subnet Mask =

255. 255. 255. 248

1 1 1 11111 . 1 1 1 11111. 1 1 1 11111 . 1 1 1 11 000

Range of Networks
Network ID Broadcast ID
192.168.1.128 192.168.1.135
192.168.1.136 192.168.1.143
Valid Subnets
192.168.1.144 192.168.1.151
192.168.1.152 192.168.1.159
Assigning of the Ranges

ZOOM Technologies
– MCSE 192.168.1.32 – 1.63/27
– CISCO 192.168.1.64 – 1.95/27
– CCNA 192.168.1.64 – 1.79/28
– CCNP 192.168.1.80 – 1.95/28
– FIREWALL 192.168.1.96 – 1.127/27
– ISA 192.168.1.96 – 1.99/30
– Checkpoint 192.168.1.100 – 1.103/30
– NetASQ 192.168.1.104 – 1.107/30
– Clavister 192.168.1.108 – 1.111/30
– Cisco PIX 192.168.1.112 – 1.115/30
– SOLARIS 192.168.1.128 – 1.159/27
– Linux 192.168.1.128 – 1.135/29
– Unix 192.168.1.136 – 1.143/29
– Solaris 192.168.1.144 – 1.151/29
– TRAINING 192.168.1.160 – 1.191/27
OSI

• OSI was developed by the International Organization for Standardization

(ISO) and introduced in 1984.

• It is a layered architecture (consists of seven layers).

• Each layer defines a set of functions which takes part in data

communication.
OSI Model Layers

Layer - 7 Application
User support Layers
Layer - 6 Presentation or
Software Layers
Layer - 5 Session

Layer - 4 Transport Core layer of the

OSI
Layer - 3 Network
Network support Layers
Layer - 2 Data Link or
Hardware Layers
Layer - 1 Physical
Application Layer

• Application Layer is responsible for providing

Application
an interface for the users to interact with
application services or Networking Services .
Presentation • Ex: Web browser, Telnet etc.

Session

Transport

Network

Data Link

Physical
Examples of Networking Services

Service Port No.

HTTP 80

FTP 21

SMTP 25

TELNET 23

TFTP 69
Data flow from Application Layer

Application Data

80 21 25 53 67 69

Presentation

Session

Transport

Network

Data Link

Physical
Presentation Layer

Presentation Layer It is responsible for

Application
defining a standard format to the data.
It deals with data presentation.
Presentation
The major functions described at this layer are..
Encoding – Decoding
Session
Eg: ASCII, EBCDIC (Text)
Transport JPEG,GIF,TIFF (Graphics)
MIDI,WAV (Voice)
Network MPEG,DAT,AVI (Video)
Encryption – Decryption
Data Link Compression – Decompression

Physical
Data flow from Presentation Layer

Application Data

Presentation Data

Session

Transport

Network

Data Link

Physical
Session Layer

Session Layer
Application
It is responsible for establishing, maintaining
and terminating the sessions.
Presentation
Session ID is used to identify a session or
interaction.
Session
Examples :
RPC Remote Procedural Call
Transport SQL Structured Query Language
ASP AppleTalk Session protocol
Network

Data Link

Physical
Data flow from Session Layer

Application Data

Presentation Data

Session Data

Transport

Network

Data Link

Physical
Transport Layer

Transport Layer
Application
It provides data delivery mechanism between
the applications in the network.
Presentation
The major functions described at the Transport
Layer are..
Session
•Identifying Service
Transport •Multiplexing & De-multiplexing
•Segmentation
Network •Sequencing & Reassembling
•Error Correction
Data Link •Flow Control

Physical
Identifying a Service

• Identification of Services is done using port Numbers.

• Port is a logical communication Channel

Total No. Ports 0 – 65535

Reserved Ports 1 - 1023

Open Ports 1024 – 65535

Multiplexing & De-multiplexing

Application

Presentation

Session
80 21 25 53 67 69

Transport

TCP - 6 UDP - 17

Network

Data Link

Physical
Transport Layer Protocols

• The protocols which takes care of Data Transportation at Transport layer

are…TCP,UDP

TCP UDP

• User Datagram Protocol

• Transmission Control
• Connection Less
Protocol
• No support for Ack’s
• Connection Oriented
• Unreliable communication
• Supports Ack’s
• Faster data Transportation
• Reliable communication
• Protocol No is 17
• Slower data Transportation
• Eg: DNS, DHCP, TFTP
• Protocol No is 6
• Eg: HTTP, FTP, SMTP
Segmentation

HELLO!
HOW HELLO! HOW ARE YOU ?
ARE YOU?

Data
Sequencing

HELLO!
HOW HELLO! HOW ARE YOU ?
ARE YOU?

Data
Sequencing

HOW ? ARE HELLO! YOU

Sequencing

HELLO! HOW ARE YOU ?

1/5 2/5 3/5 4/5 5/5

Data
Sequencing

HOW ? ARE HELLO! YOU

2/5 5/5 3/5 1/5 4/5
Data flow from Transport Layer

Application Data

Presentation Data

Session Data

Transport THSegment
Data

Network

Data Link

Physical
Network Layer

Network Layer
Application
It provides Logical addressing & Path
determination (Routing)
Presentation
The protocols that work in this layer are:
Routed Protocols:
Session
IP, IPX, AppleTalk.. Etc
Routed protocols used to carry user data
Transport between hosts.
Routing Protocols:
Network RIP, OSPF.. Etc
Routing protocols performs Path determination
Data Link (Routing).

Physical
Data flow from Network Layer

Application Data

Presentation Data
Device that works at
Network Layer Session Data
is Router
Transport THSegment
Data

Network NH Packet
Segment

Data Link

Physical
Datalink Layer

Application Datalink Layer

It has 2 sub layers

Presentation
• MAC (Media Access Control) It provides
Session reliable transit of data across a physical link.

It also provides ERROR DETECTION using CRC

Transport
(Cyclic Redundancy Check)
Network Ex: Ethernet, Token ring…etc
• LLC (Logical Link Control)
Data Link
It provides communication with Network layer.
Physical
Data flow from Data link Layer

Application Data

Presentation Data

Session Data

Devices that work at Transport THSegment

Data
Data link layer are
Switch, Bridge etc.. Network NH Packet
Segment

Data Link Frame DH

DT Packet

Physical
Physical Layer

Application Physical Layer

It defines the electrical, Mechanical & functional
Presentation
specifications for communication between the
Session Network devices.
The functions described at this layer are..
Transport
Encoding/decoding:

Network It is the process of converting the binary data into

signals based on the type of the media.
Data Link Copper media : Electrical signals of different voltages
Fiber media: Light pulses of different wavelengths
Physical Wireless media: Radio frequency waves
Data flow from Physical Layer

Application Data

Presentation Data

Session Data

Transport THSegment
Data

Devices that work at Network NH Packet

Segment
physical layer are ..
Hub, Repeater.. Etc
Data Link Frame DH
DT Packet

Physical Bits
Comparison between OSI & TCP/IP Model

Application

Presentation Application

Session

Transport Host to Host

Network Internet

Data Link
Network Access
Physical