Planning Execution - part of the nervous system controlling, regulating

skeletal muscle
Basal
Ganglia - Neurons at the left of the diagram are concerned
with planning/programming of motor activities; we
MOTOR SYSTEM Cortical Premotor, Spinal Cord see generation of impulses in theses areas before
Idea Association Supplementary
Brainstem
Muscles we see activity of skeletal muscles
Area motor and Motor
cortex - The right of the diagram is concerned with the
execution of motor commands coming from the
Intermediate motor cortices
Lateral
Cerebellum
Cerebellum - The BRAINSTEM is directed towards TRUNCAL
MUSCLES
KIDRUNNER

THREE TYPES OF MOVEMENT GENERATED BY

- The SPINAL CORD is directed towards DISTAL MOTOR SYSTEM • VOLUNTARY MOVEMENTS
MUSCLES
• REFLEXES - Involve cortical activity/cortical neurons
- The HYPOTHALAMUS and PARTS OF THE LIMBIC
- Almost nvoluntary - Needs activation of neurons in the cerebral cortex
SYSTEM (Hippocampal and Parahippocampal
first; Pre---central gyrus/frontal lobe
regions) have a MINIMAL EFFECT ON THE SKELETAL - They DO NOT INVOLVE CORTICAL ACTIVITY
MUSCLES; They affect mostly VISCERAL TISSUES, - Characterized by two features:
- Mostly Spinal Cord and Brainstem neurons
Especially the hypothalamus - Purposeful (Goal Directed)
- Rapid, stereotyped involuntary responses
- The thalamus is another important part; this area of - Largely learned (improves with practice); also
- Least affected by a stimulus
the NS acts a relay station; THEY DO NOT MODIFY involves lateral cerebellum (cerebrocerebellum)
MOTOR IMPULSES; INTERCOMMUNICATION - NEEDED FOR POSTURAL ACTIVITY
BETWEEN THE DIFFERENT PARTS OF THE CNS
INVOLVED IN MOTOR CONTROL

• RHYTMIC MOTOR PATTERNS • REFLEX ARC

* Involuntary movement is reserved for - Initially voluntary movements; When frequently - Basic unit of integrated reflex activity
smooth/cardiac muscles; they generate their own utilized, muscles will eventually perform - Components:
impulses reflex activities - Sensory organs
* Although there are involuntary skeletal muscles, we - Stereotype, repetitive movements that occur in - Afferentneurons
do not refer them as involuntary; THE PORPER reflex---like fashion after voluntarily initiated
TERM IS REFLEX; the impulses are generatedby - Center → Sensation
- E.g. Driving a car
neurons, neuronal function - Efferent neurons
- Also needed for maintenance of posture;
Postural support movements - Effectors → reflex action
• What is needed for us to have activity in the skeletal • When we have reflex activities, do we utilize only
muscles? skeletal muscles to react to the change affecting the
body? THE ANSWER IS NO
- WE MUST HAVE AN INTACT REFLEX ARC
• REFLEX ACTION - Involves activation of one or several synapses; A. SENSORY ORGANS
Synapses could be somatic for skeletal muscles - Stretch and proprioceptors are mostly used in
- May involve simultaneous contraction of
or visceral (autonomic neurons) that will control motor activity
some muscles and relaxation of other muscles
visceral tissues - Involves stretch receptors/proprioceptors
- That is why we have what we call agonist and
- Happens without conscious perception - MUSCLE SPINDLE
antagonistic muscles for us to have a well
coordinated movement of the body - REMEMBER HOWEVER, VOLUNTARY ACTIVITIES - GOLGI TENDON
ALSO INVOLVE AN INTACT REFLEX ARC
- Simultaneous with muscle activity, we also
observe visceral activities - Impulses are modified in various parts of the CNS
- May involve either somatic or visceral responses - Basal ganglia modify BOTH FAST AND SLOW
which could occur simultaneously movements
- Cerbellar activity modify FAST movements

B. AFFERENT NEURONS D. EFFERENT NEURONS E. EFFECTORS

- Mostly type A alpha neurons, some could be type - α motorneurons → Extrafusal muscle fiber - Skeletal muscles
A beta and delta - CAPABLE OF GENERATING TENSION; CAN REALLY - Mostly the extrafusal muscle fibers
- When we describe sensory afferent nerves, they CONTRACT
are describe mostly according to size - γ motorneurons → Intrafusal muscle fiber EFFECTORS - Skeletal muscles (Extrafusal Fibers)
- GROUP IA, GROUP IB and GROUP II - NOT RESPONSIBLE FOR CONTRACTION
- Mostly Type Aα, Type Aβ, Type Aδ - FUNCTIONS AS SENSORY RECEPTORS
C. CENTER - ANOTHER NAME OF MUSCLE SPINDLE FIBERS
- Spinal Cord/Brainstem * Muscle spindles are the sensory receptors in the
- Cerebral Cortex and others body that contains both sensory and efferent
nerves

MAJOR SENSORY RECEPTORS

* Present in the muscle; involved in muscle activity
* These are the receptors that can communicate
• Muscle spindle (Intrafusal fibers)
with the CNS, especially the spinal cord
- Stretch---sensitive receptors
* Intrafusal muscle fibers are in close contact with
- Spindle → Stretch
the extrafusal muscle fibers; present INSIDE THE
MUSCLE BUNDLE; they run parallel with the
• Golgi---tendon organs muscle fibers inside the belly of the muscle
- Tesnsion---sensitive receptors
- Tendon → Tension
 2 TYPES OF MUSCLE SPINDLES
Nuclear Bag
• Nuclear Bag Nuclear Chain

- Larger diameter
- Arranged in clusters

• Nuclear Chain
- Thinner diameter
- Arranged in chains

SENSORY ENDINGS STRETCH REFLEX (MYOTATIC REFLEX)

• SECONDARY ENDINGS (Flower Spray)
• PRIMARY ENDINGS (Annulospiral)
- Group II
- Group Ia
- Innvervate only the nuclear chain fibers
- Innervate both the nuclear bag and nuclear chain
- NOT SENSITIVE TO THE RATE OF CHANGE OF
- Detect amount of muscle stretch but MORE MUSCLE LENGTH
SENSITIVE TO THE RATE OF CHANGE OF THE
- Provides information about THE STATIC LENGTH
MUSCLE LENGTH
OF THE FIBERS
- VELOCITY SENSITIVE FIBERS
- Can only tell the length of the muscle
- IMPORTANCE: Tells the center that the body part
- IMPORTANCE: It will only tell the center that the
is in motion
body part is stationary
- Dynamic position (Kinesthesia) THE FINER THE MOVEMENT OF A MUSCLE, THE GREATER
- Static position
THE NUMBER OF MUSCLE SPINDLES

* Muscles with more muscles spindles → Greater * Take note that they come impulses come from The Ia and group II neurons send excitatory
precision/accurate activity → Mostly in the distal sensory receptors present in the skeletal muscles, impulses to the anterior motor nerves. These are
body parts (Hands, feet, head) they will eventually activate skeletal muscles, so then transmitted by the alpha and gamma motor
* Once the muscle spindles are activated, the muscles these sensory impulses carried by group Ia and neurons to the muscle that was stretched. THE
CONTRACT → MYOTATIC REFLEX group II neurons coming from the activated muscle RESULT: CONTRACTION OF THE STRETCHED MUCLES
* Major stimulus is STRETCH → Group Ia and Group II spindles when they enter the dorsal root/dorsal
fibers are activated → impulses go to the SPINAL horn, they are eventually transmitted to the Muscle stretch → Spindle fibers → group Ia and group
CORD → Enters the dorsal root/dorsal horn of the anterior portion/ventral horn of the spinal cord II neurons → dorsal horn of SC → ventral horn of SC
spinal cord where the anterior motor neurons are present → alpha and gamma neurons → muscle contraction
(alpha and gamma motor neurons). They will
immediately form synapses with the anterior motor
neurons.
 TYPES OF STRETCH REFLEXES
• DYNAMIC RESPONSE - Greater activity of the group Ia neurons
• STATIC RESPONSE
- WHEN YOU MOVE A BODY PART, IT MEANS YOU - Oppose suddenchangesinmusclelength
- IMPORTANCE OF SKELETAL MUSCLES IN STATIC
RESPONSE: For maintenance of posture ARE PERFORMAING WORK - Activates α motor neurons and dynamic gamma
- Weak, continuous → for posture/balance - THERE IS GREATER ACTIVITY OF THE SKELETAL fibers, BUT THE GAMMA FIBERS AFFECTED ARE
- Involves activity of the nuclear bag and the MUSCLES MOSTLY THE DYNAMIC GAMMA FIBERS
nuclear chain, BUT WITH GREATER ACTIVITY OF - Strong, sudden → for carrying load, when doing
THE CHAIN work * Group Ia neurons are involed in dynamic (mostly)
- Involves activaion of group Ia and group II - Involves activity MOSTLY OF THE NUCLEAR BAG; but also involved in static activities
neurons, BUT MOSTLY GROUP II same activity of the nuclear chain (no change in * Static gamma fibers are mostly attached to the
- Activates α motor neurons and static gamma the activity of the nuclear chain) nuclear chain; Dynamic gamma fibers are attached
fibers, BUT THE STATIC GAMMA NEURONS ARE
to the nuclear bag
THE ONES MOSTLYAFFECTED

* What is the importance of the gamma motor

* Activity of the DYNAMIC GAMMA FIBERS increases neurons when there is activation of the muscle
spindle sensitivity to the rate of change of stretch spindles when the muscle is stretched? Why is
(Nuclear bag). Increases phasic activity of Ia fibers there an efferent nerve connected to a sensory
receptor (muscle spindle)?
* Activity of the STATIC GAMMA FIBERS increases - Importance of the gamma motor neurons is to
spindle sensitivity to steady, maintained stretch maintain sensitivity of the muscle spindle even
(Nuclear chain). Increases tonic activity of Ia fibers when the muscle is stimulated. You don’t make the
muscle spindle undergo hyperpolarization (become
refractory) when a muscle is stimulated. What is
observed in most excitable cells? They depolarize
and repolarize. This causes periods of
refractoriness.

- In the muscles, because of the simultaneous * The static gamma fibers are mostly connected to the MYOTATIC REFLEX
activation of the gamma motor neurons that will nuclear chain • Muscle spindle - stretchsensitive receptors
affect the stretch muscle spindle, the sensitivity of
the muscle spindle to its adequate stimulus is not • Group Ia and II sensory neurons
* IMPORTANCE OF STATIC GAMMA FIBERS: If the - Transmit impulses to the spinal cord, entering the
decreasing, it is enhanced. The muscle spindle is muscle is contracted in maintaining posture, that
made more sensitive when stimulated. dorsal root/dorsal horn and immediately move
muscle is still sensitive to stimulation. towards the ventral horn to send excitatory
- This is the reason why, when a muscle contracts,
impulses to the alpha and gamma motor
the spindle, which is the receptor for the skeletal * Alpha motor neruons are responsible for the nerves
muscle, for it to generate another contraction, does contraction of the stretched muscles
not become refractory. It is still sensitive to • Stimulates the alpha motor neurons as well as the
stimulation. So if you want to contract that muscle gamma motor neurons
group again, you can still do so, because the muscle * Gamma motor neurons affect muscle spindles • Resulting to muscular contraction
spindle is still sensitive to stimulation.
 KNEE JERK REFLEX GOLGI TENDON ORGAN
• But what is really contracting? The ones affected by
* Strike the patellar tendon → Quadriceps muscles • Present in the tendon
the alpha motor neurons, which are the extrafusal
are stretched • An encapsulated receptor
fibers
* The sensory alpha neurons are basically type a • The actual receptors are the noodle---like structures
• Activity of the gamma can even increase sensitivity
alpha --- These are very fast neurons – 120 m/s inside the tendon
of the spindles to stretch when the muscle
impulse transmission • Utilizes group Ib sensory neurons
contracts
* That is why when these neurons are used, the • Stimulus is tension
stimulation and response happens almost
simultaneously • When GTO is stimulated → Ib neurons → Dorsal
horn → INHIBITORY INTERNEURON → inhibitory
* All motor neurons have characteristics similar to impulses go to the anterior motor nerves
type a alpha – large diameter and myelinated
nerves

• Unlike the group Ia and group II that go straight to

the dorsal horn (single synapse), group Ib activates • Compared to stretch reflex, the inverse myotatic
inhibitory interneurons. The alpha motor neurons reflex is described as a disynaptic of polysynaptic
receiving inhibitory impulses from an inhibitory reflex. Because it is disynaptic, normally the
interneuron activated by group Ib will now transmit duration of relaxation if greater than duration of
inhibitory impulses to the muscle that is developing contraction because relaxation involves two
tension. The muscle will then RELAX. synapses, therefore the transmission of impulses is
• The reflex involving the GTO is called INVERSE slower.
STRETCH / INVERSE MYOTATIC REFLEX/
LENGTHENING RESPONSE / AUTOGENIC INHIBITORY
REFLEX – Because the tension developed by
contraction of the muscles is its own stimulus for
relaxation

INVERSE MYOTATIC REFLEX NEURAL AREAS THAT CONTROL MOTOR REXED’S LAMINAE
• GTO – Tension sensitive receptor FUNCTION • LAMINA 8 & 9 – Motor neurons in the medial and
A. CEREBRAL CORTEX lateral regions
• Group Ib sensory neurons
B. BASAL GANGLIA - Medial – Controls axial muscles
• Stimulates an inhibitory interneuron (Spinal cord)
C. CEREBELLUM - Lateral – Controls distal muscles
• Inhibiting alpha motorneurons
D. BRAINSTEM
• RESULTING TO MUSCULAR RELAXATION
E. SPINAL CORD

* Except for the limbic system and hypothalamus

* In the spinal cord, Laminae 8-9 of the ventral horn
are important
 COMPLETE TRANSECTION OF THE SPINAL SPINAL CORD INJURIES
CORD • Amyotropic Lateral Sclerosis
• Permanent paraplegia
• Syringomyelia
- Initially flaccid → spastic paraplegia
• Brown-Sequard syndrome
• Loss of sensations
• Tabes Dorsalis
• Spinal shock (loss of spinal reflexes)
- Lasts for a minimum of 2 weeks
• Observed below the level of injury
• Recovery is possible for some somatic and
autonomic reflexes like knee jerk, flexor
(withdrawal) reflexes, micturition, erection

BRAINSTEM BRAINSTEM FUNCTION

• Mostly for control of muscles involved in • Provides background contraction
maintaining posture; mostly axial or truncal - Trunk
• Collectively known as anti-gravity muscles - Neck
- Proximal portions of the limbs
• Supports the body against gravity
• Majority are EXTENSORS, except for extensors of
the upper extremities
• Also includes the muscles elevating the jaw

INVOLUNTARY MOVEMENT (IN MAINTAINING POSTURE)

MOTOR CORTEX
CEREBELLUM BRAINSTEM VESTIBULAR NUCLEI
* Pons is the most active in promoting continuous
BASAL GANGLIA activity of the muscles to maintain posture
involuntarily
CEREBELLUM
PONTINE RETICULAR NUCLEI * Even without cortical activity, we can maintain
MIDBRAIN posture, as long as the brainstem is active, where
PONS BRAINSTEM MEDIAL RETICULAR TRACT we have the reticular activating system
MEDULLA
ANTERIOR MOTORNEURONS

LABYRINTHS SKIN, MUSCLE AND JOINT RECEPTORS

ANTIGRAVITY MUSCLES
INPUTS TO MOTOR CENTERS OF THE BRAINSTEM
 VOLUNTARY MOVEMENT (IN MAINTAINING POSTURE) RETICULOSPINAL TRACT
* Can transmit inhibitory impulses to the pons with - Affects activity of proximal muscles and muscles of
MOTOR CORTEX BRAINSTEM RUBROSPINAL TRACT
the help of rubrospinal tract and the medullary the trunk
neurons - Affects mostly extensors
MEDULLARY RETICULAR NUCLEI * Utilizes the lateral reticular tract PONTINE RETICULOSPINAL TRACT
- Generally STIMULATORY on both extensors and
* REMEMBER: flexors, BUT GREATER EFFECT ON EXTENSORS
LATERAL RETICULAR TRACT
PONS → EXCITATORY → MEDIAL; MEDULLA → MEDULLARY RETICULOSPINAL TRACT
INHIBITORY → LATERAL
- Generally INHIBITORY on both extensors and
ANTERIOR MOTORNEURONS
flexors, BUT GREATER EFFECT ON EXTENSORS
- You are now able to activate flexors and change
ANTIGRAVITY MUSCLES body position; Medullary neurons are used

BRAINSTERM INJURIES
• DECEREBRATE RIGIDITY
• Injuries are always FATAL
1. Increases excitability of the extensors
• BRAINSTEM INJURY ABOVE THE PONS 2. Positive tonic labyrinthine reflexes
- Decerebrate rigidity 3. Positive tonic neck reflexes
- All muscles stimulated are mostly extensors 4. Positive spinal reflexes
- Midbrain and cortex are not capable of exerting 5. Negative righting reflexes
their influence on the body
- Extension and hyperpronation of the arms
- Highest center that can control activity becomes
- Extension and internal rotation of the legs
pons – excitatory to extensors; No cerebrum or
medulla to control their effect - OPISTHOTONOS (Arching of neck and back) SITE OF INJURY

• Brainstem injury above the pontine reticular • BRAINSTEM INJURY ABOVE THE MIDBRAIN • DECORTICATE RIGIDITY
formation removes the inhibitory inputs to the - Decorticate rigidity - Flexion of arms with extension and internal
reticular formation → DECEREBRATE RIGIDITY - Midbrain function is preserved; there is normal rotation of legs
righting reflex - Common cause of decortication in humans
(Massive stroke; Hunger; Hypoglycemia)
MIDBRAIN ANIMAL (PREPARATION)
1. Positive righting reflexes (midbrain function)
2. Positive tonic labyrinthine reflexes
3. Positive tonic neck reflexes
4. Negative spontaneous movement (automaton)
5. Lacks the decerebraterigidity (decorticate)
 CEREBRAL CORTEX MOTORCORTEX
• Frontal – Motor - Anterior to the central sulcus; occupies the
posterior 1/3 of the frontal lobe
• Parietal – Sensory Somatic
• Temporal – Sensory auditory THREE SUB AREAS
• Occipital – Sensory visual - Primary motor area
• PRE-FRONTAL CORTEX - Judgment, ambitions, - Premotor area
cognitive functions of the brain - Supplementary motor area
* Some activities are initiated by impulses coming
from the parietal lobe
SITE OF INJURY * They can affect the neurons of the motor area
because we must have sensations first before we
see movements of the skeletal muscles

• PRE-MOTOR CORTEX
• PRIMARY MOTOR CORTEX - Responsible for posture at the start of planned
- Origin of motor commands complex motor activity
- Considered the cortical efferent zone - Receives major input from the posterior parietal
cortex and its output influences chiefly the
- Site of the motor homunculus medial descending pathway
* Greater number of muscle spindles, greater • SUPPLEMENTARY MOTOR AREA
representation in the motor homunculus - Concerned with mental rehearsal of a planned
* Hand (thumb), foot and facial muscles motor activity
- Causes complex contraction that is usually
bilateral affecting mostly the upper extremities
- Needs a stronger stimulation to cause contraction

• POSTERIOR PARIETAL CORTEX AND THE SOMATIC DESCENDING PATHWAYS

SENSORY AREAS
• Corticobulbar Tract
- Generate also motor responses
• Corticospinal Tract
- PPC-Project to the premotor area and the
- Most important output pathways from the
supplementary motor area(PPC)
cerebral cortex
- SSA-Project to the primary motor cortex (SSA)
- Passes through the posterior limb of the internal
• OTHER SPECIALIZED CORTICAL AREAS THAT capsule
CONTROL MOTOR FUNCTION
• ORIGIN
- Broca’s area – Muscles of the vocal cords
- 30% - Primary motor area
- Voluntary Eye movement field / frontal eye
- 30% - Premotor area
movement field
- 40% - Parietal area
- Head rotation area; Area for hand skills
 CORTICOBULBAR TRACT
LEFT CORTICOBULBAR TRACT
• CN 1,2 and 8 are not involved CORTICO-BULBAR CORTICO-BULBAR
- Has greater contralateral control, both upper and TRACT (L) TRACT (R)
• Concerned with the activity of the motor nuclei of lower
several cranial nerves (ALL EXCEPT 1, 2, 8 because
- Ipsilateral, it has only control over the upper
they are sensory)
portion, no control on the lower portion UPPER UPPER
• Can influence motor neurons controlling neck FACE FACE
- Lower portion on the ipsilateral side is controlled
muscles, facial muscles, jaw muscles, extraocular
by the right corticobulbar tract
muscles, and tongue
- Nerves before the motor nucleus – Upper motor LOWER LOWER
• They have ipsilateral and contralateral transmission
neurons FACE FACE
- Nerves after the motor nucleus that will control
the Muscles – Lower motor neurons CRANIAL NERVE 7 – FACIAL NERVE

EXAMPLE: CRANIAL NERVE 7 – FACIAL NERVE

* If there is an injury to the left corticobulbar tract CORTICO-BULBAR CORTICO-BULBAR
BEFORE the CNVII nucleus (upper motor neurons), TRACT (L) TRACT (R)
there will be problems in the lower right side of the
face, the area that is controlled by the left
corticobulbar tract only. UPPER UPPER
* If the injury is the neurons after the nucleus, there FACE FACE
will be paralysis on the same side (ipsilateral) LESION
* REMEMBER: LOWER LOWER
UPPER MOTOR NEURONS → CONTRALATERAL, FACE FACE
LOWER PORTION
If the injury is after the facial nerve nucleus, problem is seen
LOWER MOTOR NEURONS → IPSILATERAL, BOTH in the upper and lower parts of the face (IPSILATERAL)
CONTRALATERAL
UPPER AND LOWER PORTIONS

PATIENT CAN ELEVATE

PATIENT CAN ELEVATE CORTICO-SPINAL TRACT
BOTH EYEBROWS BOTH EYEBROWS
• CONCERNED WITH ALL PARTS OF THE BODY FROM
THE NECK DOWNWARD

• LATERAL CORTICO-SPINAL TRACT

• VENTRAL / ANTERIOR / MEDIAL CORTICO-SPINAL
TRACT
LATERAL CORTICO-SPINAL TRACT - Concerned with control of distal musculature VENTRAL / ANTERIOR / MEDIAL CORTICO-SPINAL
- Decussates at the level of the of the medulla (lower (hands, fingers, lower legs and feet) TRACT
pons/upper medulla) - Generally facilitates activity of the flexor muscles - Decussates at the level of the spinal cord
- Controls contra-lateral muscles and inhibits extensors - There are fibers decussating at the other side, there
- Constitute 80% of the fibers - Mediates fine and skilled movements are fibers that stay on the same side
- Projection fibers are mostly coming from the - Includes rubrospinal tract - There is ipsilateral and contralateral muscle control
primary motor cortex - Constitutes 20% of the fibers
- Fibers cross at the midline of the medullary pyramid - Projection fibers are mostly coming from the
premotor cortex

- Fibers do not cross at the midline of the medullary

pyramid
- Fibers cross the level of the spinal cord
- Concerned with the control of axial muscles (trunk
and proximal limbs)
- Mediates postural adjustments and gross
movements
- Includes reticulospinal, vestibulospinal, and
tectospinal tracts