BIOMEDICAL REPORTS 11: 47-50, 2019

Essentials of recurrent aphthous stomatitis (Review)

CÉSAR RIVERA

Oral Medicine and Pathology Research Group, Department of Basic Biomedical Sciences,
Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Talca, Talca, Maule 3460000, Chile

Received March 13, 2019; Accepted June 5, 2019

DOI: 10.3892/br.2019.1221

Abstract. Recurrent aphthous stomatitis (RAS), also known as every medical professional that encounters this disease to
canker sores, is the most common disease of the oral mucosa. understand.
Unlike caries and periodontal disease, patients with RAS are The clinical picture of RAS is characterized by recurrent
unable to prevent it. The clinical picture of RAS is charac- episodes of solitary or multiple painful ulcerations (2) without
terized by recurrent episodes of solitary or multiple painful an association with systemic diseases (3). The latter is relevant
ulcerations without association with systemic diseases. The to ensure that RAS is not confused with aphthous ulcerations.
objective of this review is to present the essential characteris-
tics of RAS, including its definition, pathogenesis, clinical and 2. Differential diagnosis and epidemiology
microscopic characteristics, proposed experimental models
and recommended pharmacological management. This under- Aphthous ulcerations (or RAS‑like ulcerations) have an under-
standing can serve as a theoretical framework for research lying systemic cause; therefore, they should be considered as
proposals. a distinct medical condition (3). The differential diagnoses
should be established with autoinflammatory syndromes,
including periodic fever with adenitis, pharyngitis and
Contents aphthae (PFAPA) syndrome, Behçet's syndrome and Crohn's
disease; and immunodeficiency states, including nutritional
1. Introduction defects (such as celiac disease and other gastrointestinal
2. Differential diagnosis and epidemiology disorders), immune defects (such as human immunodeficiency
3. Pathogenesis virus infection/acquired immune deficiency syndrome) and
4. Clinical characteristics neutrophil defects (such as cyclic neutropenia) (4). The term
5. Disease phases RAS should be used for ulceration present in the absence of
6. Microscopic characteristics systemic disease.
7. Experimental models The prevalence of RAS varies between 0.9 and 78%
8. Treatment in different groups examined. In the US, for the period of
9. Conclusions 1988‑1994 the prevalence was 0.89% in adults (5) and 1.64% in
children (6). In Iran (2005), Jordan (2008), India (2010‑2012)
and China (2013‑2017) reported prevalence was 25.2% (7),
1. Introduction 70% (8), 21.7% (9) and 27.17% (10), respectively. Its onset
appears to peak between 10 and 19 years of age (11) and its
Recurrent aphthous stomatitis (RAS), also known as canker frequency decreases with advancing age (12).
sores, is the most common disease of the oral mucosa (1).
This review presents key aspects of RAS, integrating clinical, 3. Pathogenesis
histological and molecular concepts that are important for
The etiology and pathogenesis of RAS remain unclear.
Multiple factors are associated with the establishment of this
disease, including a positive family history, food hypersensi-
Correspondence to: Dr César Rivera, Oral Medicine and tivity, smoking cessation, psychological stress and immune
Pathology Research Group, Department of Basic Biomedical disturbance (11,13). However, for this evidence, there is often
Sciences, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Talca, Campus an absence of statistical risk analysis. Immune dysregulation
Norte, Avenida Lircay S/N, Talca, Maule 3460000, Chile linked to several triggers may facilitate the development
E‑mail: cerivera@utalca.cl of RAS. The roles of the immune system and inflamma-
tory processes have been confirmed in recent large‑scale
Key words: aphthae, etiology, pathogenesis, experimental models, bioinformatics analyses (14,15). It is known that a Th1‑type
therapeutics, review hyperimmune response favors the appearance of inflammatory
reactions that precede ulcerations (Fig. 1) (16,17). In addition,
genetic risk factors can determine individual susceptibility
48 RIVERA: RECURRENT APHTHOUS STOMATITIS

to RAS; in particular, several DNA polymorphisms of the

NOD‑like receptor 3 (18), toll‑like receptor 4 (19), interleukin
(IL)‑6 (20), E‑selectin (21), IL‑1β and TNF‑ α genes (22).
However, despite the large number of factors examined, the
underlying cause triggering the episodes of ulcers remains
to be elucidated. Therefore, clinically, the emergence of new
lesions cannot be avoided at present.

4. Clinical characteristics
Figure 1. Cell‑mediated immunity in the pathogenesis of recurrent aphthous
RAS is known to be particularly painful (15). These idio- stomatitis. Lymphocytic cells infiltrate the oral epithelium and edema
pathic ulcerations are oval lesions of different sizes with develops as a result of inflammatory stimuli. Keratinocyte vacuolization and
clean edges surrounded by an erythematous halo. At the localized vasculitis cause a papular swelling. The papule ulcerates and is
center of the ulceration, the necrotic fundus is covered with infiltrated by neutrophils, lymphocytes and plasma cells, followed by healing
and regeneration of the epithelium. Adapted from Cui et al (24).
a yellow‑white fibrinous exudate (23). The ulcers typically
present in the non‑masticatory mucosa of the cheeks, lips,
ventral and lateral surfaces of the tongue, non‑attached
gingiva, and occasionally, the soft palate (24). RAS lesions are
self‑limiting (simple aphthosis), resolving within 1‑2 weeks
in the majority of patients (25). In those affected by the
disease, the ulcers can compromise important daily functions,
including nutrition, speech and oral hygiene (26), and affect
quality of life (27). This is important, considering that the
lesions can last >2 weeks, with recurrent episodes in a period
of 1‑4 months (11). RAS occurs in three morphological presen-
tations: Minor‑type (Mikulicz ulcers, 2‑10 mm in diameter),
which is the most common (Fig. 2); major aphthous, also
termed Sutton ulcers or periadenitis necrotic mucosa (>10 mm
in diameter); and herpetiform ulceration, which consists of
multiple small ulcers (28). Some patients have continuous oral
ulcerations; in these cases, some ulcers heal as others develop,
with occasional genital ulcers. This corresponds to a clinical
state known as complex aphthosis (11). Complex aphthosis has Figure 2. Small ulcers of recurrent aphthous stomatitis minor‑type (Mikulicz
an underlying systemic cause, which does not correspond with ulcer). These ulcers are painful.
the RAS diagnosis.

5. Disease phases
inflammatory mononuclear cells with abundant mast cells,
The disease sequence comprises the following stages: edema of the connective tissues and neutrophils lining the
Premonition (24 h), comprising symptoms but no visible signs margins. Damage to the epithelium usually begins in the basal
of disease; pre‑ulcerative (between 18 h and 3 days), comprising layer and progresses through the superficial layers, ultimately
erythema and mild edema; ulcerative (1‑16 days), comprising leading to ulceration and surface exudation (2,11).
active ulceration; healing (4‑35 days, usually <21 days),
involving a decrease in symptoms and progressive healing; 7. Experimental models
and remission, in which there is no evidence of ulcers (29). The
ulcerative and remission phases are those that can be evaluated At present, the only way to examine this disease has been in
with greater objectivity on dental examination. Disease recur- those patients who suffer from it. In the English literature,
rence is established with the appearance of new ulcers. Disease two models for the experimental evaluation of RAS have been
severity can be determined based on the number, size and loca- proposed, both using rabbits. One of the models induces ulcers
tion of the lesions, pain, duration, ulcer‑free periods (30) and with 50% acetic acid (33,34) and the other by surgical incision
the impact on patient quality of life (27,31). in the oral mucosa (35). Neither registered methods are involved
in the inflammatory processes described in RAS. As RAS is an
6. Microscopic characteristics immunologically‑mediated disease, the chemical and mechanical
induction of ulcers cannot be considered valid models.
The diagnosis of RAS is eminently clinical and is based on
careful examination. The incisional or excisional biopsy of 8. Treatment
ulcers is recommended only in cases of uncertainty, when the
presence of an oral disease producing ulcers or a malignancy Therapeutic alternatives focus on reducing painful symp-
is suspected (32). The microscopic characteristics of RAS toms (36). Clinically, dental surgeons at present can advise
are nonspecific. The pre‑ulcerative lesion shows subepithelial patients that the ulcers are likely to heal in 2 weeks, and in
 BIOMEDICAL REPORTS 11: 47-50, 2019 49

more complex cases, treatment based on topical corticosteroids Competing interests

can be implemented (37), which is the same approach used
for several diseases of unknown cause, including pemphigus, The authors declare that they have no competing interests.
pemphigoid and oral lichen planus. Despite the use of topical
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