Including Students with Disabilities in the Common Core > Module 3 > Reading 1: Cracking the Behavior Code

Cracking the Behavior Code

Nancy Rappaport and Jessica Minahan

Here are some strategies teachers can use to get through to their most challenging
students.

When, despite their best efforts, teachers feel A FAIR Plan

defeated by a disruptive student, it seems To help teachers remember the steps involved
they’re fighting a losing battle. These students in deciphering behavior and developing an
often have trouble regulating their emotions, effective plan, we’ve created the acronym
become inflexible and have outbursts, and leave FAIR: F is for understanding the function of
teachers feeling exhausted and incompetent. the behavior, A is for accommodations, I is for
Through our collaboration—one of us is a interaction strategies, and R is for responses.
child psychiatrist who works with at-risk chil- By adopting the FAIR plan, teachers can
dren; the other is a behavior analyst and spe- discover that inappropriate behavior is mal-
cial educator—we’ve developed an approach leable and temporary—and that they can help
that helps teachers come up with practical their students thrive. In this article, we present
interventions that can make a difference in stu- strategies for helping kids who are opposi-
dents’ day-to-day lives. It’s built on the premise tional, withdrawn, or anxious (see sidebars
that teachers can only control a few variables— on strategies that work with the oppositional,
such as the classroom environment and their withdrawn, or anxious child) because these
own behavior—in the lives of students with students often experience failure and are the
challenging behavior. Because of this, they most misunderstood in school.
must put preventative accommodations in The FAIR plan has changed the behavior of
place and recognize that how they respond students, many of whom were on the verge of
to students’ behavior has a huge impact. being sent to a self-contained classroom or out

Source: From “Cracking the Behavior Code,” by N. Rappaport and J. Minahan, 2012, Educational Leadership, 70(2),
pp. 18–25. Copyright 2012 by Nancy Rappaport and Jessica Minahan. Reprinted with permission.

| © 2013 by ASCD. All Rights Reserved. 1

Including Students with Disabilities in the Common Core > Module 3 > Reading 1: Cracking the Behavior Code

The Oppositional Child: Strategies That Work

The oppositional child typically has frequent tantrums and angry outbursts, excessively argues or ques-
tions rules, and often blames others for his or her mistakes. He or she often purposely annoys others
and may appear resentful of others.

Accommodations
• Modify the schedule, if possible, so the student can alternate between classes he likes and those he
may not like as much.
• Arrange an alternative recess with fewer students that involves a quiet, highly structured activity.
• Embed choice, such as allowing the student to pick the order of assignments, the materials to use, or
the place to sit to work.
• Give open-ended, flexible assignments.
• Offer hands-on experiential lessons.
• Encourage daily self-calming practice.

Interaction Strategies
• Use strength-based terminology to describe students (for example, instead of thinking they’re stub-
born, think that they’re good at standing up for themselves).
• Avoid power struggles.
• Avoid yes-or-no questions or saying, “OK?” when making a demand.
• Give a demand and move away, avoid making eye contact or hovering.
• Give indirect demands (such as, “Oops! Some of you still need to put your names on your papers”).

Response Strategies
• Use natural consequences as a motivator (instead of saying, “Do your spelling,” ask, “Oh, I wonder
whether you’ll do well on the quiz if you don’t do your spelling today?”).
• If a student asks a challenging question (such as, “Why do I have to do this stupid worksheet?”), set a
limit (such as, “You need to finish this worksheet before you can play the math game”).
• Set limits that are enforceable, reasonable, and clear and simple.
• Use incremental rewards and consequences (such as offering the student two free breaks per day).

of their district. It has also changed the perspec- Consider 3rd grader Ken, who currently lives
tive of teachers, who’ve come to realize that in a foster home. He struggles with reading,
these students need to be taught the skills to and when he gets frustrated, he’ll either hide
behave and that they require even more com- behind a bookshelf in Ms. Silva’s classroom or
passion and flexibility from their teachers, even charge for the door and then lurk in the hall-
though they may seem to be pushing away. way. He often growls when reprimanded and

| © 2013 by ASCD. All Rights Reserved. 2

Including Students with Disabilities in the Common Core > Module 3 > Reading 1: Cracking the Behavior Code

throws books off his desk, screaming things situation, or person. This can be easy to rec-
like, “You hate me and school sucks!” Ken ognize—for example, when Ken runs out of
pushes other students so he can be first in line, the classroom during reading. Sometimes it’s
and he has trouble sharing; he’ll grab all the less obvious—for instance, when kids argue to
materials when working on a project with other get out of doing an activity that makes them
students. One time when the principal repri- anxious. Common school procedures, such as
manded him, Ken exploded and slapped the time-outs or sending the student to the prin-
principal’s glasses off. cipal’s office, can reinforce escape-motivated
behavior because they remove the student
What’s the Function from the undesirable activity—just what the
of the Behavior? student wanted.
When working with students like Ken, it’s We can understand tangible behavior in two
important to avoid power struggles that may ways: when the function of the behavior is to
escalate the consequences and inadvertently obtain a tangible object like money or food or,
reinforce the negative behavior. Behavior hap- as in Ken’s case, when the function is to attain
pens for a reason and is a form of communica- a specific agenda. The student wants what he
tion; determining the intent or function of the wants when he wants it. Students who are self-
behavior—the F in our FAIR plan—enables us centered and have inflexible thinking often fall
to better understand the behavior and decide into this category. Some children with a history
how to intervene. of abuse or neglect may have a low frustration
Behavior analyst Mark Durand1 outlines four tolerance and operate with the assumption that
possible functions of behavior: to escape, to the only way to get their needs met is to grab
obtain a tangible thing, to engage in sensory the thing they want or overpower someone.
activities, and to get attention. These func- We see sensory behavior when a student is
tions describe the benefit students get from motivated by sensory input: Things feel good,
the behavior—a benefit they may not even be look good, taste good, or sound good. Hum-
aware of—and help us understand how to inter- ming loudly while writing, chewing on the end
vene to help students change the behavior. of a pencil, or standing rather than sitting while
Escape-motivated behavior occurs when working are all typical behaviors that fall into
a student attempts to avoid a task, demand, this category. These become problems when

| © 2013 by ASCD. All Rights Reserved. 3

Including Students with Disabilities in the Common Core > Module 3 > Reading 1: Cracking the Behavior Code

they interfere with learning, are disruptive, or adult or peer. This can present as the student
make students look odd to their peers. being belligerent, screaming, or continually
Finally, with attention-motivated behavior, interrupting the teacher. It can also work in the
the student tries to gain attention from an positive—that is, the girl who dresses up so a

The Withdrawn Child: Strategies That Work

The withdrawn child has low energy, interest, or motivation to do work. He or she is often irritable,
rarely expresses joy, and may be depressed. Young children with depression may experience head-
aches or stomachaches, refuse to go to school, act clingy with a teacher, or feel something bad is
going to happen. Older children may sulk, act bored, lose interest in friends and activities, and get
into trouble at school.

Accommodations
• Initiate a buddy system during recess, facilitated by an adult.
• Use pictures to help the student think of and maintain a topic.
• Teach multisensory, experiential lessons.
• Use the student’s own interests in the curriculum.
• Teach positive-thinking skills.
• Narrate the experience in the moment (for example, “You’ve done five math problems already, and
three students haven’t started yet”).

Interaction Strategies
• Be cautious in using humor, because the student may misconstrue it as sarcasm.
• Give positive feedback in a low-key way (“I like the way you helped your friend” rather than “You’re a
great kid!”).
• Reframe the student’s negative perceptions (in response to a student who says, “I can’t write!” say,
“Spelling was challenging today”).
• Offer evidence to dispute negative perceptions (in response to a student who says, “I’m stupid!” say,
“Ann got that question wrong, too. Do you think she’s stupid?”).
• Photograph positive social interactions.

Response Strategies
• Avoid one-on-one talks.
• Avoid overhelping or overprompting the student.
• When a student misperceives a social situation, help him or her understand the situation using a
comic strip strategy (for example, to illustrate your comment “She wasn’t thinking you were stupid—
she wasn’t even looking at you when you dropped the ball,” draw a picture, cartoon-style, that shows
a ball on the ground and a student looking the other way, thinking of something else).

| © 2013 by ASCD. All Rights Reserved. 4

Including Students with Disabilities in the Common Core > Module 3 > Reading 1: Cracking the Behavior Code

boy will notice her or a child who works hard on engage adults’ attention is to act inappro-
his reading so the teacher will praise him. priately. A familiar example is fighting with a
sibling when a parent is on the phone to get
Negative Is Better Than Nothing the parent’s attention.

Teachers are sometimes surprised that nega-

Taking ABC Notes
tive attention, such as lecturing or redirecting a
child, can reinforce attention-seeking behavior. When a student has a behavior incident,

For some kids—including those with social teachers document the incident either in their

deficits who may have difficulty recognizing class notebook, in an e-mail to the principal or

more subtle communication—even negative parent, or in a separate journal. Spending the

attention is better than no attention. Kids may time to take these notes is worthwhile because

prefer negative attention because it’s dramatic; it contributes to a solution.

efficient (easier and faster); predictable; and Taking notes in an ABC format2 can help

more obvious than positive attention. teachers see patterns in students’ behavior. A

Consider Rebekka, a 6th grader with is for antecedent (what happens immediately

Asperger syndrome, who comes from a stable before an incident); B is the description of the

home. She’s often loud and interrupts others. student’s behavior; and C is for consequence

When she enters her science class, she’ll often (the staff member’s or a peer’s immediate

shout out inappropriate things, asking certain response to the student’s behavior).
students whether they’re gay or telling the Ken’s teacher, Ms. Silva, takes ABC notes
teacher that “this is BS!” and that he clearly to observe what’s happening in the environ-
never went to college. When she gets upset, ment right before Ken’s incidents of aggressive
she yells. behavior and to look at the consequences to
If Rebekka enters the classroom quietly, she help her recognize patterns. She sees from her
may not be able to predict when the teacher notes (fig. 1, p. 6) that when she puts one glue
will give her attention. But if she swears, she stick on a table for three students (the anteced-
knows that the teacher is going to attend to ent), Ken hits other kids to get it first. When
her behavior immediately. Rebekka may have students line up for music class (the anteced-
learned at home that the best way she can ent), Ken pushes a student so he can be first in

| © 2013 by ASCD. All Rights Reserved. 5

Including Students with Disabilities in the Common Core > Module 3 > Reading 1: Cracking the Behavior Code

FIGURE 1. ABC Notes for Ken’s Aggressive Behavior

Date/Time/
Duration Activity Antecedent Behavior Consequence
3/28 Making math Ms. Silva puts Ken shoves Tanya Ms. Silva has Ken
10:15 a.m. pinwheels one glue stick on as she reaches for work at a side
1 min. the table for the the glue stick and table by himself.
three kids. grabs the glue
stick, holding it
under the table.
4/10 Transition to Students walk Ken pushes the Ms. Silva has him
1:30 p.m. music in line to music student in front sit out during
1 min. class. of him to be first music class.
in line.
4/13 Transition to Teacher tells kids Ken races to the Student goes
12:12 p.m. lunch to line up. front of the line, behind him in
30 sec. pulls the leading line.
student by the
shirt, and says,
“I’m first.”
4/20 Library Students have Ken pinches the Librarian sends
9:30 a.m. to wait in line to student next to him back to class.
45 sec. get their books him in line.
checked out.
4/29 Vocabulary bingo Teacher tells Ken Ken grabs the Ms. Silva has him
2:20 p.m. game he needs to wait dice out of Cam- go back to his
3 min. his turn. It’s Cam- eron’s hand and seat.
eron’s turn to roll rolls anyway.
the dice.

line. The notes indicate what triggers him; they why someone else has to be first sometimes
also highlight his skill deficits. In this instance, and why someone else may need the glue stick.
Ken has trouble waiting to be first and waiting Ms. Silva can also see how effective her
to get an object. He probably also has difficulty responses were. The notes show that Ken
with perspective-taking: He can’t understand (1) successfully got the glue stick to himself,

| © 2013 by ASCD. All Rights Reserved. 6

Including Students with Disabilities in the Common Core > Module 3 > Reading 1: Cracking the Behavior Code

(2) was first in line and then was able to sit out of the five incidents, Ken achieved his agenda.
during music, (3) was first in line going to lunch, Knowing this, Ms. Silva will think about respond-
(4) lost his library time, and (5) wasn’t permitted ing in a way that’s more likely to reduce Ken’s
to use dice during vocabulary bingo. In three aggressive behavior rather than reinforce it.

The Anxious Child: Strategies That Work

The anxious child may be easily frustrated, startled, or upset. He or she may have difficulty completing
work; have somatic complaints, such as stomachaches or trouble breathing; and exhibit fear, irritability,
or anger. He or she may engage in ritualistic or repetitive behavior, have inconsistent patterns in what
triggers problem behavior, or frequently express worry.

Accommodations
• Provide a safe space in or out of the classroom for the student to go to when feeling anxious.
• Schedule regular breaks.
• Arrange an alternative lunch with at least two peers.
• Consider offering untimed tests.
• For schoolwork, try to present only a few problems at a time.
• Encourage daily self-calming practices—such as taking a break, reading, deep breathing, or progres-
sive muscle relaxation—in or out of the classroom.
• Have the student create a self-regulation chart: “What to do when I feel. …”

Interaction Strategies
• Use concise language (“Computer time is over,” as opposed to “You’ve already been at the com-
puter 15 minutes, and Jennifer hasn’t had a chance yet, so you need to get off”).
• Use leadership-building and self-esteem-building activities.
• Apply noncontingent reinforcement (for example, “Hey, buddy, why don’t you take an extra 10 min-
utes of computer time?”).
• Work on explicit relationship building (for example, bringing the student with you when you make
copies).

Response Strategies
• Avoid responses that reinforce escape-motivated behavior, such as time-outs or removal from class.
• Allow the student to earn breaks for exhibiting appropriate behavior.
• Assign rewards or points when the student demonstrates a self-regulation skill.
• Clearly state for the student his or her level of anxiety when the student shows signs of becoming
anxious.

| © 2013 by ASCD. All Rights Reserved. 7

Including Students with Disabilities in the Common Core > Module 3 > Reading 1: Cracking the Behavior Code

Which Accommodations •  A calming box (a box of objects that

Should We Use? calm the student down, such as a weighted
Once we know the function or intent of the ball, a stuffed animal, an action figure, a por-
student’s behavior, it’s easier to create a plan table music player with music, and so on).
to change the behavior. The A in FAIR stands •  The use of technology—such as spell
for the accommodations teachers can make check—to reduce Ken’s aversion to writing.
to help the student succeed. In suggesting •  Instruction in self-regulation strate-
accommodations, we want to reduce the trig- gies, such as labeling his emotions in the
gering aspects of the environment as well as moment, and self-calming strategies, such
explicitly teach replacement behaviors and as deep breathing or counting to 10.
underdeveloped skills. •  An aide from another room to help Ken
For Ken, these accommodations might practice self-calming techniques once or
include twice a day in the calming corner.

•  An assigned line order.

Replacement Behaviors
•  A “waiting bag” (activities, such as
a Rubik’s cube, to occupy him while he During the time it takes for students to improve

waits). underdeveloped skills—such as Ken learning to

•  Lunch in the classroom with a couple wait, take another’s perspective, share objects,

of his peers instead of in the cafeteria. An self-regulate, and think flexibly—it’s important

adult should be present to remind Ken not to teach them how to get their needs met

to bully his peers or cheat at any games more appropriately. By providing a replace-

the students might play during this time. ment behavior that’s not too difficult to handle,

•  A 20–5 schedule (20 minutes of school- teachers help students behave more appropri-

work followed by a 5-minute break) to help ately while gaining the skills they need so they

him build tolerance to handle more work. no longer want to avoid the task at hand.

•  A safe, calming corner in the classroom For example, it will take time for Ms. Silva

Ken can go to, with Ken receiving points and the school counselor to address Ken’s

for using it. underlying learning disorder and skill deficits.

| © 2013 by ASCD. All Rights Reserved. 8

Including Students with Disabilities in the Common Core > Module 3 > Reading 1: Cracking the Behavior Code

In the meantime, Ms. Silva would like him to be behavioral attributes that can show the student
able to ask for a break—an acceptable way to what he or she is feeling (for example, “You’re
get his needs met—instead of throwing every- clenching your fists, your voice is loud, you’re
thing off his desk or walking out of the room. frustrated”). With practice, students can learn
The replacement behavior needs to be to assign themselves a self-calming strategy in
as easy to implement as the inappropriate these moments and avoid an explosive incident.

behavior, or it won’t stick. Ms. Silva gives Ken

a “break card” to keep on his desk. When he
Which Interaction Strategies
Work Best?
needs a break, he can hold it up and then go
The I in FAIR is for interaction strategies. Many
to the room’s reading corner to sit in plush
students who have challenging behavior have
seats and take deep breaths. This replace-
a history of school anxiety, school failure, and
ment behavior is appropriate because there’s
difficult relationships with authority. Teachers
no requirement to use language or wait for
need concrete, easy-to-implement strategies
permission—Ken doesn’t have the skills to do
to nurture students and convey to them that
either when he’s upset.
they are liked, respected, and safe. Building
such a relationship can enable students to take
Teaching Self-Regulation
risks and move out of their comfort zone.
Teachers often recognize that students may Teachers are often skilled at positive rein-
have a low frustration tolerance and need help forcement (for example, saying “Good job!”
learning how to change their behavior when when a student acts appropriately), but they
they’re overwhelmed. But they may not be sure may not frequently use noncontingent rein-
about the necessary skills to teach. Most stu- forcement. We call this “random acts of kind-
dents with challenging behavior lack the skill of ness”: ways to recognize students for who they
self-regulation. are rather than for what they’ve done. When
Just as they would do with all skill deficits, students get stuck in a negative cycle with
teachers need to explicitly teach this skill. This a teacher, if the teacher takes time to show
begins with teaching students to identify their she cares—by bringing in their favorite snack,
own feelings. The teacher labels the student’s giving them a thumbs-up sign of recognition,
emotion in the moment and then names specific or offering them a sticker “just because I like

| © 2013 by ASCD. All Rights Reserved. 9

Including Students with Disabilities in the Common Core > Module 3 > Reading 1: Cracking the Behavior Code

you”—these gestures can be crucial in helping What Response Strategies

students stop their challenging behavior. They Should We Use?
learn that the teacher likes them for who they
The R in FAIR is for response strategies. How
are, not just when they behave well.
a teacher responds to an agitated student can
How a teacher gives initial directions and
escalate, deescalate, or maintain his level of
talks with students has a huge impact on their
agitation. First of all, the teacher must avoid
behavior. One strategy is to give students
reinforcing the function of the behavior. If an
some choice in a direction. For example, for
attention-motivated student starts to argue
an oppositional child, instead of saying, “Line
and the teacher takes her into the hallway for a
up!” try, “Do you want to walk in the front or
stern talk, the teacher has accidently reinforced
the back of the line?” You can also build a
the behavior. The student is likely to argue
delay into the direction, giving students control
again the next day.
over when they comply. Rather than saying,
If Ken starts to argue, instead of respond-
“You need to clean your desk right now!”
ing verbally and perpetuating the argument,
which an oppositional student will resist, try, the teacher might write him a note that says,
“You need to clean your desk before lunch.” “please start reading quietly” and then quickly
Interaction strategies for Ken might include walk away, busying herself in another conversa-
•  Avoiding yes-or-no questions. tion or task (preferably with her back to him).
•  Using declarative language whenever This response will not only deescalate a situa-
possible (statements rather than questions tion that could have become loud and explo-
or commands, such as “I see this is broken. sive, it will also reduce the likelihood that Ken
We can fix it with some tape”). will argue tomorrow because the teacher didn’t

•  Embedding choice in instruction. reinforce his behavior with attention.

•  Using humor whenever possible.

•  Offering extended time for compliance It’s FAIR
with requests. As a result of his FAIR plan, Ken learned to
•  Offering positive and noncontingent count to 10, take deep breaths, and appropri-
reinforcement. ately ask for breaks when he became frus-
•  Building on the relationship by having trated. Ms. Silva noticed it took him longer to
lunch together once each month. get frustrated and that he was better able to

| © 2013 by ASCD. All Rights Reserved. 10

Including Students with Disabilities in the Common Core > Module 3 > Reading 1: Cracking the Behavior Code

tolerate not being first in line. After only three Endnotes

weeks of being on the plan, he stopped being
Durand, V. M. (1990). Severe behavior prob-
1

aggressive with his peers. Moreover, his mother

lems: A functional communication training
reported he was better at doing his homework
approach. New York: Guilford Press.
at home.
We adapted the ABC notes concept from two
2

Although teachers may feel at times that

sources: “A Method to Integrate Descriptive
they cannot control challenging behavior, there
and Experimental Field Studies at the Level
are variables they can control. By understand-
of Data and Empirical Concepts,” by S. W.
ing what the student is communicating, figur-
Bijou, R. F. Peterson, and M. H. Ault (1968).
ing out replacement behaviors, and building
Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 1(2)
a strong relationship, teachers discover that
and Applying Behavior-Analysis Procedures
seemingly intractable behavior can diminish
with Children and Youth, by B. Sulzer-Azaroff
and students can thrive.
and G. R. Mayer (Holt, Rinehart, & Winston,
1977).

Nancy Rappaport (www.nancyrappaport.com) is an assistant professor of psychiatry at Harvard

Medical School and director of school mental health programs at Cambridge Health Alliance,
Cambridge, Massachusetts.

Jessica Minahan (www.jessicaminahan.com) is a behavioral analyst for the Newton, Massachu-

setts’s public schools. They are coauthors of The Behavior Code: A Practical Guide to Under-
standing and Teaching the Most Challenging Students (Harvard Education Press, 2012).

| © 2013 by ASCD. All Rights Reserved. 11