Analog To Digital Converters

PC Interfacing
Fourth Level
Lecture Twenty-One
Analog to Digital Converters

Analog to Digital Converters
Analog to Digital Converters (ADC) are an electronic integrated circuit (IC)
which transforms a signal from analog (continuous) to digital (discrete) form. Analog
signals are directly measurable quantities. Digital signals only have two states. For
digital computer, we refer to binary states, 0 and 1.
Why ADC is needed

1- ADC is needed for many reasons but the most important are:
Microprocessors can only perform complex processing on digitized signals.
2- When signals are in digital form they are less susceptible to the deleterious
effects of additive noise.
3- Also ADC Provides a link between the analog world of transducers and the
digital world of signal processing and data handling.
Application of ADC
ADCs are used virtually everywhere where an analog signal has to be processed,
stored, or transported in digital form. Some examples of ADC usage are:
1- Digital volt meters, 2- cell phone, 3- thermocouples, 4- and digital
oscilloscope.
Microcontrollers commonly used 8, 10, 12, or 16 bit ADCs.
Classification of ADC according to accuracy and speed
ADC can be classified into two general groups based on the accuracy and speed:
The first group includes successive-approximation, counter, and flash-type converters.
The second group includes integrator converters and voltage to frequency converters.
The tradeoff between two groups is based on accuracy VS speed. The successive-
approximation and flash-type converters are faster but generally less accurate than the
integrator and voltage to frequency type converters. Furthermore, the flash-type is
expensive and difficult to design for high accuracy.
The most commonly used ADC: The successive-approximation and the integrator.
The successive-approximation is used in applications such as data loggers, and
instrumentation, where conversion speed is important. The integrator types are used in
applications such as digital meter, and monitoring system where the conversion accuracy
is critical.
ADC process:
There are two steps process as shown in figure below:
1. Sampling and Holding (S/H).
2. Quantizing and Encoding (Q/E).
Sampling and Holding:

It is a process of taking a sufficient number of discrete values at point on a
waveform that will define the shape of waveform. The more samples you take, the more
accurately you will define the waveform. It converts analog signal into series of
impulses, each representing amplitude of the signal at given point as shown in figure
below.
Quantizing and Encoding:
Quantizing - is the process of converting the sampled continuous signals into discrete-
valued data (set of finite states).
Encoding - assigning a digital word or number to each state and matching it to the input
signal.
The number of possible states that the converter can output is:
N=2n
Where n is the number of bits in the ADC.
Example: if you have 0-10V signals. What is the Discrete Voltage Ranges and Output
Binary Equivalent by using 3 bit A/D converter?
Solution:
N=2n
For a 3 bit A/D converter, N=23=8. (Number of possible states)
Analog quantization size:
Q = (Vmax – Vmin) / N = (10V – 0V) / 8 = 1.25V
Step 1: Quantizing:
Step 2: Encoding:
Here we assign the digital value (binary number) to each state for the computer to read.
Resolution:
Resolution is the number of bits used for conversion (8 bits, 12 bits, …)
 Resolution (number of discrete values the converter can produce) = Analog
Quantization size (Q)
 (Q) = Vrange / 2^n, where Vrange is the range of analog voltages which can be
represented
 In our previous example: Q = 1.25V, this is a high resolution. A lower resolution
would be if we used a 2-bit converter, then the resolution would be 10/2^2 =
2.50V.
Accuracy of A/D Conversion:

There are two ways to best improve accuracy of A/D conversion:
 Increasing the resolution which improves the accuracy in measuring the amplitude
of the analog signal.
 Increasing the sampling rate which increases the maximum frequency that can be
measured.
Overall Better Accuracy: Increasing both the sampling rate and the resolution
you can obtain better accuracy in your AD signals.
ADC Specifications:
 Conversion time
 Resolution
 Accuracy
 Linearity
 Missing code
Types of A/D Converters

 Flash ADC
 Delta-Sigma ADC
 Dual Slope (integrating) ADC
 Successive Approximation ADC
****************************************************
1. Flash A/D Converter
Fundamental Components
Resistors use the resistors to form a ladder voltage divider, which divides the reference
voltage into equal intervals.
Comparators Consists of a series of comparators, which comparing the input signal to a
unique reference voltage.
Priority encoder the comparator outputs connect to the inputs of a priority encoder
circuit, which produces a binary output.
How does it work?
 Uses the comparators to determine in which the input voltage Vin is exceed or not
the Vref.
 When the analog input voltage exceeds the reference voltage at each comparator,
the comparator outputs will sequentially saturate to a high state.
 The priority encoder generates a binary number based on the highest-order active
input, ignoring all other active inputs.
Advantages and Disadvantages

 Simplest in terms of operational theory, most efficient in terms of speed, very fast
 Lower resolution, Expensive, for each additional output bit, the number of
comparators is increase.
2. Sigma Delta ADC
Main Components
 Resistors
 Integrator
 Capacitor
 Comparators
 Control Logic
How does it work?

 Input is over sampled, and goes to integrator.
 The integration is then compared to ground.
 Iterates and produces a serial bit stream
 Output is a serial bit stream with # of 1’s proportional to Vin

 High resolution, No need for precision components external.
 Slow due to oversampling.
3. Dual Slope Converter
Fundamental components
 Integrator
 Electronically Controlled Switches
 Counter
 Clock
 Control Logic
 Comparator
The Dual Slope ADC functions in this manner:
 When an analog value is applied, the capacitor begins to charge in a linear manner
and the oscillator passes to the counter.
 The counter continues to count until it reaches a predetermined value. Once this
value is reached the count stops and the counter is reset. The control logic
switches the input to the first comparator to a reference voltage, providing a
discharge path for the capacitor.
 As the capacitor discharges the counter counts.
 When the capacitor voltage reaches the reference voltage the count stops and the
value is stored in the register.
 Conversion result is insensitive to errors in the component values, High Accuracy.
 Slow, Accuracy is dependent on the use of precision external components, Cost.
4. Successive Approximation ADC

 Much faster than the Dual Slope.
 A comparator and a DAC are used in the process.
 A Successive Approximation Register (SAR) is added to the circuit
 Instead of counting up in binary sequence, this register counts by trying all values
of bits starting with the MSB and finishing at the LSB.
 The register monitors the comparators output to see if the binary count is greater
or less than the analog signal input and adjusts the bits accordingly.

 Capable of high speed and reliable, medium accuracy compared to other ADC
types, Good tradeoff between speed and cost.
 Higher resolution successive approximation ADC’s will be slower.
ADC Specifications:
 Conversion time
 Resolution
 Accuracy
 Linearity
 Missing code

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PC Interfacing

Analog to Digital Converters

Why ADC is needed

Microcontrollers commonly used 8, 10, 12, or 16 bit ADCs.

Classification of ADC according to accuracy and speed

The first group includes successive-approximation, counter, and flash-type converters.

Sampling and Holding:

Accuracy of A/D Conversion:

Types of A/D Converters

1. Flash A/D Converter

Advantages and Disadvantages

2. Sigma Delta ADC

How does it work?

Advantages and Disadvantages

4. Successive Approximation ADC

Advantages and Disadvantages

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