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Introdution

Robotics is a relatively young field of modern technology that crosses


traditional engineering boundaries. Understanding the complexity of
robots and their applications requires knowledge of electrical
engineering, mechanical engineering, systems and industrial engineering,
computer science, economics, and mathematics. New disciplines of
engineering, such as manufacturing engineering, applications
engineering, and knowledge engineering have emerged to deal with the
complexity of the field of robotics and factory automation.

What is an industrial robot arm?


An industrial robot arm is a series of links (rigid body) connected
together by joints. Where a joint can be revolute (rotational) or
prismatic (translational).

General information:
A robot arm is known as manipulator. It is composed of a set of joints
separated in space by the arm links. The joints are where the motion in
the arm occurs. In basic, a robot arm consists of the parts: base, joints,
links, and a grappler. The base is the basic part of the arm. It may be
fixed or active. The joint is flexible and joints two separated links. The
last part is grappler. The grappler is used to hold and move the objects.
Figure1 shows these parts.

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Fig.1.1 basic robot arm: 1 Base, 2 Joint, 3 Link and the last part is grappler.

Application:
 Space
 Sea
 Nuclear
 Automotive industry
 Steel industry
 Medicine

In general, here it should be define the robot to recognize the difference


between the robot and industrial robotic arm, so the question is:
What is robot?
Robot is a machine that collects the information about the environment
using some sensors and makes a decision automatically. People prefer it
to use different field, such as industry, some dangerous jobs including
radioactive effects. In this point, robots are regarded as a server. They can
be managed easily and provide many advantages.
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In this text the term robot will mean a computer controlled industrial
manipulator of the type shown in Figure 1.2. This type of robot is
essentially a mechanical arm operating under computer control.

Fig. 1.2 The ABB IRB6600 Robot. Photo courtesy of ABB.

Robotics science
In general the robotics science consists of the following:
 Robot kinematics. (direct kinematic and inverse kinematic)
 Robot dynamics. (highly non-linear differential equations)
 Robot path planner. (how to move a robot)
 Robot control. (how to control a robot)
 Robotics vision.

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1.1 MATHEMATICAL MODELING OF ROBOTS

While robots are themselves mechanical systems, in this text we will be


primarily concerned with developing and manipulating mathematical
models for robots.

1.1.1 Symbolic Representation of Robots


Robot Manipulators are composed of links connected by joints to form a
kinematic chain. Joints are typically rotary (revolute) or linear
(prismatic). A revolute joint is like a hinge and allows relative rotation
between two links. A prismatic joint allows a linear relative motion
between two links. We denote revolute joints by R and prismatic joints by
P, and draw them as shown in Figure 1.3. For example, a three-link arm
with three revolute joints is an RRR arm.

Fig. 1.3 Symbolic representation of robot joints.

Each joint represents the interconnection between two links. We denote


the axis of rotation of a revolute joint, or the axis along which a prismatic
joint translates by zi if the joint is the interconnection of links i and i + 1.
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The joint variables, denoted by ϴ for a revolute joint and d for the
prismatic joint, represent the relative displacement between adjacent
links.

1.1.2 The Configuration Space


A configuration of a manipulator is a complete specification of the
location of every point on the manipulator. The set of all possible
configurations is called the configuration space.
In our case, if we know the values for the joint variables (i.e., the joint
angle for revolute joints, or the joint offset for prismatic joints), then it is
straightforward to infer the position of any point on the manipulator,
since the individual links of the manipulator are assumed to be rigid, and
the base of the manipulator is assumed to be fixed. Therefore, in this text,
we will represent a configuration by a set of values for the joint variables.
We will denote this vector of values by q, and say that the robot is in
configuration q when the joint variables take on the values q1 · · · qn, with
qi = ϴi for a revolute joint and qi = d1 for a prismatic joint.

Degrees-Of-Freedom (DOF)
An object is said to have n degrees-of-freedom (DOF) if its configuration
can be minimally specified by n parameters. Thus, the number of DOF is
equal to the dimension of the configuration space.
For a robot manipulator, the number of joints determines the number
DOF.
A rigid object in three-dimensional space has six DOF: three for
positioning and three for orientation (e.g., roll, pitch and yaw angles).
Therefore, a manipulator should typically possess at least six independent
DOF. With fewer than six DOF the arm cannot reach every point in its
work environment with arbitrary orientation. Certain applications such as
reaching around or behind obstacles may require more than six DOF. A
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manipulator having more than six links is referred to as a kinematically
redundant manipulator. The difficulty of controlling a manipulator
increases rapidly with the number of links.

1.1.3 The State Space


A configuration provides an instantaneous description of the geometry of
a manipulator, but says nothing about its dynamic response. In contrast,
the state of the manipulator is a set of variables that, together with a
description of the manipulator’s dynamics and input, are sufficient to
determine any future state of the manipulator. The state space is the set of
all possible states. In the case of a manipulator arm, the dynamics are
Newtonian, and can be specified by generalizing the familiar equation F
= ma. Thus, a state of the manipulator can be specified by giving the
values for the joint variables q and for joint velocities q˙ (acceleration is
related to the derivative of joint velocities). We typically represent the
state as a vector x = (q, q˙)T . The dimension of the state space is thus 2n
if the system has n DOF.

1.1.4 The Workspace


The workspace of a manipulator is the total volume swept out by the end
effector as the manipulator executes all possible motions.
The workspace is often broken down into a reachable workspace and a
dexterous workspace. The reachable workspace is the entire set of
points reachable by the manipulator, whereas the dexterous workspace
consists of those points that the manipulator can reach with an arbitrary
orientation of the end-effector. Obviously the dexterous workspace is a
subset of the reachable workspace.

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Robotic Systems
A robot manipulator should be viewed as more than just a series of
mechanical linkages. The mechanical arm is just one component in an
overall Robotic System, illustrated in following Figure , which consists of
the arm, external power source, end-of-arm tooling, external and internal
sensors, computer interface, and control computer. Even the programmed
software should be considered as an integral part of the overall system,
since the manner in which the robot is programmed and controlled can
have a major impact on its performance and subsequent range of
applications.

Accuracy and Repeatability


The accuracy of a manipulator is a measure of how close the manipulator
can come to a given point within its workspace. Repeatability is a
measure of how close a manipulator can return to a previously taught
point.

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Wrists and End-Effectors
The joints in the kinematic chain between the arm and end effector are
referred to as the wrist. The wrist joints are nearly always all revolute. It
is increasingly common to design manipulators with spherical wrists, by
which we mean wrists whose three joint axes intersect at a common
point. The spherical wrist is represented symbolically in the following
Figure

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1.2 Common Kinematic Arrangements Of Manipulators

Although there are many possible ways use prismatic and revolute joints
to construct kinematic chains, in practice only a few of these are
commonly used. Here we briefly describe several arrangements that are
most typical.

1.2.1 Articulated manipulator (RRR)


The articulated manipulator is also called a revolute, or anthropomorphic
manipulator. The ABB IRB1400 articulated arm is shown in Figure 1.4

Fig. 1.4 The ABB IRB1400 Robot. Photo courtesy of ABB.


In this arrangements joint axis z2 is parallel to z1 and both z1 and z2 are
perpendicular to z0. This kind of manipulator is known as an elbow
manipulator. The structure and terminology associated with the elbow
manipulator are shown in Figure 1.5. Its workspace is shown in Figure
1.6.

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Fig. 1.5 Structure of the elbow manipulator.

Fig. 1.6 Workspace of the elbow manipulator.

1.3.2 Spherical Manipulator (RRP)


By replacing the third or elbow joint in the revolute manipulator by a
prismatic joint one obtains the spherical manipulator shown in Figure 1.7.

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Fig. 1.7 The spherical manipulator.

Figure 1.8 shows the Stanford Arm, one of the most well-known
spherical robots.

Fig. 1.11 The Stanford Arm. Photo courtesy of the Coordinated Science Lab,
University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign.

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The workspace of a spherical manipulator is shown in Figure 1.9.

Fig. 1.12 Workspace of the spherical manipulator.

1.3.3 SCARA Manipulator (RRP)


The SCARA arm (for Selective Compliant Articulated Robot for
Assembly) shown in Figure 1.13 is a popular manipulator, which, as its
name suggests, is tailored for assembly operations. Although the SCARA
has an RRP structure, it is quite different from the spherical manipulator
in both appearance and in its range of applications. Unlike the spherical
design, which has z0 perpendicular to z1, and z1 perpendicular to z2, the
SCARA has z0, z1, and z2 mutually parallel. Figure 1.14 shows the Epson
E2L653S, a manipulator of this type.
The SCARA manipulator workspace is shown in Figure 1.15.

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Fig. 1.13 The SCARA (Selective Compliant Articulated Robot for Assembly).

Fig. 1.14 The Epson E2L653S SCARA Robot. Photo Courtesy of Epson.

Fig. 1.15 Workspace of the SCARA manipulator.

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1.3.4 Cylindrical Manipulator (RPP)

The cylindrical manipulator is shown in Figure 1.16. The first joint is


revolute and produces a rotation about the base, while the second and
third joints are prismatic. As the name suggests, the joint variables are the
cylindrical coordinates of the end-effector with respect to the base. A
cylindrical robot, the Seiko RT3300, is shown in Figure 1.17, with its
workspace shown in Figure 1.18.

Fig. 1.16 The cylindrical manipulator.

Fig. 1.17 The Seiko RT3300 Robot. Photo courtesy of Seiko.

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Fig. 1.18 Workspace of the cylindrical manipulator.

1.3.5 Cartesian manipulator (PPP)

A manipulator whose first three joints are prismatic is known as a


Cartesian manipulator, shown in Figure 1.19.
For the Cartesian manipulator the joint variables are the Cartesian
coordinates of the end-effector with respect to the base. As might be
expected the kinematic description of this manipulator is the simplest of
all manipulators.
Cartesian manipulators are useful for table-top assembly applications and,
as gantry robots, for transfer of material or cargo. An example of a
Cartesian robot, from Epson-Seiko, is shown in Figure 1.20. The
workspace of a Cartesian manipulator is shown in Figure 1.21.

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Fig. 1.19 The Cartesian manipulator.

Fig. 1.20 The Epson Cartesian Robot. Photo courtesy of Epson.

Fig. 1.21 Workspace of the Cartesian manipulator.


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1.3 A typical application

A typical application involving an industrial manipulator is shown in


Figure 1.22.

Fig. 1.22 Two-link planar robot example.

The manipulator is shown with a grinding tool that it must use to remove
a certain amount of metal from a surface. In the present text we are
concerned with the following question:
What are the basic issues to be resolved and what must we learn in order
to be able to program a robot to perform such tasks?
The ability to answer this question for a full six degree-of-freedom
manipulator represents the goal of the present text. The answer is too
complicated to be presented at this point.
We can, however, use the simple two-link planar mechanism to illustrate
some of the major issues involved and to preview the topics covered in
this text.

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Suppose we wish to move the manipulator from its home position to
position A, from which point the robot is to follow the contour of the
surface S to the point B, at constant velocity, while maintaining a
prescribed force F normal to the surface. In so doing the robot will cut or
grind the surface according to a predetermined specification. To
accomplish this and even more general tasks, a we must solve a number
of problems. Below we give examples of these problems, all of which
will be treated in more detail in the remainder of the text.

Forward Kinematics
The first problem encountered is to describe both the position of the tool
and the locations A and B (and most likely the entire surface S) with
respect to a common coordinate system.
In Chapter 2 we give some background on representations of coordinate
systems and transformations among various coordinate systems.
Typically, the manipulator will be able to sense its own position in some
manner using internal sensors (position encoders located at joints 1 and 2)
that can measure directly the joint angles ϴ1 and ϴ2. We also need
therefore to express the positions A and B in terms of these joint angles.
This leads to the forward kinematics problem studied in Chapter 3, which
is to determine the position and orientation of the end-effector or tool in
terms of the joint variables.
It is customary to establish a fixed coordinate system, called the world or
base frame to which all objects including the manipulator are referenced.
In this case we establish the base coordinate frame o0x0y0 at the base of
the robot, as shown in Figure 1.23.

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Fig. 1.23 Coordinate frames for two-link planar robot.

The coordinates (x, y) of the tool are expressed in this coordinate frame as

in which α1 and α2 are the lengths of the two links, respectively. Also the
orientation of the tool frame relative to the base frame is given by the
direction cosines of the x2 and y2 axes relative to the x0 and y0 axes, that
is,

which we may combine into an orientation matrix

Equations (1.1), (1.2) and (1.3) are called the forward kinematic
equations for this arm. For a six degree-of-freedom robot these equations

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are quite complex and cannot be written down as easily as for the two-
link manipulator.
The general procedure that we discuss in Chapter 3 establishes coordinate
frames at each joint and allows one to transform systematically among
these frames using matrix transformations. The procedure that we use is
referred to as the Denavit-Hartenberg convention. We then use
homogeneous coordinates and homogeneous transformations to simplify
the transformation among coordinate frames.

Inverse Kinematics
Now, given the joint angles ϴ1, ϴ2 we can determine the end-effector
coordinates x and y. In order to command the robot to move to location A
we need the inverse; that is, we need the joint variables ϴ1, ϴ2 in terms
of the x and y coordinates of A. This is the problem of inverse kinematics.
In other words, given x and y in the forward kinematic Equations (1.1)
and (1.2), we wish to solve for the joint angles. Since the forward
kinematic equations are nonlinear, a solution may not be easy to find, nor
is there a unique solution in general.
We can see in the case of a two-link planar mechanism that there may be
no solution, for example if the given (x, y) coordinates are out of reach of
the manipulator. If the given (x, y) coordinates are within the
manipulator’s reach there may be two solutions as shown in Figure 1.24,
the so-called elbow up and elbow down configurations, or there may be
exactly one solution if the manipulator must be fully extended to reach
the point. There may even be an infinite number of solutions in some
cases.

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Fig. 1.24 Multiple inverse kinematic solutions.

Consider the diagram of Figure 1.25.

Fig. 1.25 Solving for the joint angles of a two-link planar arm.

Using the Law of Cosines we see that the angle ϴ2 is given by

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We could now determine ϴ2 as:

However, a better way to find ϴ2is to notice that if cos(ϴ2) is given by


Equation (1.4) then sin(ϴ2) is given as

and, hence, ϴ2 can be found by

The advantage of this latter approach is that both the elbow-up and elbow
down solutions are recovered by choosing the positive and negative signs
in Equation (1.7), respectively.
It is left as an exercise to show that ϴ1 is now given as

Notice that the angle ϴ1 depends on ϴ2. This makes sense physically
since we would expect to require a different value for ϴ1, depending on
which solution is chosen for ϴ2.

Velocity Kinematics
In order to follow a contour at constant velocity, or at any prescribed
velocity, we must know the relationship between the velocity of the tool
and the joint velocities. In this case we can differentiate Equations (1.1)
and (1.2) to obtain

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The matrix J defined by Equation (1.10) is called the Jacobian of the
manipulator and is a fundamental object to determine for any
manipulator. The determination of the joint velocities from the end-
effector velocities is conceptually simple since the velocity relationship is
linear. Thus the joint velocities are found from the end-effector velocities
via the inverse Jacobian

Fig. 1.26 A singular configuration.


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The determination of such singular configurations is important for several
reasons.
At singular configurations there are infinitesimal motions that are
unachievable; that is, the manipulator end-effector cannot move in certain
directions.
In the above cases the end effector cannot move in the positive x2
direction when ϴ2 = 0. Singular configurations are also related to the
nonuniqueness of solutions of the inverse kinematics. For example, for a
given end-effector position, there are in general two possible solutions to
the inverse kinematics. Note that a singular configuration separates these
two solutions in the sense that the manipulator cannot go from one
configuration to the other without passing through a singularity. For
many applications it is important to plan manipulator motions in such a
way that singular configurations are avoided.

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Homework 1
1.14, 1.15, 1.19, 1.20, 1.22, 1.25

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