Robotics PDF
Robotics PDF
Robotics PDF
Introdution
General information:
A robot arm is known as manipulator. It is composed of a set of joints
separated in space by the arm links. The joints are where the motion in
the arm occurs. In basic, a robot arm consists of the parts: base, joints,
links, and a grappler. The base is the basic part of the arm. It may be
fixed or active. The joint is flexible and joints two separated links. The
last part is grappler. The grappler is used to hold and move the objects.
Figure1 shows these parts.
Application:
Space
Sea
Nuclear
Automotive industry
Steel industry
Medicine
Robotics science
In general the robotics science consists of the following:
Robot kinematics. (direct kinematic and inverse kinematic)
Robot dynamics. (highly non-linear differential equations)
Robot path planner. (how to move a robot)
Robot control. (how to control a robot)
Robotics vision.
Degrees-Of-Freedom (DOF)
An object is said to have n degrees-of-freedom (DOF) if its configuration
can be minimally specified by n parameters. Thus, the number of DOF is
equal to the dimension of the configuration space.
For a robot manipulator, the number of joints determines the number
DOF.
A rigid object in three-dimensional space has six DOF: three for
positioning and three for orientation (e.g., roll, pitch and yaw angles).
Therefore, a manipulator should typically possess at least six independent
DOF. With fewer than six DOF the arm cannot reach every point in its
work environment with arbitrary orientation. Certain applications such as
reaching around or behind obstacles may require more than six DOF. A
5 Robotic | Khaled Gouda
manipulator having more than six links is referred to as a kinematically
redundant manipulator. The difficulty of controlling a manipulator
increases rapidly with the number of links.
Although there are many possible ways use prismatic and revolute joints
to construct kinematic chains, in practice only a few of these are
commonly used. Here we briefly describe several arrangements that are
most typical.
Figure 1.8 shows the Stanford Arm, one of the most well-known
spherical robots.
Fig. 1.11 The Stanford Arm. Photo courtesy of the Coordinated Science Lab,
University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign.
Fig. 1.14 The Epson E2L653S SCARA Robot. Photo Courtesy of Epson.
The manipulator is shown with a grinding tool that it must use to remove
a certain amount of metal from a surface. In the present text we are
concerned with the following question:
What are the basic issues to be resolved and what must we learn in order
to be able to program a robot to perform such tasks?
The ability to answer this question for a full six degree-of-freedom
manipulator represents the goal of the present text. The answer is too
complicated to be presented at this point.
We can, however, use the simple two-link planar mechanism to illustrate
some of the major issues involved and to preview the topics covered in
this text.
Forward Kinematics
The first problem encountered is to describe both the position of the tool
and the locations A and B (and most likely the entire surface S) with
respect to a common coordinate system.
In Chapter 2 we give some background on representations of coordinate
systems and transformations among various coordinate systems.
Typically, the manipulator will be able to sense its own position in some
manner using internal sensors (position encoders located at joints 1 and 2)
that can measure directly the joint angles ϴ1 and ϴ2. We also need
therefore to express the positions A and B in terms of these joint angles.
This leads to the forward kinematics problem studied in Chapter 3, which
is to determine the position and orientation of the end-effector or tool in
terms of the joint variables.
It is customary to establish a fixed coordinate system, called the world or
base frame to which all objects including the manipulator are referenced.
In this case we establish the base coordinate frame o0x0y0 at the base of
the robot, as shown in Figure 1.23.
The coordinates (x, y) of the tool are expressed in this coordinate frame as
in which α1 and α2 are the lengths of the two links, respectively. Also the
orientation of the tool frame relative to the base frame is given by the
direction cosines of the x2 and y2 axes relative to the x0 and y0 axes, that
is,
Equations (1.1), (1.2) and (1.3) are called the forward kinematic
equations for this arm. For a six degree-of-freedom robot these equations
Inverse Kinematics
Now, given the joint angles ϴ1, ϴ2 we can determine the end-effector
coordinates x and y. In order to command the robot to move to location A
we need the inverse; that is, we need the joint variables ϴ1, ϴ2 in terms
of the x and y coordinates of A. This is the problem of inverse kinematics.
In other words, given x and y in the forward kinematic Equations (1.1)
and (1.2), we wish to solve for the joint angles. Since the forward
kinematic equations are nonlinear, a solution may not be easy to find, nor
is there a unique solution in general.
We can see in the case of a two-link planar mechanism that there may be
no solution, for example if the given (x, y) coordinates are out of reach of
the manipulator. If the given (x, y) coordinates are within the
manipulator’s reach there may be two solutions as shown in Figure 1.24,
the so-called elbow up and elbow down configurations, or there may be
exactly one solution if the manipulator must be fully extended to reach
the point. There may even be an infinite number of solutions in some
cases.
Fig. 1.25 Solving for the joint angles of a two-link planar arm.
The advantage of this latter approach is that both the elbow-up and elbow
down solutions are recovered by choosing the positive and negative signs
in Equation (1.7), respectively.
It is left as an exercise to show that ϴ1 is now given as
Notice that the angle ϴ1 depends on ϴ2. This makes sense physically
since we would expect to require a different value for ϴ1, depending on
which solution is chosen for ϴ2.
Velocity Kinematics
In order to follow a contour at constant velocity, or at any prescribed
velocity, we must know the relationship between the velocity of the tool
and the joint velocities. In this case we can differentiate Equations (1.1)
and (1.2) to obtain