Bengal

Bengal (/bɛŋˈɡɔːl/;[4] Bengali: বাংলা/ব ,

romanized: Bānglā/Bôngô Bengali pronunciation: [bɔŋgo]) Bengal
is a geopolitical, cultural and historical region in South বাংলা / ব
Asia, specifically in the eastern part of the Indian Bānglā / Bôngô
subcontinent at the apex of the Bay of Bengal.
Region
Geographically, it is made up by the Ganges-
Brahmaputra delta system, the largest such formation Continent Asia
in the world; along with mountains in its north Countries Bangladesh
bordering the Himalayan states of Nepal and Bhutan India (West Bengal)
and east bordering Burma.
Iron Age India, 1500 – c. 500 BCE
Politically, Bengal is currently divided between Vedic India,
Bangladesh (which covers two-thirds of the region) and Vanga Kingdom
the Indian state of West Bengal. In 2011, the population Gangaridai, 500 – c. 350 BCE
Nanda Empire
of Bengal was estimated to be 250 million,[1] making it
Mauryan Empire 4th century–2nd century
one of the most densely populated regions in the
BCE
world.[5] Among them, an estimated 160 million people
Shunga Empire, 185 BCE–75 BCE, 3rd
live in Bangladesh and 91.3 million people live in West Gupta Empire, century CE–543 CE, 6th
Bengal. The predominant ethnolinguistic group is the Later Gupta century–7th century
Bengali people, who speak the Indo-Aryan Bengali dynasty
language. Bengali Muslims are the majority in Pala Empire 8th century–11th century
Bangladesh and Bengali Hindus are the majority in Sena Empire 12th century
West Bengal. Outside the Bengal region, the Indian Delhi Sultanate, 1204–1339 CE, 1338–
states of Tripura, Assam's Barak Valley, Jharkhand, Bengal Sultanate 1576 CE
Bihar and the Andaman and Nicobar Islands are also Bengal Subah 1565–1717 CE, 1717–
home to significant number of Bengalis. (Mughal Empire), 1765 CE
Nawabs of Bengal
Dense woodlands, including hilly rainforests, cover and Murshidabad
Bengal's northern and eastern areas; while an elevated Bengal 1765–1947 CE
forested plateau covers its central area. In the littoral Presidency
southwest are the Sundarbans, the world's largest (British India)
mangrove forest and home of the Bengal tiger. In the Principal cities List
coastal southeast lies Cox's Bazar, the longest beach in Chittagong
the world at 125 km (78 mi).[6] The region has a Dhaka
monsoon climate, which the Bengali calendar divides
Khulna
into six seasons.
Kolkata
At times an independent regional empire, Bengal was a Rajshahi
leading power in South Asia and later the Islamic East, Rangpur
with extensive trade networks. In antiquity, its Sylhet
kingdoms were known as seafaring nations. Bengal
Area
was known to the Greeks as Gangaridai, notable for
mighty military power. It was described by Greek • Total 236,322 km2
(91,244 sq mi)
historians that Alexander the Great withdrew from
India anticipating a counterattack from an alliance of Population (2011)
Gangaridai.[7] Later writers noted merchant shipping • Total c. 250 million[1]
links between Bengal and Roman Egypt. The Bengali • Density 1,070/km2 (2,800/sq mi)
Pala Empire was the last major Buddhist imperial Demonym(s) Bengali
power in the subcontinent,[8] founded in 750 and Official languages Bangladesh – Bengali[2]
becoming the dominant power in the northern Indian West Bengal – Bengali[3]
subcontinent by the 9th century,[9][10] before being
replaced by the Hindu Sena dynasty in the 12th century.[8]

Islam was introduced during the Pala Empire, through trade with the Abbasid Caliphate.[11] Following the
formation of the Delhi Sultanate in the 13th century, Islam spread across the Bengal region. During the
Islamic Bengal Sultanate, founded in 1352, Bengal was a major trading nation in the world and was often
referred to by Europeans as the richest country to trade with.[12] The Khorasanis referred to the land as an
"inferno full of gifts", due to its unbearable climate but abundance of wealth.[13] It was later absorbed into
the Mughal Empire in 1576. Bengal Subah, described as the Paradise of the Nations,[14] was the empire's
wealthiest province, and became a major global exporter,[15][16][17] a center of worldwide industries such as
cotton textiles, silk,[18] and shipbuilding.[19] Its economy was worth 12% of the world's GDP,[20][21][22] a
value bigger than the entirety of Western Europe, and its citizens' living standards were among the world's
highest.[23][20] Bengal's economy underwent a period of proto-industrialization during this period.[24]

The Maratha invasions of Bengal badly affected the economy of Bengal and it is estimated that 400,000
Bengalis were killed by the Maratha bargis,[25] and the genocide has been considered to be among the
deadliest massacres in Indian history.[26]

Subsequently, the region was conquered by the British East India Company after the Battle of Plassey in
1757 and became the Bengal Presidency of the British Raj. Bengal made significant contributions to the
world's first Industrial Revolution, but experienced its own deindustrialisation.[27] The East India Company
increased agriculture tax rates from 10% to up to 50%, which caused multiple famines such as the Great
Bengal famine of 1770 which caused the death of 10 million Bengalis and the Bengal famine of 1943 which
killed millions.

Bengal played a major role in the Indian independence movement, in which revolutionary groups were
dominant. Armed attempts to overthrow the British Raj began with the Sannyasi and Fakir Rebellion, and
reached a climax when Subhas Chandra Bose led the Indian National Army allied with Japan to fight against
the British. Many Bengalis died in the independence struggle and many were exiled in Cellular Jail, located
in Andaman. The United Kingdom Cabinet Mission of 1946 split the region between India and Pakistan, an
action popularly known as the partition of Bengal (1947). This was opposed by the Prime Minister of
Bengal, Huseyn Shaheed Suhrawardy, and nationalist leader Sarat Chandra Bose. They campaigned for a
united and independent nation-state of Bengal. The initiative failed owing to British diplomacy and
communal conflict between Muslims and Hindus. Subsequently, Pakistan ruled East Bengal which later
became the independent nation of Bangladesh by the Bangladesh War of Independence in 1971.

Contents
Etymology
Geography
Geographic distinctions
North Bengal
Northeast Bengal
Central Bengal
South Bengal
Southeast Bengal
 Places of interest
Flora and fauna
History
Prehistory
Antiquity
Medieval era
Mughal era (1576–1757)
Maratha Empire
Colonial era (1757–1947)
Post-partition (1947–present)
India
Bangladesh
East Pakistan (1947–1971)
Bangladesh (1971–present)

Historical maps and flags of states

Maps
Flags
Politics
Bangladeshi Republic
Indian Bengal
Crossborder relations
Demographics
Economy
Intra-Bengal trade
Major cities
Metropolises
Major ports
Tourist attractions
Strategic importance
Culture
Language
Currency
Literature
Personification
Art
Architecture
Sciences
Music
Cuisine
Boats
Attire
Festivals
Media
Sports
See also
Notes
References
External links

Etymology
The name of Bengal is derived from the ancient kingdom of Banga,(pronounced Bôngô)[28][29] the earliest
records of which date back to the Mahabharata epic in the first millennium BCE.[29] The exact origin of the
word Bangla is unknown. In Islamic mythology, it is said to come from "Bung/Bang", a son of Hind (son of
Hām who was a son of Noah) who colonised the area for the first time.[30] The suffix "al" came to be added
to it from the fact that the ancient rajahs of this land raised mounds of earth 10 feet high and 20 in breadth in
lowlands at the foot of the hills which were called "al". From this suffix added to the Bung, the name Bengal
arose and gained currency".[31][32] This is also mentioned in Ghulam Husain Salim's Riyaz-us-Salatin.[30]

Other theories on the origin of the term Banga point to the Proto-Dravidian Bong tribe that settled in the area
circa 1000 BCE and the Austric word Bong (Sun-god).[33] The term Vangaladesa is used to describe the
region in 11th-century South Indian records.[34][35][36] The Portuguese referred to the region as Bengala in
the Age of Discovery.[37]

Geography
Most of the Bengal region lies in the
Ganges-Brahmaputra delta, but there are
highlands in its north, northeast and
southeast. The Ganges Delta arises from
the confluence of the rivers Ganges,
Brahmaputra, and Meghna rivers and
their respective tributaries. The total
area of Bengal is 232,752 km2—West
Bengal is 88,752 km2 (34,267 sq mi)
and Bangladesh 147,570 km2
(56,977 sq mi).

The flat and fertile Bangladesh Plain

dominates the geography of Bangladesh.
The Chittagong Hill Tracts and Sylhet
regions are home to most of the
mountains in Bangladesh. Most parts of
Bangladesh are within 10 metres (33
feet) above the sea level, and it is
The Ganges-Brahmaputra delta
believed that about 10% of the land
would be flooded if the sea level were to
rise by 1 metre (3.3 feet).[38] Because of
this low elevation, much of this region is exceptionally vulnerable to seasonal flooding due to monsoons.
The highest point in Bangladesh is in Mowdok range at 1,052 metres (3,451 feet).[39] A major part of the
coastline comprises a marshy jungle, the Sundarbans, the largest mangrove forest in the world and home to
diverse flora and fauna, including the royal Bengal tiger. In 1997, this region was declared endangered.[40]
West Bengal is on the eastern bottleneck of India, stretching from the Himalayas in the north to the Bay of
Bengal in the south. The state has a total area of 88,752 km2 (34,267 sq mi).[41] The Darjeeling Himalayan
hill region in the northern extreme of the state belongs to the eastern Himalaya. This region contains
Sandakfu (3,636 m (11,929 ft))—the highest peak of the state.[42] The narrow Terai region separates this
region from the plains, which in turn transitions into the Ganges delta towards the south. The Rarh region
intervenes between the Ganges delta in the east and the western plateau and high lands. A small coastal
region is on the extreme south, while the Sundarbans mangrove forests form a remarkable geographical
landmark at the Ganges delta.

At least nine districts in West Bengal and 42 districts in Bangladesh have arsenic levels in groundwater
above the World Health Organization maximum permissible limit of 50 µg/L or 50 parts per billion and the
untreated water is unfit for human consumption.[43] The water causes arsenicosis, skin cancer and various
other complications in the body.

Landscapes

A river in Bangladesh A mustard and date palm farm in West

Bengal

A tea garden in Bangladesh

Geographic distinctions

North Bengal
North Bengal is a term used for the north-western part
of Bangladesh and northern part of West Bengal. The
Bangladeshi part comprises Rajshahi Division and
Rangpur Division. Generally, it is the area lying west of
Jamuna River and north of Padma River, and includes
the Barind Tract. Politically, West Bengal's part
comprises Jalpaiguri Division (Alipurduar, Cooch
Behar, Darjeeling, Jalpaiguri, North Dinajpur, South
Dinajpur and Malda) together and Bihar's parts include
Kishanganj district. Darjeeling Hills are also part of
North Bengal. Although only people of Jaipaiguri,
Alipurduar and Cooch Behar identifies themselves as
North Bengali. North Bengal is divided into Terai and
Dooars regions. North Bengal is also noted for its rich
cultural heritage, including two UNESCO World
Heritage Sites. Aside from the Bengali majority, North
Bengal is home to many other communities including Bengal in relation to historical regions in Asia
Nepalis, Santhal people, Lepchas and Rajbongshis.

Northeast Bengal

Northeast Bengal[44] refers to the Sylhet region, comprising Sylhet

Division of Bangladesh and the Karimganj district in the Indian state
of Assam. The region is noted for its distinctive fertile highland
terrain, extensive tea plantations, rainforests and wetlands. The
Surma river are the geographic markers of the area. The city of
Sylhet is its largest urban center, and the region is known for its
unique language. The ancient name of the region is Srihatta.[45] The On a clear day, the snowy peaks of
region was ruled by the Kamarupa and Harikela kingdoms as well as the Himalayas in Nepal and Sikkim
the Bengal Sultanate. It later became a district of the Mughal can be seen from northern
Empire. Alongside the predominant Bengali population resides a Bangladesh and Darjeeling district
small Bishnupriya Manipuri, Khasia and other tribal minorities.[45] of West Bengal

The region is the crossroads of Bengal and northeast India.

Central Bengal

Central Bengal refers to the Dhaka Division of Bangladesh. It includes the elevated Madhupur tract with a
large Sal tree forest. The Padma River cuts through the southern part of the region, separating the greater
Faridpur region. In the north lies the greater Mymensingh and Tangail regions.

South Bengal

South Bengal covers the southern part of the Indian state of West Bengal and southwestern Bangladesh. The
Indian part of South Bengal includes 12 districts: Kolkata, Howrah, Hooghly, Burdwan, East Midnapur,
West Midnapur, Purulia, Bankura, Birbhum, Nadia, South 24 Parganas, North 24 Parganas.[46][47][48] The
Bangladeshi part includes the proposed Faridpur Division, Khulna Division and Barisal Division.[49]

The Sundarbans, a major biodiversity hotspot, is located in South Bengal. Bangladesh hosts 60% of the
forest, with the remainder in India.
Southeast Bengal

Southeast Bengal[50][51][52] refers to the hilly and coastal Bengali-

speaking areas of Chittagong Division in southeastern Bangladesh.
Southeast Bengal is noted for its thalassocratic and seafaring
heritage. The area was dominated by the Bengali Harikela and
Samatata kingdoms in antiquity. It was known to Arab traders as
Harkand in the 9th century.[53] During the medieval period, the
region was ruled by the Sultanate of Bengal, the Kingdom of
Tripura, the Kingdom of Mrauk U, the Portuguese Empire and the
Mughal Empire, prior to the advent of British rule. The Chittagonian
dialect of Bengali is prevalent in coastal areas of southeast Bengal.
Along with its Bengali population, it is also home to Tibeto-Burman
ethnic groups, including the Chakma, Marma, Tanchangya and
Bawm peoples.

Southeast Bengal is considered a bridge to Southeast Asia and the

northern parts of Arakan are also historically considered to be a part
of it.[54] Waterfalls are a common sight in the
highlands of eastern Bangladesh

Places of interest

There are four World Heritage Sites in the region, including the
Sundarbans, the Somapura Mahavihara, the Mosque City of
Bagerhat and the Darjeeling Himalayan Railway. Other
prominent places include the Bishnupur, Bankura temple city,
the Adina Mosque, the Caravanserai Mosque, numerous Cox's Bazar has the longest
zamindar palaces (like Ahsan Manzil and Cooch Behar Palace), uninterrupted sea beach in the world
the Lalbagh Fort, the Great Caravanserai ruins, the Shaista
Khan Caravanserai ruins, the Kolkata Victoria Memorial, the
Dhaka Parliament Building, archaeologically excavated ancient fort cities in Mahasthangarh, Mainamati,
Chandraketugarh and Wari-Bateshwar, the Jaldapara National Park, the Lawachara National Park, the
Teknaf Game Reserve and the Chittagong Hill Tracts.

Cox's Bazar in southeastern Bangladesh is home to the longest natural sea beach in the world with an
unbroken length of 120 km (75 mi). It is also a growing surfing destination.[55] St. Martin's Island, off the
coast of Chittagong Division, is home to the sole coral reef in Bengal.

Flora and fauna

The flat Bengal Plain, which covers most of Bangladesh and West Bengal, is one of the most fertile areas on
Earth, with lush vegetation and farmland dominating its landscape. Bengali villages are buried among
groves of mango, jack fruit, betel nut and date palm. Rice, jute, mustard and sugarcane plantations are a
common sight. Water bodies and wetlands provide a habitat for many aquatic plants in the Ganges-
Brahmaputra delta. The northern part of the region features Himalayan foothills (Dooars) with densely
wooded Sal and other tropical evergreen trees. Above an elevation of 1,000 metres (3,300 ft), the forest
becomes predominantly subtropical, with a predominance of temperate-forest trees such as oaks, conifers
and rhododendrons. Sal woodland is also found across central Bangladesh, particularly in the Bhawal
National Park. The Lawachara National Park is a rainforest in northeastern Bangladesh. The Chittagong Hill
Tracts in southeastern Bangladesh is noted for its high degree of biodiversity.
The littoral Sundarbans in the southwestern part of Bengal is the
largest mangrove forest in the world and a UNESCO World
Heritage Site. The region has over 89 species of mammals, 628
species of birds and numerous species of fish. For Bangladesh,
the water lily, the oriental magpie-robin, the hilsa and mango
tree are national symbols. For West Bengal, the white-throated
kingfisher, the chatim tree and the night-flowering jasmine are
state symbols. The Bengal tiger is the national animal of
Bangladesh and India. The fishing cat is the state animal of
West Bengal.
A 2015 census of Sundarbans Bengal
tigers found 106 in Bangladesh and 76 in
History West Bengal.[56]

Prehistory

Human settlement in Bengal can be traced back 20,000 years. Remnants of Copper Age settlements date
back 4,300 years.[57][58] Archaeological evidence confirms that by the second millennium BCE, rice-
cultivating communities inhabited the region. By the 11th century BCE, the people of the area lived in
systemically-aligned housing, used human cemeteries and manufactured copper ornaments and fine black
and red pottery.[59] The Ganges, Brahmaputra and Meghna rivers were natural arteries for communication
and transportation.[59] Estuaries on the Bay of Bengal allowed for maritime trade. The early Iron Age saw
the development of metal weaponry, coinage, permanent field agriculture and irrigation.[59] From 600 BCE,
the second wave of urbanisation engulfed the north Indian subcontinent, as part of the Northern Black
Polished Ware culture.

Antiquity

Ancient Bengal was divided between the regions of Varendra,

Suhma, Anga, Vanga, Samatata and Harikela. Early Indian literature
described the region as a thalassocracy, with colonies in Southeast
Asia and the Indian Ocean.[60] For example, the first recorded king
of Sri Lanka was a Bengali prince called Vijaya. The region was
known to the ancient Greeks and Romans as Gangaridai.[61] The
Greek ambassador Megasthenes chronicled its military strength and
dominance of the Ganges delta. The invasion army of Alexander the
Great was deterred by the accounts of Gangaridai's power in
325 BCE. Later Roman accounts noted maritime trade routes with
Bengal. A Roman amphora has been found in Purba Medinipur
district of West Bengal, made in Aelana (present day Aqaba in
Jordan) between the 4th and 7th centuries AD.[62] Another
prominent kingdom in Ancient Bengal was Pundravardhana which
was located in Northern Bengal with its capital being located in
Hindu sculpture, 11th century modern-day Bogra, the kingdom was prominently buddhist leaving
behind historic Viharas such as Mahasthangarh.[63][64][65] In vedic
mythology the royal families of Magadha, Anga, Vanga, Suhma and
Kalinga were all related and descended from one King.[66]
Ancient Bengal was considered a part of Magadha region, which was the cradle of Indian arts and sciences.
Currently the Maghada region is divided into several states that are Bihar, Jharkhand and Bengal (West
Bengal and East Bengal)[66] The legacy of Magadha includes the concept of zero, the invention of Chess[67]
and the theory of solar and lunar eclipses and the Earth orbiting the Sun. Sanskrit and derived Old Indo-
Aryan dialects, was spoken across Bengal.[68] The Bengali language evolved from Old Indo-Aryan Sanskrit
dialects. The region was ruled by Hindu, Buddhist and Jain dynasties, including the Mauryans, Guptas,
Varmans, Khadgas, Palas, Chandras and Senas among others. In the 9th century, Arab Muslim traders
frequented Bengali seaports and found the region to be a thriving seafaring kingdom with well-developed
coinage and banking.[59]

Medieval era

The Pala Empire was an imperial power in the Indian subcontinent,

which originated in the region of Bengal. They were followers of the
Mahayana and Tantric schools of Buddhism. The empire was
founded with the election of Gopala as the emperor of Gauda in
750.[9] At its height in the early 9th century, the Pala Empire was the
dominant power in the northern subcontinent, with its territory
stretching across parts of modern-day eastern Pakistan, northern and
northeastern India, Nepal and Bangladesh.[9][10] The empire enjoyed
relations with the Srivijaya Empire, the Tibetan Empire, and the
Inscriptions on the Adina Mosque
Arab Abbasid Caliphate. Islam first appeared in Bengal during Pala
proclaim the builder Sikandar Shah
as "the wisest, the most just, the
rule, as a result of increased trade between Bengal and the Middle
most perfect and most liberal of the East.[11] The resurgent Hindu Sena dynasty dethroned the Pala
Sultans of Arabia, Persia and India." Empire in the 12th century, ending the reign of the last major
Buddhist imperial power in the subcontinent.[8][69]

Muslim conquests of the Indian subcontinent absorbed Bengal in 1204.[70][71] The region was annexed by
the Delhi Sultanate. Muslim rule introduced agrarian reform, a new calendar and Sufism. The region saw the
rise of important city states in Sonargaon, Satgaon and Lakhnauti. By 1352, Ilyas Shah achieved the
unification of an independent Bengal. In the 14th and 15th centuries, the Bengal Sultanate was a major
diplomatic, economic and military power in the subcontinent. It developed the subcontinent's relations with
China, Egypt, the Timurid Empire and East Africa. In 1540, Sher Shah Suri was crowned Emperor of the
northern subcontinent in the Bengali capital Gaur.

Mughal era (1576–1757)

The Mughal Empire conquered Bengal in the 16th century. The

Bengal Subah province in the Mughal Empire was the
wealthiest state in the subcontinent. Bengal's trade and wealth
impressed the Mughals so much that it was described as the
Paradise of the Nations by the Mughal Emperors.[72] The
region was also notable for its powerful semi-independent
aristocracy, including the Twelve Bhuiyans and the Nawabs of
Bengal.[73] It was visited by several world explorers, including
Ibn Battuta, Niccolo De Conti and Admiral Zheng He.

Under Mughal rule, Bengal was a center of the worldwide

A woman in Dhaka clad in fine Bengali
muslin and silk trades. During the Mughal era, the most muslin, 18th century.
important center of cotton production was Bengal, particularly
around its capital city of Dhaka, leading to muslin being called "daka" in distant markets such as Central
Asia.[18] Domestically, much of India depended on Bengali products such as rice, silks and cotton textiles.
Overseas, Europeans depended on Bengali products such as cotton textiles, silks and opium; Bengal
accounted for 40% of Dutch imports from Asia, for example, including more than 50% of textiles and
around 80% of silks.[15] From Bengal, saltpetre was also shipped to Europe, opium was sold in Indonesia,
raw silk was exported to Japan and the Netherlands, cotton and silk textiles were exported to Europe,
Indonesia, and Japan,[16] cotton cloth was exported to the Americas and the Indian Ocean.[17] Bengal also
had a large shipbuilding industry. In terms of shipbuilding tonnage during the 16th–18th centuries, economic
historian Indrajit Ray estimates the annual output of Bengal at 223,250 tons, compared with 23,061 tons
produced in nineteen colonies in North America from 1769 to 1771.[19]

Since the 16th century, European traders traversed the sea routes to Bengal, following the Portuguese
conquests of Malacca and Goa. The Portuguese established a settlement in Chittagong with permission from
the Bengal Sultanate in 1528, but were later expelled by the Mughals in 1666. In the 18th-century, the
Mughal Court rapidly disintegrated due to Nader Shah's invasion and internal rebellions, allowing European
colonial powers to set up trading posts across the territory. The British East India Company eventually
emerged as the foremost military power in the region; and defeated the last independent Nawab of Bengal at
the Battle of Plassey in 1757.[73]

Maratha Empire

The Maratha invasions of Bengal badly affected the economy of Bengal and it is estimated that 400,000
Bengali Hindus in western Bengal were killed by the Hindu Maratha bargis, and many women and children
gang raped.,[25] and the genocide has been considered to be among the deadliest massacres in Indian
history.[26]

Colonial era (1757–1947)

In Bengal effective political and military power was transferred

from the old regime to the British East India Company around
1757–65.[74] Company rule in India began under the Bengal
Presidency. Calcutta was named the capital of British India in
1772. The presidency was run by a military-civil administration,
including the Bengal Army, and had the world's sixth earliest
railway network. Great Bengal famines struck several times
during colonial rule (notably the Great Bengal famine of 1770
and Bengal famine of 1943).[75][76]

About 50 million were killed in Bengal due to massive plague The Battle of Plassey in 1757 ushered
outbreaks and famines which happened in 1895 to 1920, mostly British rule
in western Bengal.[77]

The Indian Rebellion of 1857 was initiated on the outskirts of Calcutta, and spread to Dhaka, Chittagong,
Jalpaiguri, Sylhet and Agartala, in solidarity with revolts in North India. The failure of the rebellion led to
the abolishment of the Mughal Court and direct rule by the British Raj. The late 19th and early 20th century
Bengal Renaissance had a great impact on the cultural and economic life of Bengal and started a great
advance in the literature and science of Bengal. Between 1905 and 1912, an abortive attempt was made to
divide the province of Bengal into two zones, that included the short-lived province of Eastern Bengal and
Assam based in Dacca and Shillong.[78] Under British rule, Bengal experienced deindustrialisation.[27] m

In 1876, about 200,000 people were killed in Bengal by the Great Bangladesh cyclone.[79]
Bengal played a major role in the Indian independence movement, in which revolutionary groups were
dominant. Armed attempts to overthrow the British Raj began with the rebellion of Titumir, and reached a
climax when Subhas Chandra Bose led the Indian National Army against the British. Bengal was also
central in the rising political awareness of the Muslim population—the All-India Muslim League was
established in Dhaka in 1906. The Muslim homeland movement pushed for a sovereign state in eastern
British India with the Lahore Resolution in 1943. Hindu nationalism was also strong in Bengal, which was
home to groups like the Hindu Mahasabha. In spite of a last-ditch effort to form a United Bengal,[80] when
India gained independence in 1947, Bengal was partitioned along religious lines.[81] The western part went
to India (and was named West Bengal) while the eastern part joined Pakistan as a province called East
Bengal (later renamed East Pakistan, giving rise to Bangladesh in 1971). The circumstances of partition
were bloody, with widespread religious riots in Bengal.[81][82]

The 1970 Bhola cyclone took the lives of 500,000 people in Bengal, making it one of the deadliest recorded
cyclones.

Post-partition (1947–present)

India

West Bengal

West Bengal became one of India's most populous states. Calcutta, the former capital of the British Raj,
became the state capital of West Bengal and continued to be India's largest city until the late 20th century,
when severe power shortages, strikes and a violent Marxist-Naxalite movement damaged much of the state's
infrastructure in the 1960s and 70s, leading to a period of economic stagnation. West Bengal politics
underwent a major change when the Left Front won the 1977 assembly election, defeating the incumbent
Indian National Congress. The Left Front, led by the Communist Party of India (Marxist) (CPI(M))
governed the state for over three decades, which was the world's longest elected Communist administration
in history.[83] Since the 2000s, West Bengal has experienced an economic rejuvenation, particularly in its IT
industry.

Tripura

The princely state of Hill Tippera, that was under the suzerainty of
British India. Following the death of Maharaja Bir Bikram Kishore
Debbarman, the princely state acceded to the Union of India on 15
October 1949 under the Tripura Merger Agreement signed by
Maharani Regent Kanchan Prava Devi. By the 1950s, the region had
a Bengali majority population due to the influx of Hindu refugees
from East Pakistan after partition. It became a Union Territory of
India in November 1953. It was granted full statehood with an
elected legislature in July 1963. An insurgency by indigenous people
affected the state for several years. The Left Front ruled the state The former royal palace of Hill
between 1978 and 1988, followed by a stint of Indian National Tippera in Agartala
Congress rule until 1993, and then a return to the Communists.[84]

Karimganj

Karimganj District joined the union of India after its partition from Sylhet as per Sylhet referendum in 1947
and has been a part of the state of Assam. One of the most significant events in the region's history was the
language movement in 1961, in which the killing of agitators by state police led to Bengali being recognised
as one of the official languages of Assam. Sylhet referendum resulted a large scale influx of refugees from
Sylhet in some districts of Assam like Cachar, Hojai etc. The issue of Bengali settlement in the state has
been a contentious part of the Assam conflict.

Bangladesh

East Pakistan (1947–1971)

In 1948, the Government of the Dominion of Pakistan ordained

Urdu as the sole national language, sparking extensive protests
among the Bengali-speaking majority of East Bengal. Facing rising
sectarian tensions and mass discontent with the new law, the
government outlawed public meetings and rallies. The students of
the University of Dhaka and other political activists defied the law
and organised a protest on 21 February 1952. The movement Shaheed Minar in Dhaka
reached its climax when several student demonstrators were shot commemorates the 1952 Language
dead by police firing. As a result of the movement, Pakistan Movement
government in 1956 included Bengali as national lanuage along with
Urdu. UNESCO in 1999 declared 21 February as International
Mother Language Day honouring the 1952 incident.

East Bengal, which was later renamed to East Pakistan in 1955, was home to Pakistan's demographic
majority and played an instrumental role in the founding of the new state. Strategically, Pakistan joined the
Southeast Asia Treaty Organization under the Bengali prime minister Mohammad Ali of Bogra as a bulwark
against communism.[85] However, tensions between East and West Pakistan grew rapidly over political
exclusion, economic neglect and ethnic and linguistic discrimination. The State of Pakistan was subjected to
years of military rule due to fears of Bengali political supremacy under democracy. Elected Bengali-led
governments at the federal and provincial levels, which were led by statesmen such as A. K. Fazlul Huq and
H. S. Suhrawardy, were deposed.[86][87]

East Pakistan witnessed the rise of Bengali self determination calls led by
Sheikh Mujibur Rahman and Maulana Bhashani in the 1960s.[88] Rahman
launched the Six point movement for autonomy in 1966. After the 1970
national election, Rahman's party, the Awami League, had emerged as the
largest party in Pakistan's parliament. The erstwhile Pakistani military junta
refused to accept election results which triggered civil disobedience across East
Pakistan. The Pakistani military responded by launching a genocide that caused
the Bangladesh Liberation War in 1971. The first Government of Bangladesh
and the Mukti Bahini waged a guerrilla campaign with support from
neighbouring India, which hosted millions of war refugees. Global support for
the independence of East Pakistan increased due to the conflict's humanitarian
crisis, with the Indian Armed Forces intervening in support of the Bangladesh
Forces in the final two weeks of the war and ensuring Pakistan's surrender.[89] Sheikh Mujibur Rahman
led Bengali's decade
long independence
Bangladesh (1971–present)
struggle including the
Bangladesh Liberation
After independence, Bangladesh adopted a secular democracy under its new
War of 1971
constitution in 1972. Awami League premier Sheikh Mujibur Rahman became
the country's strongman and implemented many socialist policies. A one party
state was enacted in 1975. Sheikh Mujibur Rahman was assassinated later that
year during a military coup that ushered in sixteen years of military dictatorships and presidential
governments. The liberation war commander Ziaur Rahman emerged as Bangladesh's leader in the late
1970s. He reoriented the country's foreign policy towards the West and restored free markets and the
multiparty polity. President Zia was assassinated in 1981 during a failed military coup. He was eventually
succeeded by his army chief Hussain Muhammad Ershad. Lasting for nine years, Ershad's rule witnessed
continued pro-free market reforms and the devolution of some authority to local government.[90] The South
Asian Association for Regional Cooperation (SAARC) was founded in Dhaka in 1985.[91] The Jatiya Party
government made Islam the state religion in 1988.[92]

A popular uprising restored parliamentary democracy in 1991. Since then, Bangladesh has largely alternated
between the premierships of Sheikh Hasina of the Awami League and Khaleda Zia of the Bangladesh
Nationalist Party, as well as technocratic caretaker governments. Emergency rule was imposed by the
military in 2007 and 2008 after widespread street violence between the League and BNP. The restoration of
democratic government in 2009 was followed by the initiation of the International Crimes Tribunal to
prosecute surviving collaborators of the 1971 genocide. Today, the country is one of the emerging and
growth-leading economies of the world. It is listed as one of the Next Eleven countries, it also has one of the
fastest real GDP growth rates. Its gross domestic product ranks 39th largest in the world in terms of market
exchange rates and 30th in purchasing power parity. Its per capita income ranks 143th and 136th in two
measures. In the field of human development, it has progressed ahead in life expectancy, maternal and child
health, and gender equality. But it continues to face challenging problems, including poverty, corruption,
terrorism, illiteracy, and inadequate public healthcare.[93][94]

Historical maps and flags of states

Bengal has been an independent territory during certain periods in history, while most of the other times, it
has been part of larger empires like Maurya Empire, Gupta Empire, Harsha Empire, Nanda Empire,
Sultanates, Mughals etc. Bengal has also been a regional empire, ruling over neighbouring regions like
Bihar, Orissa, Arakan, and parts of North India.

Maps
Gangaridai in The Pala Empire, At its greatest The Bengal
Ptolemy's map, 1st 9th century extent, the Bengal Sultanate, 16th
century Sultanate's realm century
and protectorates
stretched from
Jaunpur in North
India in the west to
Tripura and Arakan
in the east

Bengal & Bihar in Colonial Bengal, Colonial Eastern Map of West Bengal
1776 by James 19th century Bengal and Assam,
Rennell early 20th century

Map of Bangladesh

Flags
 Flag of Bengal Flag of the Bengal Flag of Bengal Flag of Bangladesh
Sultanate Subah (15-18th Presidency, under during Bangladesh
Century) British rule Liberation War

Flag of Bangladesh

Politics
Politically, the region is divided between the People's Republic of Bangladesh, an independent state, and the
eastern provinces of the Republic of India, including West Bengal. Politically both Bangladesh and Indian
Bengal are socialist, with left wing parties dominating the region's politics.

Bangladeshi Republic

The state of Bangladesh is a parliamentary republic based on the

Westminster system, with a written constitution and a President
elected by parliament for mostly ceremonial purposes. The
government is headed by a Prime Minister, who is appointed by the
President from among the popularly elected 300 Members of
Parliament in the Jatiyo Sangshad, the national parliament. The
Prime Minister is traditionally the leader of the single largest party Bangabhaban (the House of
in the Jatiyo Sangshad. Under the constitution, while recognising Bengal) is the official residence of
Islam as the country's established religion, the constitution grants the president of Bangladesh
freedom of religion to non-Muslims.

Between 1975 and 1990, Bangladesh had a presidential system of

government. Since the 1990s, it was administered by non-political technocratic caretaker governments on
four occasions, the last being under military-backed emergency rule in 2007 and 2008. The Awami League
and the Bangladesh Nationalist Party (BNP) are the two largest political parties in Bangladesh.
Bangladesh is a member of the UN, WTO, IMF, the World Bank, ADB, OIC, IDB, SAARC, BIMSTEC and
the IMCTC. Bangladesh has achieved significant strides in human development compared to its neighbours.

Indian Bengal

West Bengal are provincial states of the Republic of India, with local
executives and assemblies- features shared with other states in the Indian
federal system. The president of India appoints a governor as the ceremonial
representative of the union government. The governor appoints the chief
minister on the nomination of the legislative assembly. The chief minister is
the traditionally the leader of the party or coalition with most seats in the
assembly. President's rule is often imposed in Indian states as a direct
intervention of the union government led by the prime minister of India.

Each state has popularly elected members in the Indian lower house of
parliament, the Lok Sabha. Each state nominates members to the Indian
upper house of parliament, the Rajya Sabha.
Writers' Building, the former
The state legislative assemblies also play a key role in electing the official seat of the
ceremonial president of India. The former president of India, Pranab Government of West
Mukherjee, was a native of West Bengal and a leader of the Indian National Bengal
Congress.

The two major political forces in the Bengali-speaking zone of India are the Left Front and the Trinamool
Congress, with the Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP) and the Indian National Congress being minor players.

Crossborder relations

India and Bangladesh are the world's second and eighth most populous countries respectively. Bangladesh-
India relations began on a high note in 1971 when India played a major role in the liberation of Bangladesh,
with the Indian Bengali populace and media providing overwhelming support to the independence
movement in the former East Pakistan. The two countries had a twenty five-year friendship treaty between
1972 and 1996. However, differences over river sharing, border security and access to trade have long
plagued the relationship. In more recent years, a consensus has evolved in both countries on the importance
of developing good relations, as well as a strategic partnership in South Asia and beyond. Commercial,
cultural and defence co-operation have expanded since 2010, when Prime Ministers Sheikh Hasina and
Manmohan Singh pledged to reinvigorate ties.

The Bangladesh High Commission in New Delhi operates a Deputy High Commission in Kolkata and a
consular office in Agartala. India has a High Commission in Dhaka with consulates in Chittagong and
Rajshahi. Frequent international air, bus and rail services connect major cities in Bangladesh and Indian
Bengal, particularly the three largest cities- Dhaka, Kolkata and Chittagong. Undocumented immigration of
Bangladeshi workers is a controversial issue championed by right-wing nationalist parties in India but finds
little sympathy in West Bengal.[95] India has since fenced the border which has been criticised by
Bangladesh.[96]

Demographics
The Bengal region is one of the most densely
populated areas in the world. With a
population of 300 million, Bengalis are the
third largest ethnic group in the world after
the Han Chinese and Arabs.[note 1] According
to provisional results of 2011 Bangladesh
census, the population of Bangladesh was
142,319,000;[97] however, CIA's The World
Factbook gives 163,654,860 as its population
in a July 2013 estimate. According to the
provisional results of the 2011 Indian national
census, West Bengal has a population of Districts of West Bengal
91,347,736.[98] So, the Bengal region, as of
2011, has at least 233 million people. This
figures give a population density of Districts of Bangladesh
1003.9/km2; making it among the most
densely populated areas in the world.[99][100]

Bengali is the main language spoken in

Bengal. Many phonological, lexical, and
structural differences from the standard
variety occur in peripheral varieties of
Bengali; these include Sylheti, Chittagonian,
Chakma, Rangpuri/Rajbangshi, Hajong,
Rohingya, and Tangchangya.[101]
Bengali Muslims taking part
English is often used for official work
in mass prayer of Eid al-Fitr
alongside Bengali. Other major Indo-Aryan
languages such as Hindi, Urdu, Assamese,
and Nepali are also familiar to Bengalis.[102]
Districts of Tripura
In addition, several minority ethnolinguistic
groups are native to the region. These include
speakers of other Indo-Aryan languages (e.g.,
Bishnupriya Manipuri, Oraon Sadri, various
Bihari languages), Tibeto-Burman languages
(e.g., A'Tong, Chak, Koch, Garo, Megam,
Meitei Manipuri, Mizo, Mru, Pangkhua,
Rakhine/Marma, Kok Borok, Riang, Tippera,
Usoi, various Chin languages), Austroasiatic
languages (e.g., Khasi, Koda, Mundari, Pnar,
Santali, War), and Dravidian languages (e.g.,
Buddhist Chakma people
Kurukh, Sauria Paharia).[101] Bengali Hindu priests
enjoying one of their festivals
performing Durga Puja rituals
in south-eastern Bangladesh
Life expectancy is around 72.49 years for
Bangladesh[103] and 70.2 for West
Bengal.[104][105] In terms of literacy, West
Bengal leads with 77% literacy rate,[99] in
Bangladesh the rate is approximately
72.9%.[106][note 2] The level of poverty in
West Bengal is at 19.98%, while in Bangladesh it stands at 12.9%[107][108][109]
West Bengal has one of the lowest total fertility rates in India. West
Bengal's TFR of 1.6 roughly equals that of Canada.[110]

About 20,000 people live on chars. Chars are temporary islands formed
by the deposition of sediments eroded off the banks of the Ganges in
West Bengal, which often disappear in the monsoon season. They are
made of very fertile soil. The inhabitants of the chars are not recognised
by the Government of West Bengal on the grounds that it is not known
whether they are Indians or Bangladeshis. Consequently, no
identification documents are issued to char-dwellers who cannot benefit
from health care, barely survive because of very poor sanitation and are
prevented from emigrating to the mainland to find jobs when they have
turned 14. On a particular char, it was reported that 13% of women died
Religions in Bengal region
at childbirth.[111] (Bangladesh and West
Bengal) 2011
Economy
Islam (66.37%)

Historically, Bengal has been the industrial leader of the subcontinent. Hinduism (31.92%)
Others (1.71%)
The region is one of the largest rice producing areas in the world, with
West Bengal being
India's largest rice
producer and
Bangladesh being
the world's fourth
largest rice
producer. [112][112]
Other key crops
include jute, tea,
sugarcane and
Biman Bangladesh Airlines is the
wheat. There are
largest airline based in the Bengal
region
significant
reserves of
Amartya Sen, winner
limestone, natural Muhammad Yunus,
of the 1998 Nobel
gas and coal. Major industries include textiles, leather winner of the 2006
Prize in Economics
goods, pharmaceuticals, shipbuilding, banking and Nobel Peace Prize
information and communication technology.

Three stock exchanges are located in the region, including the Dhaka Stock Exchange, the Chittagong Stock
Exchange and the Calcutta Stock Exchange.

Below is a comparison of economies in the region of Bengal

Bangladesh West Bengal (India)

US$314.656 billion[113] US$150 billion[114]

US$1,925 per person[115] US$1,400 per person[116]

Intra-Bengal trade
Bangladesh and India are the largest trading partners in South Asia, with two-way trade valued at an
estimated US$6.9 billion.[117] Much of this trade relationship is centered on some of the world's busiest land
ports on the Bangladesh-India border, particularly the West Bengal section.

The partition of India severed the once strong economic links which integrated the region. Decades later,
frequent air, rail and bus services are increasingly connecting cities in Bangladesh and West Bengal, as well
as the wider region, including Northeast India, Nepal and Bhutan. However the overall economic
relationship remains well below potential.

Major cities

Metropolises

The following are the largest cities in Bengal (in terms of population):

National Martyr's Memorial in Dhaka, built

on memories of the martyrs of Bangladesh
Liberation War.
The Victoria Memorial in Kolkata, India
 List of major cities in Bengal
Rank City Country Population (2011) Image

1 Dhaka Bangladesh 8,906,039[118]

Dhaka

2 Kolkata India 4,496,694[119]

Kolkata

3 Chittagong Bangladesh 2,592,439[120]

Chittagong

4 Khulna Bangladesh 664,728[121] Khulna

5 Durgapur India 566,517[122]

Durgapur Express
Way

6 Asansol India 563,917[123]

Modernised ISP,
Asansol

7 Bogra Bangladesh 540,000[121]

 Bogra

8 Sylhet Bangladesh 526,412[121]

Sylhet

9 Siliguri India 513,264[124][125]

Siliguri

10 Rajshahi Bangladesh 449,756[121]

Rajshahi

11 Agartala India 400,004[126]

Agartala

Major ports
 New Mooring Terminal, Port of Chittagong

List of The Major Ports in Bengal

Port Name Type Status Location Country

Port of Chittagong Sea Port Active Chittagong, Chittagong Bangladesh

Sea Port
Port of Haldia River Active Haldia, East Midnapur India
Port

Port of Mongla Sea Port Active Mongla, Bagerhat, Khulna Bangladesh

Port of Payra Sea Port Active Kalapara, Patuakhali, Barisal Bangladesh

River India
Port of Kolkata Active Kolkata, Kolkata
Port
River Bangladesh
Port of Narayanganj Active Narayanganj, Dhaka
Port

Port of Benapole- Sharsha, Jessore-Bangaon, North 24 Jessore -

Landport Active
Petrapole Parganas Bangaon

Tourist attractions
 List of The Tourist Attraction of Bengal
Name Type City/Area Sample Image

World's largest natural Khulna, Satkhira, Bagerhat,

Sundarbans
mangrove forest South 24 Parganas A Bengal tiger
(Panthera tigris
tigris) from
Sundarbans

World's longest uninterrupted Cox's Bazar

Cox's Bazar
sea beach
Cox's Bazar sea
beach

Kuakata Sea beach Patuakhali

Kuakata sea beach

Digha Sea beach East Midnapur

Digha sea beach

Chittagong Hill Hilly areas inhabited by Rangamati, Khagrachhari,

Tracts different indigenous tribes Bandarban
A view of Sajek,
Rangamati

Ratargul Only swamp forest in the Sylhet District

Bengal region
 A view of Ratargul

Lawachara Major national park and Moulvibazar, Sylhet

National Park nature reserve
A view of
Lawachara national
park

Satchhari Reserve forest Habiganj, Sylhet

A view of Satchari
national park

Hilly area of foothills of Darjeeling, Jalpaiguri

Siliguri
Himalayas
A view of Siliguri
Metropolis

Strategic importance
The Bengal region is located at the crossroads of two huge economic
blocs, the SAARC and ASEAN. It gives access to the sea for the
landlocked countries of Bhutan and Nepal, as well as the Seven
Sister States of North East India. It is also located near China's
southern landlocked region, including Yunnan and Tibet.

Both India and Bangladesh plan to expand onshore and offshore oil
and gas operations. Bangladesh is Asia's seventh-largest natural gas
producer. Its maritime exclusive economic zone potentially holds The strategically important city of
many of the largest gas reserves in the Asia-Pacific.[127] Chittagong is home to the busiest
port on the Bay of Bengal
The Bay of Bengal is strategically important for its vital shipping
lanes and its central location between the Middle East and the
Pacific. The Bay of Bengal Initiative, based in Dhaka, brings together Bangladesh, India, Myanmar,
Thailand, Nepal, Bhutan and Sri Lanka to promote economic integration in the subregion. Other regional
groupings include the Bangladesh-China-India-Myanmar Forum for Regional Cooperation (BCIM) and the
Bangladesh Bhutan India Nepal (BBIN) Initiative.

Culturally, Bengal is significant for its huge Hindu and Muslim populations. Bengali Hindus make up the
second largest linguistic community in India. Bengali Muslims are the world's second largest Muslim
ethnicity (after Arab Muslims), and Bangladesh is the world's third largest Muslim-majority country (after
Indonesia and Pakistan).

Culture

Language

The Bengali language developed between the 7th and 10th centuries
from Apabhraṃśa and Magadhi Prakrit.[128] It is written using the
indigenous Bengali alphabet, a descendant of the ancient Brahmi
script. Bengali is the 5th most spoken language in the world. It is an
eastern Indo-Aryan language and one of the easternmost branches of
the Indo-European language family. It is part of the Bengali-
Assamese languages. Bengali has greatly influenced other languages
in the region, including Odia, Assamese, Chakma, Nepali and
Rohingya. It is the sole state language of Bangladesh and the second
most spoken language in India.[129] It is also the seventh most
spoken language by total number of speakers in the world.
Bengali Letters
Bengali binds together a culturally diverse region and is an
important contributor to regional identity. The 1952 Bengali
Language Movement in East Pakistan is commemorated by UNESCO as International Mother Language
Day, as part of global efforts to preserve linguistic identity.

Currency

In both Bangladesh and West Bengal, currency is commonly

denominated as taka. The Bangladesh taka is an official standard
bearer of this tradition, while the Indian rupee is also written as taka
in Bengali script on all of its banknotes. The history of the taka dates
back centuries. Bengal was home one of the world's earliest coin
currencies in the first millennium BCE. Under the Delhi Sultanate,
the taka was introduced by Muhammad bin Tughluq in 1329. Bengal
became the stronghold of the taka. The silver currency was the most
important symbol of sovereignty of the Sultanate of Bengal. It was
traded on the Silk Road and replicated in Nepal and China's Tibetan
protectorate. The Pakistani rupee was scripted in Bengali as taka on
its banknotes until Bangladesh's creation in 1971.
A silver coin with Proto-Bengali
script, 9th century
Literature
Bengali literature
বাংলা সািহত
 Bengali literature has a rich
heritage. It has a history
stretching back to the 3rd
century BCE, when the main
language was Sanskrit
written in the brahmi script.
The Bengali language and
script evolved circa 1000 CE
from Magadhi Prakrit.
Rabindranath Tagore, known as the Bengal has a long tradition
Bengali Shakespeare, being hosted
Bengali literature
in folk literature, evidenced
at the Parliament of Iran in the by the Chôrjapôdô, By category
1930s Mangalkavya, Shreekrishna Bengali language
Kirtana, Maimansingha Bengali language authors
Gitika or Thakurmar Jhuli.
Bengali literature in the medieval age was often either religious (e.g. Chronological list – Alphabetic List
Chandidas), or adaptations from other languages (e.g. Alaol). During Bengali writers
the Bengal Renaissance of the nineteenth and twentieth centuries, Writers – Novelists – Poets
Bengali literature was modernised through the works of authors such
as Michael Madhusudan Dutta, Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar, Bankim Forms
Chandra Chattopadhyay, Rabindranath Tagore, Sarat Chandra Novel – Poetry – Science Fiction
Chattopadhyay, Kazi Nazrul Islam, Satyendranath Dutta and
Institutions and awards
Jibanananda Das. In the 20th century, prominent modern Bengali
writers included Syed Mujtaba Ali, Jasimuddin, Manik Literary Institutions
Bandopadhyay, Tarasankar Bandyopadhyay, Bibhutibhushan Literary Prizes
Bandyopadhyay, Buddhadeb Bose, Sunil Gangopadhyay and Related Portals
Humayun Ahmed. Literature Portal
Prominent contemporary Bengali writers in English include Amitav
India Portal
Ghosh, Tahmima Anam, Jhumpa Lahiri and Zia Haider Rahman
among others. Bangladesh Portal

Personification

The Bangamata is a female personification of Bengal which was created during the Bengali Renaissance and
later adopted by the Bengali nationalists.[130] Hindu nationalists adopted a modified Bharat Mata as a
national personification of India.[131] The Mother Bengal represents not only biological motherness but its
attributed characteristics as well – protection, never ending love, consolation, care, the beginning and the
end of life. In Amar Sonar Bangla, the national anthem of Bangladesh, Rabindranath Tagore has used the
word "Maa" (Mother) numerous times to refer to the motherland i.e. Bengal.

Art

The Pala-Sena School of Art developed in Bengal between the 8th and 12th centuries and is considered a
high point of classical Asian art.[132][133] It included sculptures and paintings.[134]

Islamic Bengal was noted for its production of the finest cotton fabrics and saris, notably the Jamdani, which
received warrants from the Mughal court.[135] The Bengal School of painting flourished in Kolkata and
Shantiniketan in the British Raj during the early 20th century. Its practitioners were among the harbingers of
modern painting in India.[136] Zainul Abedin was the pioneer of modern Bangladeshi art. The country has a
thriving and internationally acclaimed contemporary art scene.[137]
Architecture

Classical Bengali architecture features terracotta buildings. Ancient

Bengali kingdoms laid the foundations of the region's architectural
heritage through the construction of monasteries and temples (for
example, the Somapura Mahavihara). During the sultanate period, a
distinct and glorious Islamic style of architecture developed the
region.[138] Most Islamic buildings were small and highly artistic
terracotta mosques with multiple domes and no minarets. Bengal
was also home to the largest mosque in South Asia at Adina. Bengali Bangladeshi paintings on sale at an
vernacular architecture is credited for inspiring the popularity of the art gallery in Dhaka
bungalow.[139]

The Bengal region also has a rich heritage of Indo-Saracenic

architecture, including numerous zamindar palaces and mansions.
The most prominent example of this style is the Victoria Memorial,
Kolkata.

In the 1950s, Muzharul Islam pioneered the modernist terracotta

style of architecture in South Asia. This was followed by the design
of the Jatiyo Sangshad Bhaban by the renowned American architect
Louis Kahn in the 1960s, which was based on the aesthetic heritage
of Bengali architecture and geography.[140][141] Bungalows originated from Bengali
architecture

Sciences

The Gupta dynasty, which is believed to have originated in North

Bengal, pioneered the invention of chess, the concept of zero, the
theory of Earth orbiting the Sun, the study of solar and lunar eclipses
and the flourishing of Sanskrit literature and drama.[67][142] Bengal
was the leader of scientific endeavours in the subcontinent during
the British Raj. The educational reforms during this period gave
birth to many distinguished scientists in the region. Sir Jagadish
Chandra Bose pioneered the investigation of radio and microwave
A sculpture on Fazlur Rahman Khan
optics, made very significant contributions to plant science, and laid
at the Sears Tower in the United
the foundations of experimental science in the Indian
States
subcontinent.[143] IEEE named him one of the fathers of radio
science.[144] He was the first person from the Indian subcontinent to
receive a US patent, in 1904. In 1924–25, while researching at the University of Dhaka, Prof Satyendra Nath
Bose well known for his works in quantum mechanics, provided the foundation for Bose–Einstein statistics
and the theory of the Bose–Einstein condensate.[145][146][147] Meghnad Saha was the first scientist to relate a
star's spectrum to its temperature, developing thermal ionization equations (notably the Saha ionization
equation) that have been foundational in the fields of astrophysics and astrochemistry.[148] Amal Kumar
Raychaudhuri was a physicist, known for his research in general relativity and cosmology. His most
significant contribution is the eponymous Raychaudhuri equation, which demonstrates that singularities
arise inevitably in general relativity and is a key ingredient in the proofs of the Penrose–Hawking singularity
theorems.[149] In the United States, the Bangladeshi-American engineer Fazlur Rahman Khan emerged as
the "father of tubular designs" in skyscraper construction. Ashoke Sen is an Indian theoretical physicist
whose main area of work is string theory. He was among the first recipients of the Fundamental Physics
Prize “for opening the path to the realisation that all string theories are different limits of the same
underlying theory”.[150]
Music

The Baul tradition is a unique heritage of Bengali folk music.[151]

The 19th century mystic poet Lalon Shah is the most celebrated
practitioner of the tradition.[152] Other folk music forms include
Gombhira, Bhatiali and Bhawaiya. Hason Raja is a renowned folk
poet of the Sylhet region. Folk music in Bengal is often
accompanied by the ektara, a one-stringed instrument. Other
instruments include the dotara, dhol, flute, and tabla. The region also
has a rich heritage in North Indian classical music.

Cuisine

Bengali cuisine is the only traditionally developed multi-course

tradition from the Indian subcontinent. Rice and fish are traditional
favourite foods, leading to a saying that "fish and rice make a
Bengali".[153] Bengal's vast repertoire of fish-based dishes includes
Hilsa preparations, a favourite among Bengalis. Bengalis make
distinctive sweetmeats from milk products, including Rôshogolla, A Baul musician. The Baul ballads
Chômchôm, and several kinds of Pithe. The old city of Dhaka is of Bengal are classified by
noted for its distinct Indo-Islamic cuisine, including biryani, UNESCO as humanity's intangible
bakarkhani and kebab dishes. cultural heritage

Boats

There are 150 types of Bengali country boats plying the 700 rivers of
the Bengal delta, the vast floodplain and many oxbow lakes. They
vary in design and size. The boats include the dinghy and sampan
among others. Country boats are a central element of Bengali culture
and have inspired generations of artists and poets, including the
ivory artisans of the Mughal era. The country has a long
shipbuilding tradition, dating back many centuries. Wooden boats
are made of timber such as Jarul (dipterocarpus turbinatus), sal
18th century painting of a budgerow (shorea robusta), sundari (heritiera fomes), and Burma teak (tectons
grandis). Medieval Bengal was shipbuilding hub for the Mughal and
Ottoman navies.[154][155] The British Royal Navy later utilised
Bengali shipyards in the 19th century, including for the Battle of Trafalgar.

Attire

Bengali women commonly wear the shaŗi and the salwar kameez, often distinctly designed according to
local cultural customs. In urban areas, many women and men wear Western-style attire. Among men,
European dressing has greater acceptance. Men also wear traditional costumes such as the kurta with dhoti
or pyjama, often on religious occasions. The lungi, a kind of long skirt, is widely worn by Bangladeshi men.

Festivals
Durga Puja is the biggest festival of the Hindus in Bengal as well as the most significant socio-cultural event
of the region in general.[156] The two Eids and Muharram are the important festivals for Muslims. Christmas
(called Borodin in Bengali) is also a major festival where people irrespective of their beliefs and faiths
participate. Other major festivals include Kali Puja, Saraswati Puja, Holi, Rath Jatra, Janmashtami, Poila
Boishakh and Poush Parbon.

Media

Bangladesh has a diverse, outspoken and privately owned press, with the largest circulated Bengali language
newspapers in the world. English-language titles are popular in the urban readership.[157] West Bengal had
559 published newspapers in 2005,[158] of which 430 were in Bengali.[158] Bengali cinema is divided
between the media hubs of Kolkata and Dhaka.

Sports

Cricket and football are popular sports in the Bengal region. Local games include sports such as Kho Kho
and Kabaddi, the latter being the national sport of Bangladesh. An Indo-Bangladesh Bengali Games has
been organised among the athletes of the Bengali speaking areas of the two countries.[159]

See also
Bengali Renaissance
Bengalis
Greater Bengal
East India
Hindi Belt
List of Bengalis
North-East India
Punjab

Notes
1. Roughly 163 million in Bangladesh and 100 million in the Republic of India (CIA Factbook
2014 estimates, numbers subject to rapid population growth); about 3 million Bangladeshis in
the Middle East, 1 million Bengalis in Pakistan, 0.4 million British Bangladeshi.
2. CRI do not give a breakdown by gender or state the age bracket for the data

References
1. "Bengalis" (http://factsanddetails.com/india/Minorities_Castes_and_Regions_in_India/sub7_4
b/entry-4198.html). Facts and Details. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/2017073001350
7/http://factsanddetails.com/india/Minorities_Castes_and_Regions_in_India/sub7_4b/entry-419
8.html) from the original on 30 July 2017. Retrieved 15 May 2017.
2. "Article 2. The state language" (http://bdlaws.minlaw.gov.bd/sections_detail.php?id=367&sectio
ns_id=24550). The Constitution of the People's Republic of Bangladesh.
bdlaws.minlaw.gov.bd. Ministry of Law, The People's Republic of Bangladesh. Archived (http
s://web.archive.org/web/20170805014802/http://bdlaws.minlaw.gov.bd/sections_detail.php?id=
367&sections_id=24550) from the original on 5 August 2017. Retrieved 1 February 2017.
 3. "Report of the Commissioner for linguistic minorities: 47th report (July 2008 to June 2010)" (htt
ps://web.archive.org/web/20120513161847/http://nclm.nic.in/shared/linkimages/NCLM47thRep
ort.pdf) (PDF). Commissioner for Linguistic Minorities, Ministry of Minority Affairs, Government
of India. pp. 122–126. Archived from the original (http://nclm.nic.in/shared/linkimages/NCLM47
thReport.pdf) (PDF) on 13 May 2012. Retrieved 30 September 2017.
4. "Oxford Dictionaries" (https://en.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/bengal). Archived (https://we
b.archive.org/web/20170829074813/https://en.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/bengal) from
the original on 29 August 2017. Retrieved 22 February 2017.
5. Arijit Mazumdar (27 August 2014). Indian Foreign Policy in Transition: Relations with South
Asia (https://books.google.com/books?id=DHJeBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA86). Routledge. p. 86.
ISBN 978-1-317-69859-3.
6. "Cox's Bazar, Bangladesh – the World's Longest Beach" (http://thingsasian.com/story/coxs-baz
ar-bangladesh-worlds-longest-beach). ThingsAsian. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/201
70426004823/http://thingsasian.com/story/coxs-bazar-bangladesh-worlds-longest-beach) from
the original on 26 April 2017. Retrieved 7 January 2017.
7. Ancient India As Described By Megasthenes And Arrian by Mccrindle, J.W (https://archive.org/
details/AncientIndiaAsDescribedByMegasthenesAndArrianByMccrindleJ.W). archive.org.
Mccrindle, J. W. Retrieved 5 June 2017.
8. Sailendra Nath Sen (1999). Ancient Indian History and Civilization (https://books.google.com/b
ooks?id=Wk4_ICH_g1EC&pg=PA278). New Age International. pp. 277–287. ISBN 978-81-
224-1198-0.
9. R. C. Majumdar (1977). Ancient India (https://books.google.com/books?id=XNxiN5tzKOgC&pg
=PA268). Motilal Banarsidass. pp. 268–. ISBN 978-81-208-0436-4.
10. Sailendra Nath Sen (1999). Ancient Indian History and Civilization (https://books.google.com/b
ooks?id=Wk4_ICH_g1EC&pg=PA280). New Age International. pp. 280–. ISBN 978-81-224-
1198-0.
11. Raj Kumar (2003). Essays on Ancient India (https://books.google.com/books?id=qvnjXOCjv7E
C). Discovery Publishing House. p. 199. ISBN 978-81-7141-682-0.
12. Nanda, J. N (2005). Bengal: the unique state. Concept Publishing Company. p. 10. 2005.
ISBN 978-81-8069-149-2. "Bengal [...] was rich in the production and export of grain, salt, fruit,
liquors and wines, precious metals and ornaments besides the output of its handlooms in silk
and cotton. Europe referred to Bengal as the richest country to trade with."
13. Ibn Battutah. The Rehla of Ibn Battuta.
14. "The paradise of nations | Dhaka Tribune" (https://web.archive.org/web/20171216011429/htt
p://archive.dhakatribune.com/heritage/2014/dec/20/paradise-nations).
Archive.dhakatribune.com. 20 December 2014. Archived from the original (http://archive.dhaka
tribune.com/heritage/2014/dec/20/paradise-nations) on 16 December 2017. Retrieved
7 November 2016.
15. Om Prakash, "Empire, Mughal (http://link.galegroup.com/apps/doc/CX3447600139/WHIC?u=s
eat24826&xid=6b597320)", History of World Trade Since 1450, edited by John J. McCusker,
vol. 1, Macmillan Reference USA, 2006, pp. 237–240, World History in Context. Retrieved 3
August 2017
16. John F. Richards (1995), The Mughal Empire, page 202 (https://books.google.com/books?id=H
HyVh29gy4QC&pg=PA202), Cambridge University Press
17. Giorgio Riello, Tirthankar Roy (2009). How India Clothed the World: The World of South Asian
Textiles, 1500–1850 (https://books.google.com/books?id=niuwCQAAQBAJ&pg=PA174). Brill
Publishers. p. 174. ISBN 9789047429975.
18. Richard Maxwell Eaton (1996), The Rise of Islam and the Bengal Frontier, 1204–1760, page
202 (https://books.google.com/books?id=gKhChF3yAOUC&pg=PA202), University of
California Press
19. Ray, Indrajit (2011). Bengal Industries and the British Industrial Revolution (1757–1857) (http
s://books.google.com/books?id=CHOrAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA174). Routledge. p. 174. ISBN 978-
1-136-82552-1.
20. M. Shahid Alam (2016). Poverty From The Wealth of Nations: Integration and Polarization in
the Global Economy since 1760 (https://books.google.com/books?id=suKKCwAAQBAJ&pg=P
A32). Springer Science+Business Media. p. 32. ISBN 978-0-333-98564-9.
21. Khandker, Hissam (31 July 2015). "Which India is claiming to have been colonised?" (http://ww
w.thedailystar.net/op-ed/politics/which-india-claiming-have-been-colonised-119284). The Daily
Star (Op-ed).
22. Maddison, Angus (2003): Development Centre Studies The World Economy Historical
Statistics: Historical Statistics (https://books.google.com/books?
id=rHJGz3HiJbcC&pg=PA259), OECD Publishing, ISBN 9264104143, pages 259–261
23. Lawrence E. Harrison, Peter L. Berger (2006). Developing cultures: case studies (https://book
s.google.com/books?id=RB0oAQAAIAAJ). Routledge. p. 158. ISBN 9780415952798.
24. Lex Heerma van Voss; Els Hiemstra-Kuperus; Elise van Nederveen Meerkerk (2010). "The
Long Globalization and Textile Producers in India" (https://books.google.com/books?id=f95ljbhf
jxIC&pg=PA255). The Ashgate Companion to the History of Textile Workers, 1650–2000.
Ashgate Publishing. p. 255. ISBN 9780754664284.
25. P. J. Marshall (2006). Bengal: The British Bridgehead: Eastern India 1740-1828 (https://books.
google.com/books?id=lIZrfokYSY8C&pg=PA72). Cambridge University Press. p. 72.
ISBN 9780521028226.
26. C. C. Davies (1957). "Chapter XXIII: Rivalries in India" (https://books.google.com/books?id=7ej
h1RnNDt4C&pg=PG555). In J. O. Lindsay (ed.). The New Cambridge Modern History. Volume
VII: The Old Regime 1713–63. Cambridge University Press. p. 555. ISBN 978-0-521-04545-2.
27. Ray, Indrajit (2011). Bengal Industries and the British Industrial Revolution (1757–1857) (http
s://books.google.com/books?id=CHOrAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA7). Routledge. pp. 7–10. ISBN 978-
1-136-82552-1.
28. Rahman, Urmi (2014). Bangladesh – Culture Smart!: The Essential Guide to Customs &
Culture (https://books.google.com/books?id=1HelAwAAQBAJ&pg=PT26). Kuperard. pp. 26–.
ISBN 978-1-85733-696-2.
29. "Vanga | Britannica.com" (http://www.britannica.com/place/Vanga). Encyclopædia Britannica.
Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20160730062030/https://www.britannica.com/place/Van
ga) from the original on 30 July 2016. Retrieved 7 January 2017.
30. RIYAZU-S-SALĀTĪN: A History of Bengal (http://persian.packhum.org/persian/pf?file=0760101
0&ct=11) Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20141215055926/http://persian.packhum.org/
persian/pf?file=07601010&ct=11) 15 December 2014 at the Wayback Machine, Ghulam
Husain Salim, The Asiatic Society, Calcutta, 1902.
31. Land of Two Rivers, Nitish Sengupta
32. Abu'l-Fazl. Ain-i-Akbari.
33. "Bangladesh: early history, 1000 B.C.–A.D. 1202" (http://memory.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/r?frd/cst
dy:@field%28DOCID+bd0014%29). Bangladesh: A country study. Washington, D.C.: Library
of Congress. September 1988. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20131207010051/http://
memory.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/r?frd%2Fcstdy%3A%40field%28DOCID+bd0014%29) from the
original on 7 December 2013. Retrieved 1 December 2014. "Historians believe that Bengal,
the area comprising present-day Bangladesh and the Indian state of West Bengal, was settled
in about 1000 B.C. by Dravidian-speaking peoples who were later known as the Bang. Their
homeland bore various titles that reflected earlier tribal names, such as Vanga, Banga,
Bangala, Bangal, and Bengal."
34. Keay, John (2000). India: A History (https://archive.org/details/indiahistory00keay/page/220).
Atlantic Monthly Press. p. 220 (https://archive.org/details/indiahistory00keay/page/220).
ISBN 978-0-87113-800-2. "In C1020 ... launched Rajendra's great northern escapade ...
peoples he defeated have been tentatively identified ... 'Vangala-desa where the rain water
never stopped' sounds like a fair description of Bengal in the monsoon."
35. Allan, John Andrew; Haig, T. Wolseley; Dodwell, H. H. (1934). Dodwell, H. H. (ed.). The
Cambridge Shorter History of India (https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.99610).
Cambridge University Press. p. 113 (https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.99610/page/n1
39).
36. Sen, Sailendra Nath (1999) [First published 1988]. Ancient Indian History and Civilization (http
s://books.google.com/books?id=Wk4_ICH_g1EC&pg=PA281). New Age International. p. 281.
ISBN 978-81-224-1198-0.
37. Lach, Donald F.; Kley, Edwin J. Van (1998). Asia in the Making of Europe, Volume III: A
Century of Advance. Book 3: Southeast Asia (https://books.google.com/books?id=M4t8S7Bfge
IC&pg=PA1124). University of Chicago Press. pp. 1124–. ISBN 978-0-226-46768-9.
38. Ali, A (1996). "Vulnerability of Bangladesh to climate change and sea level rise through tropical
cyclones and storm surges" (https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/BF00175563). Water, Air,
& Soil Pollution. 92 (1–2): 171–179. doi:10.1007/BF00175563 (https://doi.org/10.1007%2FBF0
0175563) (inactive 19 May 2020).
39. Summit Elevations: Frequent Internet Errors. (http://www.sol.co.uk/v/viewfinder/elevmisquotes.
html#keok) Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20130725020735/http://www.sol.co.uk/v/vie
wfinder/elevmisquotes.html) 25 July 2013 at the Wayback Machine Retrieved 13 April 2006.
40. IUCN (1997). "Sundarban wildlife sanctuaries Bangladesh". World Heritage Nomination-IUCN
Technical Evaluation.
41. "Statistical Facts about India" (http://www.indianmirror.com/geography/geo9.html).
indianmirror.com. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20061026055639/http://www.indianmir
ror.com/geography/geo9.html) from the original on 26 October 2006. Retrieved 26 October
2006.
42. "National Himalayan Sandakphu-Gurdum Trekking Expedition: 2006" (https://web.archive.org/
web/20061024013140/http://www.yhaindia.org/sandakphu_trek.htm). Youth Hostels
Association of India: West Bengal State Branch. Archived from the original (http://yhaindia.org/
sandakphu_trek.htm) on 24 October 2006. Retrieved 26 October 2006.
43. Chowdhury, U. K.; Biswas, B. K.; Chowdhury, T. R.; et al. (May 2000). "Groundwater arsenic
contamination in Bangladesh and West Bengal, India" (https://web.archive.org/web/200709270
02931/http://www.ehponline.org/members/2000/108p393-397chowdhury/chowdhury-full.html).
Environmental Health Perspectives. 108 (4): 393–397. doi:10.2307/3454378 (https://doi.org/1
0.2307%2F3454378). JSTOR 3454378 (https://www.jstor.org/stable/3454378). PMC 1638054
(https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1638054). PMID 10811564 (https://pubmed.nc
bi.nlm.nih.gov/10811564). Archived from the original (http://www.ehponline.org/members/2000/
108p393-397chowdhury/chowdhury-full.html) on 27 September 2007.
44. Lethbridge, E. (1874). An Easy Introduction to the History and Geography of Bengal: For the
Junior Classes in Schools (https://archive.org/details/easyintroduction00lethrich). Thacker. p. 5
(https://archive.org/details/easyintroduction00lethrich/page/5). Retrieved 7 January 2017.
45. Akhter, Nasrin (2012). "Sarkar" (http://en.banglapedia.org/index.php?title=Sarkar). In Islam,
Sirajul; Jamal, Ahmed A. (eds.). Banglapedia: National Encyclopedia of Bangladesh (Second
ed.). Asiatic Society of Bangladesh.
46. David Christiana (1 September 2007). "Arsenic Mitigation in West Bengal, India: New Hope for
Millions" (https://web.archive.org/web/20160305124232/http://www.swhydro.arizona.edu/07sy
mposium/presentationpdf/ChristianaD_pro.pdf) (PDF). Southwest Hydrology. p. 32. Archived
from the original (http://www.swhydro.arizona.edu/07symposium/presentationpdf/ChristianaD_
pro.pdf) (PDF) on 5 March 2016. Retrieved 20 December 2008.
47. Puri, Sunil (2007). Agroforestry: Systems and Practices (https://books.google.com/books?id=x
goYwm4xiVYC&pg=PA322&q=%22South%20Bengal%22). ISBN 9788189422622.
48. Reddy, Angadi Ranga (2009). Gandhi and globalisation (https://books.google.com/books?id=to
TvPa0CRIgC&pg=PA347&q=South%20Bengal%20area%20districts). ISBN 9788183242967.
49. Das, Tulshi Kumar (2000). Social Structure and Cultural Practices in Slums: A Study of Slums
in Dhaka City (https://books.google.com/books?id=PpIzAFZ5zZEC&pg=PA16&q=South%20Be
ngal%20area%20districts). ISBN 9788172111106.
50. Andaya, B. W.; Andaya, L. Y. (2015). A History of Early Modern Southeast Asia, 1400–1830 (ht
tps://books.google.com/books?id=0Rh2BgAAQBAJ&pg=PA220). Cambridge University Press.
p. 220. ISBN 978-0-521-88992-6. Retrieved 7 January 2017.
51. Singh, A. K. (2006). Modern World System and Indian Proto-industrialization: Bengal 1650–
1800 (https://books.google.com/books?id=WwNUblS-jpwC&pg=PA225). 1. Northern Book
Centre. p. 225. ISBN 9788172112011. Retrieved 7 January 2017.
52. Banu, U. A. B. Razia Akter (1992). Islam in Bangladesh (https://books.google.com/books?id=X
yzqATEDPSgC&pg=PA6). Brill. p. 6. ISBN 978-90-04-09497-0. Retrieved 7 January 2017. "in
Samatata (South-east Bengal) where the Buddhist Khadaga dynasty ruled throughout the fifth,
sixth and seventh centuries AD."
53. Rashid, M Harunar (2012). "Harikela" (http://en.banglapedia.org/index.php?title=Harikela). In
Islam, Sirajul; Jamal, Ahmed A. (eds.). Banglapedia: National Encyclopedia of Bangladesh
(Second ed.). Asiatic Society of Bangladesh.
54. "Chittagong to bridge S Asian nations" (http://archive.thedailystar.net/newDesign/cache/cached
-news-details-226586.html). The Daily Star. 17 March 2012. Archived (https://web.archive.org/
web/20160813113736/http://archive.thedailystar.net/newDesign/cache/cached-news-details-22
6586.html) from the original on 13 August 2016. Retrieved 12 August 2016.
55. "World's longest natural sea beach under threat" (https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-20699
989). BBC News. 28 December 2012. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/2017011317243
2/http://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-20699989) from the original on 13 January 2017.
Retrieved 21 June 2018.
56. "Bangladesh finds 106 tigers in Sundarbans, India 76" (https://web.archive.org/web/201609110
51851/http://archive.dhakatribune.com/environment/2015/oct/04/bangladesh-finds-106-tigers-s
undarbans-india-76). Dhaka Tribune. BSS. 4 October 2015. Archived from the original (http://ar
chive.dhakatribune.com/environment/2015/oct/04/bangladesh-finds-106-tigers-sundarbans-ind
ia-76) on 11 September 2016. Retrieved 13 August 2016.
57. "History of Bangladesh" (https://web.archive.org/web/20061219141732/http://www.orgs.ttu.ed
u/saofbangladesh/history.htm). Bangladesh Student Association. Archived from the original (htt
p://www.orgs.ttu.edu/saofbangladesh/history.htm) on 19 December 2006. Retrieved
26 October 2006.
58. "4000-year old settlement unearthed in Bangladesh" (http://news.xinhuanet.com/english/2006-
03/12/content_4293312.htm). Xinhua News Agency. March 2006. Archived (https://web.archiv
e.org/web/20070510135113/http://news.xinhuanet.com/english/2006-03/12/content_4293312.
htm) from the original on 10 May 2007. Retrieved 25 February 2007.
59. Eaton, R. M. (1996). The Rise of Islam and the Bengal Frontier, 1204–1760 (https://books.goo
gle.com/books?id=gKhChF3yAOUC). University of California Press. ISBN 978-0-520-20507-9.
Retrieved 7 January 2017.
60. Ray, H. P. (2003). The Archaeology of Seafaring in Ancient South Asia (https://books.google.c
om/books?id=iHHzP4uVpn4C&pg=PA17). Cambridge University Press. p. 17. ISBN 978-0-
521-01109-9. Retrieved 7 January 2017.
61. Chowdhury, AM. "Gangaridai" (http://en.banglapedia.org/index.php?title=Gangaridai).
Banglapedia. Asiatic Society of Bangladesh. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/201506020
94443/http://en.banglapedia.org/index.php?title=Gangaridai) from the original on 2 June 2015.
Retrieved 5 August 2015.
62. Sarkar, Sebanti, "https://scroll.in/magazine/868330/in-rural-bengal-an-indefatigable-relic-
hunter-has-uncovered-a-hidden-chapter-of-history Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/2018
0220145407/https://scroll.in/magazine/868330/in-rural-bengal-an-indefatigable-relic-hunter-has
-uncovered-a-hidden-chapter-of-history) 20 February 2018 at the Wayback Machine."
Retrieved 4 August 2018
63. Hossain, Md. Mosharraf, Mahasthan: Anecdote to History, 2006, pp. 69–73, Dibyaprakash,
38/2 ka Bangla Bazar, Dhaka, ISBN 984-483-245-4
64. Ghosh, Suchandra. "Pundravardhana" (http://en.banglapedia.org/index.php?title=Pundravardh
ana). Banglapedia. Asiatic Society of Bangladesh. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/2017
0623150622/http://en.banglapedia.org/index.php?title=Pundravardhana) from the original on
23 June 2017. Retrieved 10 November 2007.
65. Majumdar, R. C., History of Ancient Bengal, First published 1971, Reprint 2005, p. 10, Tulshi
Prakashani, Kolkata, ISBN 81-89118-01-3.
66. (Mbh 1:104), (2:21).
67. Murray, H. J. R. (1913). A History of Chess (https://archive.org/details/historyofchess00murr).
Benjamin Press (originally published by Oxford University Press). ISBN 978-0-936317-01-4.
OCLC 13472872 (https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/13472872).
68. Islam, Shariful (2012). "Bangla Script" (http://en.banglapedia.org/index.php?title=Bangla_Scrip
t). In Islam, Sirajul; Jamal, Ahmed A. (eds.). Banglapedia: National Encyclopedia of
Bangladesh (Second ed.). Asiatic Society of Bangladesh.
69. Sengupta, Nitish K. (2011). Land of Two Rivers: A History of Bengal from the Mahabharata to
Mujib (https://books.google.com/books?id=kVSh_TyJ0YoC&pg=PA40). Penguin Books India.
pp. 39–49. ISBN 978-0-14-341678-4.
70. Nanda, J. N. (1 January 2005). Bengal: The Unique State (https://books.google.com/books?id
=HsV3cYAvGEEC&pg=PA34). Concept Publishing Company. p. 34. ISBN 978-81-8069-149-2.
71. Mehta, Jaswant Lal (1979). Advanced Study in the History of Medieval India (https://books.goo
gle.com/books?id=iUk5k5AN54sC). Sterling Publishers Pvt. Ltd. p. 82. ISBN 978-81-207-
0617-0.
72. A Collection of Treaties and Engagements with the Native Princes and States of Asia:
Concluded on Behalf of the East India Company by the British Governments in India, Viz. by
the Government of Bengal Etc. : Also Copies of Sunnuds Or Grants of Certain Privileges and
Imunities to the East India Company by the Mogul and Other Native Princes of Hindustan (http
s://archive.org/details/bub_gb_J_1RAAAAcAAJ). United East-India Company. 1812. p. 28 (http
s://archive.org/details/bub_gb_J_1RAAAAcAAJ/page/n55). Retrieved 23 August 2013.
73. Ahmed, F. S. (2011). A Comprehensive History of Medieval India: Twelfth to the Mid-
Eighteenth Century (https://books.google.com/books?id=sxhAtCflwOMC). Pearson.
ISBN 9788131732021. Retrieved 7 January 2017.
74. Baten, Jörg (2016). A History of the Global Economy. From 1500 to the Present. Cambridge
University Press. p. 251. ISBN 978-1-107-50718-0.
75. 5 of the worst atrocities carried out by the British Empire (https://www.independent.co.uk/news/
uk/home-news/worst-atrocities-british-empire-amritsar-boer-war-concentration-camp-mau-mau
-a6821756.html). The Independent. 19 January 2016.
76. Churchill's policies contributed to 1943 Bengal famine – study (https://www.theguardian.com/w
orld/2019/mar/29/winston-churchill-policies-contributed-to-1943-bengal-famine-study). The
Guardian. 29 March 2019.
77. The "Gandhians" of Bengal: Nationalism, Social Reconstruction and Cultural Orientations
1920-1942. p. 19. "Malaria was endemic in rural areas during the 19th century, particularly in
western Bengal. This was ... The famine of 1769-70 resulted in about ten million deaths, while
50 million died of malaria, plague and famine between 1895 and 19206."
78. (Baxter 1997, pp. 39–40)
79. Chowdhury, Masud Hasan. "Cyclone" (http://en.banglapedia.org/index.php?title=Cyclone).
Banglapedia. Asiatic Society of Bangladesh. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/201601191
31247/http://en.banglapedia.org/index.php?title=Cyclone) from the original on 19 January
2016. Retrieved 6 August 2015.
80. Chitta Ranjan Misra. "United Independent Bengal Movement" (https://web.archive.org/web/201
50805022148/http://en.banglapedia.org/index.php?title=United_Independent_Bengal_Moveme
nt). Banglapedia. Asiatic Society of Bangladesh. Archived from the original (http://en.banglape
dia.org/index.php?title=United_Independent_Bengal_Movement) on 5 August 2015. Retrieved
5 August 2015.
81. Harun-or-Rashid. "Partition of Bengal, 1947" (http://en.banglapedia.org/index.php?title=Partitio
n_of_Bengal,_1947). Banglapedia. Asiatic Society of Bangladesh. Archived (https://web.archiv
e.org/web/20150702002256/http://en.banglapedia.org/index.php?title=Partition_of_Bengal,_19
47) from the original on 2 July 2015. Retrieved 5 August 2015.
82. Suranjan Das. "Calcutta Riot (1946)" (https://web.archive.org/web/20150801150533/http://en.b
anglapedia.org/index.php?title=Calcutta_Riot%2C_1946). Banglapedia. Asiatic Society of
Bangladesh. Archived from the original (http://en.banglapedia.org/index.php?title=Calcutta_Rio
t,_1946) on 1 August 2015. Retrieved 5 August 2015.
83. "Communist rule ends in Indian state of West Bengal" (https://www.bbc.com/news/world-south-
asia-13387058). BBC News. 13 May 2011. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/2016081809
0451/http://www.bbc.com/news/world-south-asia-13387058) from the original on 18 August
2016. Retrieved 21 June 2018.
84. Bhattacharyya, B. (1986). Tripura Administration: The Era of Modernisation, 1870–1972 (http
s://books.google.com/books?id=WmgrZgspJbIC). Mittal Publications. Retrieved 7 January
2017.
85. "Muhammad Ali Bogra becomes Prime Minister" (http://storyofpakistan.com/muhammad-ali-bo
gra-becomes-prime-minister). Story of Pakistan. June 2003. Archived (https://web.archive.org/
web/20170326101925/http://storyofpakistan.com/muhammad-ali-bogra-becomes-prime-minist
er) from the original on 26 March 2017. Retrieved 7 January 2017.
86. "Revisiting 1906–1971" (http://nation.com.pk/columns/05-Dec-2015/revisting-1906-1971). The
Nation. Pakistan. 4 December 2015. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20160127030724/h
ttp://nation.com.pk/columns/05-Dec-2015/revisting-1906-1971) from the original on 27 January
2016. Retrieved 7 January 2017.
87. "H. S. Suhrawardy Becomes Prime Minister" (http://storyofpakistan.com/h-s-suhrawardy-beco
mes-prime-minister). Story of Pakistan. July 2003. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/2017
0326100307/http://storyofpakistan.com/h-s-suhrawardy-becomes-prime-minister) from the
original on 26 March 2017. Retrieved 7 January 2017.
88. (Baxter 1997, pp. 78–79)
89. Raghavan, S. (2013). 1971 (https://books.google.com/books?id=2S-wAQAAQBAJ). Harvard
University Press. ISBN 978-0-674-73129-5. Retrieved 7 January 2017.
90. Lewis, David (2011). Bangladesh: Politics, Economy and Civil Society (https://books.google.co
m/books?id=5lH40gT7xvYC). Cambridge University Press. pp. 78–90. ISBN 978-0-521-71377-
1.
91. "Dhaka Declaration" (https://web.archive.org/web/20160607131812/http://www.saarc-sec.org/u
serfiles/01-Dhaka-1stSummit1985.pdf) (PDF). SAARC Secretariat. Archived from the original
(http://www.saarc-sec.org/userfiles/01-Dhaka-1stSummit1985.pdf) (PDF) on 7 June 2016.
Retrieved 7 June 2016.
92. "Bangladesh profile – Timeline" (https://www.bbc.com/news/world-south-asia-12651483). BBC
News. 1 January 2016. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20180711040420/https://www.b
bc.com/news/world-south-asia-12651483) from the original on 11 July 2018. Retrieved
21 June 2018.
93. Salik, Siddiq (1978). Witness to Surrender. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-577264-7.
94. Burke, S (1973). "The Postwar Diplomacy of the Indo-Pakistani War of 1971". Asian Survey.
13 (11): 1036–1049. doi:10.2307/2642858 (https://doi.org/10.2307%2F2642858).
JSTOR 2642858 (https://www.jstor.org/stable/2642858).
95. "Address by External Affairs Minister Shri Natwar Singh at India-Bangladesh Dialogue
Organised by Centre for Policy Dialogue and India International Centre" (http://www.mea.gov.i
n/incoming-visit-detail.htm). Speeches. Ministry of External Affairs, New Delhi. 7 August 2005.
Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20160505224301/http://www.mea.gov.in/incoming-visit-d
etail.htm?2663) from the original on 5 May 2016. Retrieved 28 April 2016.
96. Chattopadhyay, S. S. (June 2007). "Constant traffic" (https://web.archive.org/web/2008041702
5216/http://www.hinduonnet.com/fline/fl2411/stories/20070615003701400.htm). Frontline.
Vol. 24 no. 11. The Hindu. Archived from the original (http://www.hinduonnet.com/fline/fl2411/s
tories/20070615003701400.htm) on 17 April 2008. Retrieved 26 February 2008.
97. "2011 Population & Housing Census: Preliminary Results" (https://web.archive.org/web/20130
115170757/http://www.bbs.gov.bd/WebTestApplication/userfiles/Image/BBS/PHC2011Prelimin
ary%20Result.pdf) (PDF). Bangladesh Bureau of Statistics, Statistics Division, Ministry of
Planning, Government of the People's Republic of Bangladesh. July 2011. Archived from the
original (http://www.bbs.gov.bd/WebTestApplication/userfiles/Image/BBS/PHC2011Preliminar
y%20Result.pdf) (PDF) on 15 January 2013. Retrieved 17 November 2013.
98. "Area, population, decennial growth rate and density for 2001 and 2011 at a glance for West
Bengal and the districts: provisional population totals paper 1 of 2011: West Bengal" (http://ww
w.censusindia.gov.in/2011-prov-results/prov_data_products_wb.html). Registrar General &
Census Commissioner, India. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20120107060612/http://ce
nsusindia.gov.in/2011-prov-results/prov_data_products_wb.html) from the original on 7
January 2012. Retrieved 26 January 2012.
99. "Provisional Population Totals: West Bengal" (http://www.censusindia.gov.in/). Census of India,
2001. Office of the Registrar General & Census Commissioner, India. Archived (https://web.arc
hive.org/web/20070514045222/http://www.censusindia.gov.in/) from the original on 14 May
2007. Retrieved 26 August 2006.
00. World Bank Development Indicators Database, 2006.
01. "Bangladesh" (http://www.ethnologue.com/country/BD/languages). Ethnologue. Archived (http
s://web.archive.org/web/20150626114709/http://www.ethnologue.com/country/BD/languages)
from the original on 26 June 2015. Retrieved 26 June 2015.
02. Detailed relations between Bengali and related dialects and languages in eastern India in
Sudhāṃśu Śekhara Tuṅga, Bengali and Other Related Dialects of South Assam (Delhi: Mittal,
1995). ISBN 9788170995883
03. "The World Factbook: Bangladesh" (https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factboo
k/geos/bg.html). Central Intelligence Agency. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20150720
222528/https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/bg.html) from the
original on 20 July 2015. Retrieved 31 October 2009.
04. "Contents 2010–14" (http://www.censusindia.gov.in/Vital_Statistics/SRS_Life_Table/1.CONTE
NTS-2010-14.pdf) (PDF). Office of the Registrar General & Census Commissioner, India.
Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20161113174353/http://www.censusindia.gov.in/Vital_St
atistics/SRS_Life_Table/1.CONTENTS-2010-14.pdf) (PDF) from the original on 13 November
2016. Retrieved 12 January 2017.
05. "Abridged Life Tables- 2010–14" (http://www.censusindia.gov.in/Vital_Statistics/SRS_Life_Tabl
e/2.Analysis_2010-14.pdf) (PDF). Office of the Registrar General & Census Commissioner,
India. p. 5. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20170110123124/http://www.censusindia.go
v.in/Vital_Statistics/SRS_Life_Table/2.Analysis_2010-14.pdf) (PDF) from the original on 10
January 2017. Retrieved 12 January 2017.
06. CRI=Center Research and Information (2014). Bangladesh Education for All (http://cri.org.bd/p
ublication/2015/Bangladesh%20Education%20for%20All/#/1/). CRI Publication. p. 138.
ISBN 978-0-7566-9859-1. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20170814012330/http://cri.or
g.bd/publication/2015/Bangladesh%20Education%20for%20All/#/1/) from the original on 14
August 2017. Retrieved 6 May 2017.
07. "Table 162, Number and Percentage of Population Below Poverty Line" (https://web.archive.or
g/web/20140407102043/http://www.rbi.org.in/scripts/PublicationsView.aspx?id=15283).
Reserve Bank of India, Government of India. 2013. Archived from the original (http://www.rbi.or
g.in/scripts/PublicationsView.aspx?id=15283) on 7 April 2014. Retrieved 20 April 2014.
08. Misha, Farzana; Sulaiman, Munshi. "Bangladesh Priorities: Poverty, Sulaiman and Misha |
Copenhagen Consensus Center" (http://www.copenhagenconsensus.com/publication/banglad
esh-priorities-poverty-sulaiman-and-misha). copenhagenconsensus.com. Copenhagen
Consensus. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20160416191511/http://www.copenhagenc
onsensus.com/publication/bangladesh-priorities-poverty-sulaiman-and-misha) from the original
on 16 April 2016. Retrieved 7 April 2016.
09. "Statistics" (http://www.unicef.org/infobycountry/bangladesh_bangladesh_statistics.html).
UNICEF. 18 December 2013. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20151219134729/http://w
ww.unicef.org/infobycountry/bangladesh_bangladesh_statistics.html) from the original on 19
December 2015. Retrieved 2 March 2007.
10. "Why West Bengal is like Canada, and Bihar like Swaziland" (http://www.livemint.com/Politics/
1rl0WtFHAUyrXy1KcwGYlK/Why-West-Bengal-is-like-Canada-and-Bihar-like-Swaziland.html).
25 December 2014. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20160724083636/http://www.livemi
nt.com/Politics/1rl0WtFHAUyrXy1KcwGYlK/Why-West-Bengal-is-like-Canada-and-Bihar-like-S
waziland.html) from the original on 24 July 2016. Retrieved 7 September 2017.
11. "Wandering Gaia" (http://www.wanderinggaia.com). "The Give and Take of the Ganges"
WordPress.com. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20090410040034/http://wanderinggaia.
com/) from the original on 10 April 2009. Retrieved 13 April 2009.
12. "7 Major Rice Producing States in India – Important India" (https://web.archive.org/web/201611
29120550/http://www.importantindia.com/10116/major-rice-producing-states-in-india/).
importantindia.com. 21 January 2014. Archived from the original (http://www.importantindia.co
m/10116/major-rice-producing-states-in-india/) on 29 November 2016. Retrieved 7 January
2017.
13. "Report for Selected Countries and Subjects" (http://www.imf.org/external/datamapper/NGDPD
@WEO/OEMDC/ADVEC/WEOWORLD). International Monetary Fund(IMF). Archived (https://
web.archive.org/web/20180614093951/http://www.imf.org/external/datamapper/NGDPD@WE
O/OEMDC/ADVEC/WEOWORLD) from the original on 14 June 2018. Retrieved 30 July 2018.
14. "State Statistics" (http://niti.gov.in/state-statistics). NITI Aayog. Archived (https://web.archive.or
g/web/20161019021421/http://niti.gov.in/state-statistics) from the original on 19 October 2016.
Retrieved 16 October 2016.
15. "GDP per capita, current prices" (http://www.imf.org/external/datamapper/NGDPDPC@WEO/O
EMDC/ADVEC/WEOWORLD). International Monetary Fund(IMF). Archived (https://web.archiv
e.org/web/20180712183809/http://www.imf.org/external/datamapper/NGDPDPC@WEO/OEM
DC/ADVEC/WEOWORLD) from the original on 12 July 2018. Retrieved 30 July 2018.
16. "STATE WISE DATA" (https://web.archive.org/web/20170310075547/http://www.esopb.gov.in/s
tatic/PDF/GSDP/Statewise-Data/state%20wise%20data.pdf) (PDF). Economic Statistical
Organisation Punjab. Central Statistical Organisation, New Delhi. Archived from the original (ht
tp://www.esopb.gov.in/static/PDF/GSDP/Statewise-Data/state%20wise%20data.pdf) (PDF) on
10 March 2017. Retrieved 17 February 2017.
17. "UPDATE 1-India, Bangladesh sign historic land boundary agreement" (https://www.reuters.co
m/article/bangladesh-india-enclaves-idUSL3N0YS06U20150606). Reuters. Archived (https://w
eb.archive.org/web/20160610032627/http://www.reuters.com/article/bangladesh-india-enclave
s-idUSL3N0YS06U20150606) from the original on 10 June 2016. Retrieved 30 June 2017.
18. "Dhaka (Bangladesh): City Districts and Subdistricts – Population Statistics in Maps and
Charts" (http://www.citypopulation.de/php/bangladesh-dhaka.php). Archived (https://web.archiv
e.org/web/20140709201717/http://citypopulation.de/php/bangladesh-dhaka.php) from the
original on 9 July 2014. Retrieved 6 March 2014.
19. "Kolkata Metropolitan" (http://www.census2011.co.in/census/metropolitan/184-kolkata.html).
Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20150717045747/http://www.census2011.co.in/census/
metropolitan/184-kolkata.html) from the original on 17 July 2015. Retrieved 10 August 2015.
20. "Chittagong (Bangladesh): City Districts and Subdistricts – Population Statistics in Maps and
Charts" (http://www.citypopulation.de/php/bangladesh-chittagong.php). Archived (https://web.a
rchive.org/web/20140306161235/http://www.citypopulation.de/php/bangladesh-chittagong.php)
from the original on 6 March 2014. Retrieved 6 March 2014.
21. "Bangladesh: Divisions and Urban Areas" (http://citypopulation.de/Bangladesh-UA.html).
Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20140306160813/http://citypopulation.de/Bangladesh-U
A.html) from the original on 6 March 2014. Retrieved 17 April 2014.
22. "West Bengal: Durgapur" (http://www.censusindia.gov.in/pca/SearchDetails.aspx?Id=361380).
Census of India.
23. "West Bengal: Asansol" (http://www.censusindia.gov.in/pca/SearchDetails.aspx?Id=361280).
Census of India.
24. "West Bengal: Siliguri (Part – Darjiling)" (http://www.censusindia.gov.in/pca/SearchDetails.asp
x?Id=345721). Census of India.
25. "West Bengal: Siliguri (Part – Jalpaiguri)" (http://www.censusindia.gov.in/pca/SearchDetails.as
px?Id=346603). Census of India.
26. "Tripura: Agartala" (http://www.censusindia.gov.in/pca/SearchDetails.aspx?Id=308549).
Census of India.
27. Jack Detsch, The Diplomat. "Bangladesh: Asia's New Energy Superpower? | The Diplomat" (ht
tp://thediplomat.com/2014/11/bangladesh-asias-new-energy-superpower/). thediplomat.com.
Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20161229123448/http://thediplomat.com/2014/11/bangl
adesh-asias-new-energy-superpower/) from the original on 29 December 2016. Retrieved
7 January 2017.
28. "Bengali language | Britannica.com" (https://global.britannica.com/topic/Bengali-language).
Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved 7 January 2017.
29. "SCHEDULED LANGUAGES IN DESCENDING ORDER OF SPEAKERS' STRENGTH - 2011"
(http://censusindia.gov.in/2011census/Language-2011/Statement-4.pdf) (PDF).
censusindia.gov.in. Retrieved 10 April 2020.
30. Symbols of Water and Woman on Selected Examples of Modern Bengali Literature in the
Context of Mythological Tradition (http://appweb.cortland.edu/ojs/index.php/Wagadu/article/vie
wArticle/250/464) Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20131212184455/http://appweb.cortla
nd.edu/ojs/index.php/Wagadu/article/viewArticle/250/464) 12 December 2013 at the Wayback
Machine
31. Roche, Elizabeth (17 March 2016). "The origins of Bharat Mata" (https://www.livemint.com/Poli
tics/lSOX1BWMcgypBUV8mUb8cJ/The-origins-of-Bharat-Mata.html). LiveMint. Retrieved
18 November 2019.
32. Bagchi, J. (1993). The History and Culture of the Pālas of Bengal and Bihar, Cir. 750 A.D.-cir.
1200 A.D (https://books.google.com/books?id=J7RKoMeAtpUC&pg=PA127). Abhinav
Publications. p. 127. ISBN 9788170173014. Retrieved 7 January 2017.
33. Huntington, S. L. (1984). The "Påala-Sena" Schools of Sculpture (https://books.google.com/bo
oks?id=xLA3AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA4). E.J. Brill. p. 4. ISBN 9789004068568. Retrieved 7 January
2017.
34. "Pala art | Britannica.com" (https://www.britannica.com/topic/Pala-art). Encyclopædia
Britannica. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20161003233853/https://www.britannica.co
m/topic/Pala-art) from the original on 3 October 2016. Retrieved 7 January 2017.
35. "In Search of Bangladeshi Islamic Art | The Metropolitan Museum of Art" (http://www.metmuse
um.org/blogs/ruminations/2015/bangladeshi-islamic-art). metmuseum.org. Archived (https://we
b.archive.org/web/20160812083629/http://www.metmuseum.org/blogs/ruminations/2015/bangl
adeshi-islamic-art) from the original on 12 August 2016. Retrieved 7 January 2017.
36. Mitter, P. (1994). Art and Nationalism in Colonial India, 1850–1922: Occidental Orientations (htt
ps://books.google.com/books?id=9mRTtkri8E0C). Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-
521-44354-8. Retrieved 7 January 2017.
37. Yee, Amy (13 March 2014). "In Bangladesh, a Vibrant Contemporary Scene" (https://www.nyti
mes.com/2014/03/14/arts/international/in-bangladesh-a-vibrant-contemporary-scene.html).
The New York Times. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20170821170739/https://www.nyti
mes.com/2014/03/14/arts/international/in-bangladesh-a-vibrant-contemporary-scene.html)
from the original on 21 August 2017. Retrieved 7 January 2017.
38. "Bait Ur Rouf Mosque | Aga Khan Development Network" (http://www.akdn.org/architecture/pro
ject/bait-ur-rouf-mosque). akdn.org. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20161119103806/ht
tp://www.akdn.org/architecture/project/bait-ur-rouf-mosque) from the original on 19 November
2016. Retrieved 7 January 2017.
39. Oxford English Dictionary, "bungalow"; Online Etymology Dictionary (http://www.etymonline.co
m/index.php?search=bungalow&searchmode=none) Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20
160406071037/http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?search=bungalow&searchmode=none)
6 April 2016 at the Wayback Machine
40. "WORLDVIEW" (http://www.worldviewcities.org/dhaka/islam.html). worldviewcities.org.
Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20161230094254/http://www.worldviewcities.org/dhaka/i
slam.html) from the original on 30 December 2016. Retrieved 7 January 2017.
41. "WORLDVIEW" (http://www.worldviewcities.org/dhaka/philadelphia.html). worldviewcities.org.
Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20170102231001/http://www.worldviewcities.org/dhaka/
philadelphia.html) from the original on 2 January 2017. Retrieved 7 January 2017.
42. Thomas Khoshy, Elementary Number Theory with Applications, Academic Press, 2002, p. 567.
ISBN 0-12-421171-2.
43. Chatterjee, Santimay and Chatterjee, Enakshi, Satyendranath Bose, 2002 reprint, p. 5,
National Book Trust, ISBN 81-237-0492-5
44. Sen, A. K. (1997). "Sir J. C. Bose and radio science". Microwave Symposium Digest. IEEE
MTT-S International Microwave Symposium. Denver, CO: IEEE. pp. 557–560.
doi:10.1109/MWSYM.1997.602854 (https://doi.org/10.1109%2FMWSYM.1997.602854).
ISBN 0-7803-3814-6.
45. Dr Subodh Mahanti. "Satyendra Nath Bose, The Creator of Quantum Statistics" (http://www.vig
yanprasar.gov.in/scientists/snbose/bosenew.htm). Vigyan Prasar. Archived (https://web.archiv
e.org/web/20160712081636/http://www.vigyanprasar.gov.in/scientists/snbose/bosenew.htm)
from the original on 12 July 2016.
46. Wali, Kameshwar C (2009). Satyendra Nath Bose: his life and times. Singapore: World
Scientific. pp. xvii, xviii, xx (Foreword). ISBN 978-981-279-070-5.
47. J J O'Connor and E F Robertson (October 2003). "Satyendranath Bose" (http://www-history.mc
s.st-andrews.ac.uk/Biographies/Bose.html). The MacTutor History of Mathematics archive.
Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20170116083306/http://www-history.mcs.st-andrews.ac.
uk/Biographies/Bose.html) from the original on 16 January 2017.
48. Kean, Sam (2017). "A forgotten star" (https://www.sciencehistory.org/distillations/magazine/a-f
orgotten-star). Distillations. 3 (1): 4–5. Retrieved 22 March 2018.
49. Desikan, Shubashree (5 March 2015). "No Big Bang, the universe was there all along: studies"
(http://www.thehindu.com/sci-tech/science/no-big-bang-the-universe-was-there-all-along-studie
s/article6959499.ece). The Hindu. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20170621211441/htt
p://www.thehindu.com/sci-tech/science/no-big-bang-the-universe-was-there-all-along-studies/a
rticle6959499.ece) from the original on 21 June 2017. Retrieved 2 January 2018.
50. Pulakkat, Hari (19 December 2013). "How many of us know about Breakthrough Prize winner,
Ashoke Sen?" (http://articles.economictimes.indiatimes.com/2013-12-19/news/45377589_1_as
hoke-sen-yuri-milner-scientists). The Economic Times.
51. "The Bauls of Bengal" (http://bengalonline.sitemarvel.com/bengali-folklore.asp?art=baul). Folk
Music. BengalOnline. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20030119135124/http://bengalonli
ne.sitemarvel.com/bengali-folklore.asp?art=baul) from the original on 19 January 2003.
Retrieved 26 October 2006.
52. Banik, Nandadulal. "Anirvan" (http://en.banglapedia.org/index.php?title=Anirvan). Banglapedia.
Asiatic Society of Bangladesh. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20160203161749/http://e
n.banglapedia.org/index.php?title=Anirvan) from the original on 3 February 2016. Retrieved
5 August 2015.
53. Gertjan de Graaf, Abdul Latif. "Development of freshwater fish farming and poverty alleviation:
A case study from Bangladesh" (https://web.archive.org/web/20061101103614/http://govdocs.
aquake.org/cgi/reprint/2003/1201/12010300.pdf) (PDF). Aqua KE Government. Archived from
the original (http://govdocs.aquake.org/cgi/reprint/2003/1201/12010300.pdf) (PDF) on 1
November 2006. Retrieved 22 October 2006.
54. Hossain, Khandakar Akhter (2012). "Shipbuilding Industry" (http://en.banglapedia.org/index.ph
p?title=Shipbuilding_Industry). In Islam, Sirajul; Jamal, Ahmed A. (eds.). Banglapedia: National
Encyclopedia of Bangladesh (Second ed.). Asiatic Society of Bangladesh.
55. "Prospects of shipbuilding industry in Bangladesh" (https://web.archive.org/web/201312172222
53/http://newagebd.com/newspaper1/archive_details.php?date=2011-12-17&nid=43675). New
Age. Archived from the original (http://newagebd.com/newspaper1/archive_details.php?date=2
011-12-17&nid=43675) on 17 December 2013. Retrieved 30 July 2015.
56. "Durga Puja" (https://web.archive.org/web/20061128183407/http://www.wbtourism.com/fairs_f
estivals/durga.htm). Festivals of Bengal. West Bengal Tourism, Government of West Bengal.
Archived from the original (http://www.wbtourism.com/fairs_festivals/durga.htm) on 28
November 2006. Retrieved 28 October 2006.
57. "Bangladesh profile – Media" (https://www.bbc.com/news/world-south-asia-12650946). BBC
News. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20180731160445/https://www.bbc.com/news/wor
ld-south-asia-12650946) from the original on 31 July 2018. Retrieved 21 June 2018.
58. "General Review" (https://www.webcitation.org/5msdKSAqi?url=https://rni.nic.in/pii.htm).
Registrar of Newspapers for India. Archived from the original (https://rni.nic.in/pii.htm) on 18
January 2010. Retrieved 1 September 2006.
59. "Bangladesh dominate Indo-Bangla Games, clinch 45 gold medals" (http://www.thaindian.com/
newsportal/uncategorized/bangladesh-dominate-indo-bangla-games-clinch-45-gold-medals_1
0021599.html). Thaindian News. Indian-Asian News Service. 26 February 2008. Archived (http
s://web.archive.org/web/20090210232012/http://www.thaindian.com/newsportal/uncategorized/
bangladesh-dominate-indo-bangla-games-clinch-45-gold-medals_10021599.html) from the
original on 10 February 2009. Retrieved 27 February 2008.

External links
Bangladesh (https://curlie.org/Regional/Asia/Bangladesh/) at Curlie
West Bengal (https://curlie.org/Regional/Asia/India/West_Bengal/) at Curlie

Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Bengal&oldid=968659050"

This page was last edited on 20 July 2020, at 18:32 (UTC).

Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using
this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia
Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization.