Cell (biology)

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Drawing of the structure of cork as it appeared under the microscope to Robert Hooke from
Micrographia which is the origin of the word "cell" being used to describe the smallest unit of
a living organism

Cells in culture, stained for keratin (red) and DNA (green)

The cell is the functional basic unit of life. It was discovered by Robert Hooke and is the
functional unit of all known living organisms. It is the smallest unit of life that is classified as
a living thing, and is often called the building block of life.[1] Some organisms, such as most
bacteria, are unicellular (consist of a single cell). Other organisms, such as humans, are
multicellular. Humans have about 100 trillion or 1014 cells; a typical cell size is 10 µm and a
typical cell mass is 1 nanogram. The largest cells are about 135 µm in the anterior horn in the
spinal cord while granule cells in the cerebellum, the smallest, can be some 4 µm and the
longest cell can reach from the toe to the lower brain stem (Pseudounipolar cells).[2] The
largest known cells are unfertilised ostrich egg cells which weigh 3.3 pounds.[3][4]
In 1835, before the final cell theory was developed, Jan Evangelista Purkyně observed small
"granules" while looking at the plant tissue through a microscope. The cell theory, first
developed in 1839 by Matthias Jakob Schleiden and Theodor Schwann, states that all
organisms are composed of one or more cells, that all cells come from preexisting cells, that
vital functions of an organism occur within cells, and that all cells contain the hereditary
information necessary for regulating cell functions and for transmitting information to the
next generation of cells.[5]

The word cell comes from the Latin cellula, meaning, a small room. The descriptive term for
the smallest living biological structure was coined by Robert Hooke in a book he published in
1665 when he compared the cork cells he saw through his microscope to the small rooms
monks lived in.[6]

Contents
[hide]

• 1 Anatomy
o 1.1 Prokaryotic cells
o 1.2 Eukaryotic cells
• 2 Subcellular components
o 2.1 Membrane
o 2.2 Cytoskeleton
o 2.3 Genetic material
o 2.4 Organelles
• 3 Structures outside the cell wall
o 3.1 Capsule
o 3.2 Flagella
o 3.3 Fimbriae (pili)
• 4 Functions
o 4.1 Growth and metabolism
o 4.2 Creation
o 4.3 Protein synthesis
• 5 Movement or motility
• 6 Evolution
o 6.1 Origin of the first cell
o 6.2 Origin of eukaryotic cells
• 7 History
• 8 See also
• 9 References
• 10 External links

o 10.1 Textbooks

Anatomy
There are two types of cells: eukaryotic and prokaryotic. Prokaryotic cells are usually
independent, while eukaryotic cells are often found in multicellular organisms.
Prokaryotic cells

Main article: Prokaryote

Diagram of a typical prokaryotic cell

The prokaryote cell is simpler, and therefore smaller, than a eukaryote cell, lacking a nucleus
and most of the other organelles of eukaryotes. There are two kinds of prokaryotes: bacteria
and archaea; these share a similar structure.

Nuclear material of prokaryotic cell consist of a single chromosome which is in direct contact
with cytoplasm. Here the undefined nuclear region in the cytoplasm is called nucleoid.

A prokaryotic cell has three architectural regions:

• On the outside, flagella and pili project from the cell's surface. These are structures
(not present in all prokaryotes) made of proteins that facilitate movement and
communication between cells;
• Enclosing the cell is the cell envelope – generally consisting of a cell wall covering a
plasma membrane though some bacteria also have a further covering layer called a
capsule. The envelope gives rigidity to the cell and separates the interior of the cell
from its environment, serving as a protective filter. Though most prokaryotes have a
cell wall, there are exceptions such as Mycoplasma (bacteria) and Thermoplasma
(archaea). The cell wall consists of peptidoglycan in bacteria, and acts as an additional
barrier against exterior forces. It also prevents the cell from expanding and finally
bursting (cytolysis) from osmotic pressure against a hypotonic environment. Some
eukaryote cells (plant cells and fungi cells) also have a cell wall;
• Inside the cell is the cytoplasmic region that contains the cell genome (DNA) and
ribosomes and various sorts of inclusions. A prokaryotic chromosome is usually a
circular molecule (an exception is that of the bacterium Borrelia burgdorferi, which
causes Lyme disease). Though not forming a nucleus, the DNA is condensed in a
nucleoid. Prokaryotes can carry extrachromosomal DNA elements called plasmids,
 which are usually circular. Plasmids enable additional functions, such as antibiotic
resistance.

Eukaryotic cells

Main article: Eukaryote

Diagram of a typical animal (eukaryotic) cell, showing subcellular components.

Organelles:
(1) nucleolus
(2) nucleus
(3) ribosome
(4) vesicle
(5) rough endoplasmic reticulum (ER)
(6) Golgi apparatus
(7) Cytoskeleton
(8) smooth endoplasmic reticulum
(9) mitochondria
(10) vacuole
(11) cytoplasm
(12) lysosome
(13) centrioles within centrosome

Eukaryotic cells are about 15 times wider than a typical prokaryote and can be as much as
1000 times greater in volume. The major difference between prokaryotes and eukaryotes is
that eukaryotic cells contain membrane-bound compartments in which specific metabolic
activities take place. Most important among these is a cell nucleus, a membrane-delineated
compartment that houses the eukaryotic cell's DNA. This nucleus gives the eukaryote its
name, which means "true nucleus." Other differences include:

• The plasma membrane resembles that of prokaryotes in function, with minor

differences in the setup. Cell walls may or may not be present.
• The eukaryotic DNA is organized in one or more linear molecules, called
chromosomes, which are associated with histone proteins. All chromosomal DNA is
stored in the cell nucleus, separated from the cytoplasm by a membrane. Some
eukaryotic organelles such as mitochondria also contain some DNA.
 • Many eukaryotic cells are ciliated with primary cilia. Primary cilia play important
roles in chemosensation, mechanosensation, and thermosensation. Cilia may thus be
"viewed as sensory cellular antennae that coordinate a large number of cellular
signaling pathways, sometimes coupling the signaling to ciliary motility or
alternatively to cell division and differentiation."[7]
• Eukaryotes can move using motile cilia or flagella. The flagella are more complex
than those of prokaryotes.

Table 1: Comparison of features of prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells

Prokaryotes Eukaryotes
Typical organisms bacteria, archaea protists, fungi, plants, animals
~ 10–100 µm (sperm cells, apart from the tail, are
Typical size ~ 1–10 µm
smaller)
nucleoid region; no
Type of nucleus real nucleus with double membrane
real nucleus
linear molecules (chromosomes) with histone
DNA circular (usually)
proteins
RNA-/protein- RNA-synthesis inside the nucleus
coupled in cytoplasm
synthesis protein synthesis in cytoplasm
Ribosomes 50S+30S 60S+40S
Cytoplasmatic highly structured by endomembranes and a
very few structures
structure cytoskeleton
flagella made of flagella and cilia containing microtubules;
Cell movement
flagellin lamellipodia and filopodia containing actin
one to several thousand (though some lack
Mitochondria none
mitochondria)
Chloroplasts none in algae and plants
single cells, colonies, higher multicellular
Organization usually single cells
organisms with specialized cells
Binary fission (simple Mitosis (fission or budding)
Cell division
division) Meiosis
Table 2: Comparison of structures between animal and plant cells
Typical animal cell Typical plant cell
Organelles • Nucleus • Nucleus
o Nucleolus (within o Nucleolus (within
nucleus) nucleus)
• Rough endoplasmic reticulum • Rough ER
(ER) • Smooth ER
• Smooth ER • Ribosomes
• Ribosomes • Cytoskeleton
• Cytoskeleton • Golgi apparatus (dictiosomes)
• Golgi apparatus • Cytoplasm
• Cytoplasm • Mitochondria
• Mitochondria • Plastids and its derivatives
• Vesicles
 • Lysosomes • Vacuole(s)
• Centrosome
• Cell wall
o Centrioles

Subcellular components

The cells of eukaryotes (left) and prokaryotes (right)

All cells, whether prokaryotic or eukaryotic, have a membrane that envelops the cell,
separates its interior from its environment, regulates what moves in and out (selectively
permeable), and maintains the electric potential of the cell. Inside the membrane, a salty
cytoplasm takes up most of the cell volume. All cells possess DNA, the hereditary material of
genes, and RNA, containing the information necessary to build various proteins such as
enzymes, the cell's primary machinery. There are also other kinds of biomolecules in cells.
This article will list these primary components of the cell, then briefly describe their function.

Membrane

Main article: Cell membrane

The cytoplasm of a cell is surrounded by a cell membrane or plasma membrane. The plasma
membrane in plants and prokaryotes is usually covered by a cell wall. This membrane serves
to separate and protect a cell from its surrounding environment and is made mostly from a
double layer of lipids (hydrophobic fat-like molecules) and hydrophilic phosphorus
molecules. Hence, the layer is called a phospholipid bilayer. It may also be called a fluid
mosaic membrane. Embedded within this membrane is a variety of protein molecules that act
as channels and pumps that move different molecules into and out of the cell. The membrane
is said to be 'semi-permeable', in that it can either let a substance (molecule or ion) pass
through freely, pass through to a limited extent or not pass through at all. Cell surface
membranes also contain receptor proteins that allow cells to detect external signaling
molecules such as hormones.

Cytoskeleton

Main article: Cytoskeleton

Bovine Pulmonary Artery Endothelial cell: nuclei stained blue, mitochondria stained red, and
F-actin, an important component in microfilaments, stained green. Cell imaged on a
fluorescent microscope.

The cytoskeleton acts to organize and maintain the cell's shape; anchors organelles in place;
helps during endocytosis, the uptake of external materials by a cell, and cytokinesis, the
separation of daughter cells after cell division; and moves parts of the cell in processes of
growth and mobility. The eukaryotic cytoskeleton is composed of microfilaments,
intermediate filaments and microtubules. There is a great number of proteins associated with
them, each controlling a cell's structure by directing, bundling, and aligning filaments. The
prokaryotic cytoskeleton is less well-studied but is involved in the maintenance of cell shape,
polarity and cytokinesis.[8]

Genetic material

Two different kinds of genetic material exist: deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) and ribonucleic
acid (RNA). Most organisms use DNA for their long-term information storage, but some
viruses (e.g., retroviruses) have RNA as their genetic material. The biological information
contained in an organism is encoded in its DNA or RNA sequence. RNA is also used for
information transport (e.g., mRNA) and enzymatic functions (e.g., ribosomal RNA) in
organisms that use DNA for the genetic code itself. Transfer RNA (tRNA) molecules are
used to add amino acids during protein translation.

Prokaryotic genetic material is organized in a simple circular DNA molecule (the bacterial
chromosome) in the nucleoid region of the cytoplasm. Eukaryotic genetic material is divided
into different, linear molecules called chromosomes inside a discrete nucleus, usually with
additional genetic material in some organelles like mitochondria and chloroplasts (see
endosymbiotic theory).

A human cell has genetic material contained in the cell nucleus (the nuclear genome) and in
the mitochondria (the mitochondrial genome). In humans the nuclear genome is divided into
23 pairs of linear DNA molecules called chromosomes. The mitochondrial genome is a
circular DNA molecule distinct from the nuclear DNA. Although the mitochondrial DNA is
very small compared to nuclear chromosomes, it codes for 13 proteins involved in
mitochondrial energy production and specific tRNAs.

Foreign genetic material (most commonly DNA) can also be artificially introduced into the
cell by a process called transfection. This can be transient, if the DNA is not inserted into the
cell's genome, or stable, if it is. Certain viruses also insert their genetic material into the
genome.

Organelles

Main article: Organelle

The human body contains many different organs, such as the heart, lung, and kidney, with
each organ performing a different function. Cells also have a set of "little organs," called
organelles, that are adapted and/or specialized for carrying out one or more vital functions.
Both eukaryotic and prokaryotic cells have organelles but organelles in eukaryotes are
generally more complex and may be membrane bound.

There are several types of organelles in a cell. Some (such as the nucleus and golgi apparatus)
are typically solitary, while others (such as mitochondria, peroxisomes and lysosomes) can be
numerous (hundreds to thousands). The cytosol is the gelatinous fluid that fills the cell and
surrounds the organelles.

Cell nucleus – eukaryotes only - a cell's information

center
The cell nucleus is the most conspicuous organelle
found in a eukaryotic cell. It houses the cell's
chromosomes, and is the place where almost all
DNA replication and RNA synthesis
(transcription) occur. The nucleus is spherical and
separated from the cytoplasm by a double
membrane called the nuclear envelope. The nuclear
envelope isolates and protects a cell's DNA from
various molecules that could accidentally damage
its structure or interfere with its processing. During
processing, DNA is transcribed, or copied into a
special RNA, called messenger RNA (mRNA).
This mRNA is then transported out of the nucleus,
where it is translated into a specific protein
Diagram of a cell nucleus
molecule. The nucleolus is a specialized region
within the nucleus where ribosome subunits are
assembled. In prokaryotes, DNA processing takes
place in the cytoplasm.
Mitochondria and Chloroplasts – eukaryotes only - the
power generators
Mitochondria are self-replicating organelles that
occur in various numbers, shapes, and sizes in the
cytoplasm of all eukaryotic cells. Mitochondria
play a critical role in generating energy in the
eukaryotic cell. Mitochondria generate the cell's
energy by oxidative phosphorylation, using oxygen
to release energy stored in cellular nutrients
(typically pertaining to glucose) to generate ATP.
Mitochondria multiply by splitting in two.
Respiration occurs in the cell mitochondria.
 Organelles that are modified chloroplasts are
broadly called plastids, and are involved in energy
storage through photosynthesis, which uses solar
energy to generate carbohydrates and oxygen from
carbon dioxide and water.[citation needed]
Mitochondria and chloroplasts each contain their
own genome, which is separate and distinct from
the nuclear genome of a cell. Both organelles
contain this DNA in circular plasmids, much like
prokaryotic cells, strongly supporting the
evolutionary theory of endosymbiosis; since these
organelles contain their own genomes and have
other similarities to prokaryotes, they are thought
to have developed through a symbiotic relationship
after being engulfed by a primitive cell.[citation needed]
Endoplasmic reticulum – eukaryotes only
The endoplasmic reticulum (ER) is the transport
network for molecules targeted for certain
modifications and specific destinations, as
compared to molecules that will float freely in the
cytoplasm. The ER has two forms: the rough ER,
which has ribosomes on its surface and secretes
proteins into the cytoplasm, and the smooth ER,
which lacks them. Smooth ER plays a role in
calcium sequestration and release.

Golgi apparatus – eukaryotes only

The primary function of the Golgi apparatus is to
process and package the macromolecules such as
proteins and lipids that are synthesized by the cell.
It is particularly important in the processing of
proteins for secretion. The Golgi apparatus forms a
part of the endomembrane system of eukaryotic
cells. Vesicles that enter the Golgi apparatus are
processed in a cis to trans direction, meaning they
coalesce on the cis side of the apparatus and after
processing pinch off on the opposite (trans) side to
form a new vesicle in the animal cell.[citation needed]
Diagram of an endomembrane
system
Ribosomes
The ribosome is a large complex of RNA and
protein molecules. They each consist of two
subunits, and act as an assembly line where RNA
from the nucleus is used to synthesise proteins
from amino acids. Ribosomes can be found either
floating freely or bound to a membrane (the rough
endoplasmatic reticulum in eukaryotes, or the cell
membrane in prokaryotes).[9]
Lysosomes and Peroxisomes – eukaryotes only
Lysosomes contain digestive enzymes (acid hydrolases). They digest excess or worn-
out organelles, food particles, and engulfed viruses or bacteria. Peroxisomes have
enzymes that rid the cell of toxic peroxides. The cell could not house these destructive
enzymes if they were not contained in a membrane-bound system. These organelles
are often called a "suicide bag" because of their ability to detonate and destroy the cell.
[citation needed]

Centrosome – the cytoskeleton organiser

The centrosome produces the microtubules of a cell – a key component of the
cytoskeleton. It directs the transport through the ER and the Golgi apparatus.
Centrosomes are composed of two centrioles, which separate during cell division and
help in the formation of the mitotic spindle. A single centrosome is present in the
animal cells. They are also found in some fungi and algae cells.[citation needed]
Vacuoles
Vacuoles store food and waste. Some vacuoles store extra water. They are often
described as liquid filled space and are surrounded by a membrane. Some cells, most
notably Amoeba, have contractile vacuoles, which can pump water out of the cell if
there is too much water. The vacuoles of eukaryotic cells are usually larger in those of
plants than animals.

Structures outside the cell wall

Capsule

A gelatinous capsule is present in some bacteria outside the cell wall. The capsule may be
polysaccharide as in pneumococci, meningococci or polypeptide as Bacillus anthracis or
hyaluronic acid as in streptococci.[citation needed] Capsules are not marked by ordinary stain and
can be detected by special stain. The capsule is antigenic. The capsule has antiphagocytic
function so it determines the virulence of many bacteria. It also plays a role in attachment of
the organism to mucous membranes.[citation needed]

Flagella

Flagella are the organelles of cellular mobility. They arise from cytoplasm and extrude
through the cell wall. They are long and thick thread-like appendages, protein in nature. Are
most commonly found in bacteria cells but are found in animal cells as well.

Fimbriae (pili)

They are short and thin hair like filaments, formed of protein called pilin (antigenic).
Fimbriae are responsible for attachment of bacteria to specific receptors of human cell
(adherence). There are special types of pili called (sex pili) involved in conjunction.[citation needed]

Functions
Growth and metabolism

Main articles: Cell growth and Metabolism

Between successive cell divisions, cells grow through the functioning of cellular metabolism.
Cell metabolism is the process by which individual cells process nutrient molecules.
Metabolism has two distinct divisions: catabolism, in which the cell breaks down complex
molecules to produce energy and reducing power, and anabolism, in which the cell uses
energy and reducing power to construct complex molecules and perform other biological
functions. Complex sugars consumed by the organism can be broken down into a less
chemically complex sugar molecule called glucose. Once inside the cell, glucose is broken
down to make adenosine triphosphate (ATP), a form of energy, through two different
pathways.

The first pathway, glycolysis, requires no oxygen and is referred to as anaerobic metabolism.
Each reaction is designed to produce some hydrogen ions that can then be used to make
energy packets (ATP). In prokaryotes, glycolysis is the only method used for converting
energy.

The second pathway, called the Krebs cycle, or citric acid cycle, occurs inside the
mitochondria and can generate enough ATP to run all the cell functions.

An overview of protein synthesis.

Within the nucleus of the cell (light blue), genes (DNA, dark blue) are transcribed into RNA.
This RNA is then subject to post-transcriptional modification and control, resulting in a
mature mRNA (red) that is then transported out of the nucleus and into the cytoplasm
(peach), where it undergoes translation into a protein. mRNA is translated by ribosomes
(purple) that match the three-base codons of the mRNA to the three-base anti-codons of the
appropriate tRNA. Newly synthesized proteins (black) are often further modified, such as by
binding to an effector molecule (orange), to become fully active.

Creation
Main article: Cell division

Cell division involves a single cell (called a mother cell) dividing into two daughter cells.
This leads to growth in multicellular organisms (the growth of tissue) and to procreation
(vegetative reproduction) in unicellular organisms.

Prokaryotic cells divide by binary fission. Eukaryotic cells usually undergo a process of
nuclear division, called mitosis, followed by division of the cell, called cytokinesis. A diploid
cell may also undergo meiosis to produce haploid cells, usually four. Haploid cells serve as
gametes in multicellular organisms, fusing to form new diploid cells.

DNA replication, or the process of duplicating a cell's genome, is required every time a cell
divides. Replication, like all cellular activities, requires specialized proteins for carrying out
the job.

Protein synthesis

Main article: Protein biosynthesis

Cells are capable of synthesizing new proteins, which are essential for the modulation and
maintenance of cellular activities. This process involves the formation of new protein
molecules from amino acid building blocks based on information encoded in DNA/RNA.
Protein synthesis generally consists of two major steps: transcription and translation.

Transcription is the process where genetic information in DNA is used to produce a

complementary RNA strand. This RNA strand is then processed to give messenger RNA
(mRNA), which is free to migrate through the cell. mRNA molecules bind to protein-RNA
complexes called ribosomes located in the cytosol, where they are translated into polypeptide
sequences. The ribosome mediates the formation of a polypeptide sequence based on the
mRNA sequence. The mRNA sequence directly relates to the polypeptide sequence by
binding to transfer RNA (tRNA) adapter molecules in binding pockets within the ribosome.
The new polypeptide then folds into a functional three-dimensional protein molecule.

Movement or motility
Cells can move during many processes: such as wound healing, the immune response and
cancer metastasis. For wound healing to occur, white blood cells and cells that ingest bacteria
move to the wound site to kill the microorganisms that cause infection.
At the same time fibroblasts (connective tissue cells) move there to remodel damaged
structures. In the case of tumor development, cells from a primary tumor move away and
spread to other parts of the body. Cell motility involves many receptors, crosslinking,
bundling, binding, adhesion, motor and other proteins.[10] The process is divided into three
steps – protrusion of the leading edge of the cell, adhesion of the leading edge and de-
adhesion at the cell body and rear, and cytoskeletal contraction to pull the cell forward. Each
step is driven by physical forces generated by unique segments of the cytoskeleton.[11][12]

Evolution
Main article: Evolutionary history of life
The origin of cells has to do with the origin of life, which began the history of life on Earth.

Origin of the first cell

Further information: Abiogenesis

There are several theories about the origin of small molecules that could lead to life in an
early Earth. One is that they came from meteorites (see Murchison meteorite). Another is that
they were created at deep-sea vents. A third is that they were synthesized by lightning in a
reducing atmosphere (see Miller–Urey experiment); although it is not clear if Earth had such
an atmosphere. There are essentially no experimental data defining what the first self-
replicating forms were. RNA is generally assumed to be the earliest self-replicating molecule,
as it is capable of both storing genetic information and catalyzing chemical reactions (see
RNA world hypothesis). But some other entity with the potential to self-replicate could have
preceded RNA, like clay or peptide nucleic acid.[13]

Cells emerged at least 4.0–4.3 billion years ago. The current belief is that these cells were
heterotrophs. An important characteristic of cells is the cell membrane, composed of a bilayer
of lipids. The early cell membranes were probably more simple and permeable than modern
ones, with only a single fatty acid chain per lipid. Lipids are known to spontaneously form
bilayered vesicles in water, and could have preceded RNA. But the first cell membranes
could also have been produced by catalytic RNA, or even have required structural proteins
before they could form.[14]

Origin of eukaryotic cells

The eukaryotic cell seems to have evolved from a symbiotic community of prokaryotic cells.
DNA-bearing organelles like the mitochondria and the chloroplasts are almost certainly what
remains of ancient symbiotic oxygen-breathing proteobacteria and cyanobacteria,
respectively, where the rest of the cell seems to be derived from an ancestral archaean
prokaryote cell – a theory termed the endosymbiotic theory.

There is still considerable debate about whether organelles like the hydrogenosome predated
the origin of mitochondria, or viceversa: see the hydrogen hypothesis for the origin of
eukaryotic cells.

Sex, as the stereotyped choreography of meiosis and syngamy that persists in nearly all extant
eukaryotes, may have played a role in the transition from prokaryotes to eukaryotes. An
'origin of sex as vaccination' theory suggests that the eukaryote genome accreted from
prokaryan parasite genomes in numerous rounds of lateral gene transfer. Sex-as-syngamy
(fusion sex) arose when infected hosts began swapping nuclearized genomes containing co-
evolved, vertically transmitted symbionts that conveyed protection against horizontal
infection by more virulent symbionts.[15]

History
• 1632–1723: Antonie van Leeuwenhoek teaches himself to grind lenses, builds a
microscope and draws protozoa, such as Vorticella from rain water, and bacteria from
his own mouth.
 • 1665: Robert Hooke discovers cells in cork, then in living plant tissue using an early
microscope.[6]
• 1839: Theodor Schwann and Matthias Jakob Schleiden elucidate the principle that
plants and animals are made of cells, concluding that cells are a common unit of
structure and development, and thus founding the cell theory.
• The belief that life forms can occur spontaneously (generatio spontanea) is
contradicted by Louis Pasteur (1822–1895) (although Francesco Redi had performed
an experiment in 1668 that suggested the same conclusion).
• 1855: Rudolf Virchow states that cells always emerge from cell divisions (omnis
cellula ex cellula).
• 1931: Ernst Ruska builds first transmission electron microscope (TEM) at the
University of Berlin. By 1935, he has built an EM with twice the resolution of a light
microscope, revealing previously unresolvable organelles.
• 1953: Watson and Crick made their first announcement on the double-helix structure
for DNA on February 28.
• 1981: Lynn Margulis published Symbiosis in Cell Evolution detailing the
endosymbiotic theory.

See also