Python Fundamentals

Objects

Austin Bingham Robert Smallshire

@austin_bingham @robsmallshire
austin@sixty-north.com rob@sixty-north.com
Presenter
References to objects

x = 1000
 x = 1000

int
x 1000
 x = 500

int
x 1000
int

500
 y=x
y
x
int

500
 x = 3000
x y

int int

3000 500
returns a unique identifier for an object
 t

int

5
 t

int int int

5 + 2 = 7
 t

int int int

5 2 7
 int
t 7
 list
r [2, 4, 6]
s
list
r [2, 4, 6]
id() deals with the object, not
the reference

list

[2, 4, 6]
 Variables
Named references to objects

name object
 list
p [4, 7, 11]
list
q [4, 7, 11]
 Value equality vs. identity

Value - equivalent “contents”

Identity - same object
 list
m [9, 15, 24]
 list
m [9, 15, 24]
modify(k):
 list
m [9, 15, 24]
modify(k):

k
 list
m [9, 15, 24]
modify(k):

k
 list
m [9, 15, 24, 39]

modify(k):

k
 list
m [9, 15, 24, 39]
 list
f [14, 23, 37]
 list
f [14, 23, 37]

replace(g):

g
 list
f [14, 23, 37]
list

replace(g): [17, 28, 45]

g
 list
f [14, 23, 37]
list

replace(g): [17, 28, 45]

g
 list
f [14, 23, 37]
 Pass By Object Reference

The value of
ref object
the reference
function(arg): is copied, not
the value of
arg the object.
 Default Arguments

def function(a, b=value)

Default value for ‘b’

 Default Argument Evaluation

Default argument values are

evaluated when def is
evaluated.

They can be modified like any

other object.
def add_spam(menu=
):
list

[]
def add_spam(menu=
):
list

[“spam”]
def add_spam(menu=
):
list

[“spam”,
“spam”]
def add_spam(menu=
):
list

[“spam”,
“spam”,
“spam”,]
 Static Dynamic

Haskell
Strong

C++

Weak
 Static Dynamic

Haskell
Strong

C++

Weak
 Dynamic Type System

In a dynamic type system

object types are only resolved
at runtime.
 Strong Type System

In a strong type system there

is no implicit type conversion.
Object References Have No Type

name object
 Python Name Scopes

Scopes are contexts in which

named references can be
looked up.
 Python Name Scopes

Local Inside the current function

 Python Name Scopes

Local Inside the current function

Enclosing Any and all enclosing functions
 Python Name Scopes

Local Inside the current function

Enclosing Any and all enclosing functions
Global Top-level of module
 Python Name Scopes

Local Inside the current function

Enclosing Any and all enclosing functions
Global Top-level of module
Built-in Provided by the builtins module
Python Name Scopes

Local
Enclosing
Global
Built-in
#!/usr/bin/env python3 def main(url):
"""Retrieve and print words from a URL. """Print each word from a text document from at a URL.

Tools to read a UTF-8 text document from a URL which Args:

will be split into its component words for printing. url: The URL of a UTF-8 text document.
"""
Script usage: words = fetch_words(url)
print_items(words)
python3 words.py <URL>
"""
if __name__ == '__main__':
import sys main(sys.argv[1]) # The 0th arg is the module filename.
from urllib.request import urlopen

def fetch_words(url):
"""Fetch a list of words from a URL.

Args:
url: The URL of a UTF-8 text document.

Returns:
A list of strings containing the words from
the document.
"""
with urlopen(url) as story:
story_words = []
for line in story:
line_words = line.decode('utf8').split()
for word in line_words:
story_words.append(word)
print(locals())
return story_words

def print_items(items):
"""Print items one per line.

Args:
An iterable series of printable items.
"""
for item in items:
print(item)
#!/usr/bin/env python3
"""Retrieve and print words from a URL.
def main (url):
Tools to read a UTF-8 text document from a URL which """Print each word from a text document from at a URL.
will be split into its component words for printing.
Args:
Script usage: url: The URL of a UTF-8 text document.
"""
python3 words.py <URL> words = fetch_words(url)
""" print_items(words)

import sys
from urllib.request import urlopen if __name__ == '__main__':
main(sys.argv[1]) # The 0th arg is the module filename.

def fetch_words(url):
"""Fetch a list of words from a URL.

Args:
url: The URL of a UTF-8 text document.

Returns:
A list of strings containing the words from
the document.
"""
with urlopen(url) as story:
story_words = []
for line in story:
line_words = line.decode('utf8').split()
for word in line_words:
story_words.append(word)
print(locals())
return story_words

def print_items(items):
"""Print items one per line.

Args:
An iterable series of printable items.
"""
for item in items:
print(item)
#!/usr/bin/env python3
"""Retrieve and print words from a URL.
def main (url):
Tools to read a UTF-8 text document from a URL which """Print each word from a text document from at a URL.
will be split into its component words for printing.
Args:
Script usage: url: The URL of a UTF-8 text document.
"""
python3 words.py <URL> words = fetch_words(url)
""" print_items(words)

import sys if __name__ == '__main__':

main(sys.argv[1]) # The 0th arg is the module filename.
from urllib.request import urlopen

def fetch_words(url):
"""Fetch a list of words from a URL.

Args:
url: The URL of a UTF-8 text document.

Returns:
A list of strings containing the words from
the document.
"""
with urlopen(url) as story:
story_words = []
for line in story:
line_words = line.decode('utf8').split()
for word in line_words:
story_words.append(word)
print(locals())
return story_words

def print_items(items):
"""Print items one per line.

Args:
An iterable series of printable items.
"""
for item in items:
print(item)
#!/usr/bin/env python3
"""Retrieve and print words from a URL.
def main (url):
Tools to read a UTF-8 text document from a URL which """Print each word from a text document from at a URL.
will be split into its component words for printing.
Args:
Script usage: url: The URL of a UTF-8 text document.
"""
python3 words.py <URL> words = fetch_words(url)
""" print_items(words)

import sys if __name__ == '__main__':

from urllib.request import urlopen
main(sys.argv[1]) # The 0th arg is the module filename.

def fetch_words(url):
"""Fetch a list of words from a URL.

Args:
url: The URL of a UTF-8 text document.

Returns:
A list of strings containing the words from
the document.
"""
with urlopen(url) as story:
story_words = []
for line in story:
line_words = line.decode('utf8').split()
for word in line_words:
story_words.append(word)
print(locals())
return story_words

def print_items(items):
"""Print items one per line.

Args:
An iterable series of printable items.
"""
for item in items:
print(item)
#!/usr/bin/env python3
"""Retrieve and print words from a URL.
def main (url):
Tools to read a UTF-8 text document from a URL which """Print each word from a text document from at a URL.
will be split into its component words for printing.
Args:
Script usage: url: The URL of a UTF-8 text document.
"""
python3 words.py <URL> words = fetch_words(url)
""" print_items(words)

import sys if __name__ == '__main__':

from urllib.request import urlopen main(sys.argv[1]) # The 0th arg is the module filename.

def fetch_words(url):
"""Fetch a list of words from a URL.

Args:
url: The URL of a UTF-8 text document.

Returns:
A list of strings containing the words from
the document.
"""
with urlopen(url) as story:
story_words = []
for line in story:
line_words = line.decode('utf8').split()
for word in line_words:
story_words.append(word)
print(locals())
return story_words

def print_items(items):
"""Print items one per line.

Args:
An iterable series of printable items.
"""
for item in items:
print(item)
#!/usr/bin/env python3
"""Retrieve and print words from a URL.
def main (url):
Tools to read a UTF-8 text document from a URL which """Print each word from a text document from at a URL.
will be split into its component words for printing.
Args:
Script usage: url: The URL of a UTF-8 text document.
"""
python3 words.py <URL> words = fetch_words(url)
""" print_items(words)

import sys if __name__ == '__main__':

from urllib.request import urlopen main(sys.argv[1]) # The 0th arg is the module filename.

def fetch_words (url):

"""Fetch a list of words from a URL.

Args:
url: The URL of a UTF-8 text document.

Returns:
A list of strings containing the words from
the document.
"""
with urlopen(url) as story:
story_words = []
for line in story:
line_words = line.decode('utf8').split()
for word in line_words:
story_words.append(word)
print(locals())
return story_words

def print_items(items):
"""Print items one per line.

Args:
An iterable series of printable items.
"""
for item in items:
#!/usr/bin/env python3
"""Retrieve and print words from a URL.
def main (url):
Tools to read a UTF-8 text document from a URL which """Print each word from a text document from at a URL.
will be split into its component words for printing.
Args:
Script usage: url: The URL of a UTF-8 text document.
"""
python3 words.py <URL> words = fetch_words(url)
""" print_items(words)

import sys if __name__ == '__main__':

from urllib.request import urlopen main(sys.argv[1]) # The 0th arg is the module filename.

def fetch_words (url):

"""Fetch a list of words from a URL.

Args:
url: The URL of a UTF-8 text document.

Returns:
A list of strings containing the words from
the document.
"""
with urlopen(url) as story:
story_words = []
for line in story:
line_words = line.decode('utf8').split()
for word in line_words:
story_words.append(word)
print(locals())
return story_words

def print_items (items):

"""Print items one per line.

Args:
An iterable series of printable items.
def fetch_words(url):
"""Fetch a list of words from a URL.

Args:
url: The URL of a UTF-8 text document.

Returns:
A list of strings containing the words from
the document.
"""
with urlopen(url) as story:
story_words = []
for line in story:
line_words = line.decode('utf8').split()
for word in line_words:
story_words.append(word)
print(locals())
return story_words
def fetch_words(url):
"""Fetch a list of words from a URL.

Args:
url: The URL of a UTF-8 text document.

Returns:
A list of strings containing the words from
the document.
"""
with urlopen(url) as story:
story_words = []
for line in story:
line_words = line.decode('utf8').split()

word
for in line_words:
story_words.append(word)
print(locals())
return story_words
def fetch_words(url):
"""Fetch a list of words from a URL.

Args:
url: The URL of a UTF-8 text document.

Returns:
A list of strings containing the words from
the document.
"""
with urlopen(url) as story:
story_words = []
for line in story:

line_words = line.decode('utf8').split()
for word in line_words:
story_words.append(word)
print(locals())
return story_words
def fetch_words(url):
"""Fetch a list of words from a URL.

Args:
url: The URL of a UTF-8 text document.

Returns:
A list of strings containing the words from
the document.
"""
with urlopen(url) as story:
story_words = []

forline in story:
line_words = line.decode('utf8').split()
for word in line_words:
story_words.append(word)
print(locals())
return story_words
def fetch_words(url):
"""Fetch a list of words from a URL.

Args:
url: The URL of a UTF-8 text document.

Returns:
A list of strings containing the words from
the document.
"""
with urlopen(url) as story:

story_words = []
for line in story:

line_words = line.decode('utf8').split()
for word in line_words:
story_words.append(word)
print(locals())
return story_words
def fetch_words(url ):
"""Fetch a list of words from a URL.

Args:
url: The URL of a UTF-8 text document.

Returns:
A list of strings containing the words from
the document.
"""
with urlopen(url) as story:

story_words = []
for line in story:

line_words = line.decode('utf8').split()
for word in line_words:
story_words.append(word)
print(locals())
return story_words
def fetch_words(url ):
"""Fetch a list of words from a URL.

Args:
url: The URL of a UTF-8 text document.

Returns:
A list of strings containing the words from
the document.
"""

story:
with urlopen(url) as

story_words = []
for line in story:

line_words = line.decode('utf8').split()
for word in line_words:
story_words.append(word)
print(locals())
return story_words
rebinds a global name at module scope
"""Demonstrate scoping."""

count = 0

def show_count():
print("count = ", count)

def set_count(c):
count = c
"""Demonstrate scoping."""

count = 0

def show_count():
print("count = ", count)

def set_count(c):
global count
count = c
Moment of Zen

Special cases aren’t

special enough to
break the rules
We follow patterns
Not to kill complexity
But to master it
Everything is an object
Objects – Summary
 Objects – Summary
 Think of named references to objects rather than
variables
 Assignment attaches a name to an object
 Assigning from one reference to another puts two name tags on
the same object.
 Objects – Summary
 Think of named references to objects rather than
variables
 Assignment attaches a name to an object
 Assigning from one reference to another puts two name tags on
the same object.
 The garbage collector reclaims unreachable objects
 Objects – Summary
 Think of named references to objects rather than
variables
 Assignment attaches a name to an object
 Assigning from one reference to another puts two name tags on
the same object.
 The garbage collector reclaims unreachable objects
 id() returns a unique and constant identifier
 rarely used in production
 Objects – Summary
 Think of named references to objects rather than
variables
 Assignment attaches a name to an object
 Assigning from one reference to another puts two name tags on
the same object.
 The garbage collector reclaims unreachable objects
 id() returns a unique and constant identifier
 rarely used in production
 The is operator determines equality of identity
 Objects – Summary
 Think of named references to objects rather than
variables
 Assignment attaches a name to an object
 Assigning from one reference to another puts two name tags on
the same object.
 The garbage collector reclaims unreachable objects
 id() returns a unique and constant identifier
 rarely used in production
 The is operator determines equality of identity
 Test for equivalence using ==
 Objects – Summary
 Think of named references to objects rather than
variables
 Assignment attaches a name to an object
 Assigning from one reference to another puts two name tags on
the same object.
 The garbage collector reclaims unreachable objects
 id() returns a unique and constant identifier
 rarely used in production
 The is operator determines equality of identity
 Test for equivalence using ==
 Function arguments are passed by object-reference
 functions can modify mutable arguments
 Objects – Summary
 Think of named references to objects rather than
variables
 Assignment attaches a name to an object
 Assigning from one reference to another puts two name tags on
the same object.
 The garbage collector reclaims unreachable objects
 id() returns a unique and constant identifier
 rarely used in production
 The is operator determines equality of identity
 Test for equivalence using ==
 Function arguments are passed by object-reference
 functions can modify mutable arguments
 Reference is lost if a formal function argument is
rebound
 To change a mutable argument, replace its contents
 Objects – Summary
 Think of named references to objects rather than
variables
 Assignment attaches a name to an object
 Assigning from one reference to another puts two name tags on
the same object.
 The garbage collector reclaims unreachable objects
 id() returns a unique and constant identifier
 rarely used in production
 The is operator determines equality of identity
 Test for equivalence using ==
 Function arguments are passed by object-reference
 functions can modify mutable arguments
 Reference is lost if a formal function argument is
rebound
 To change a mutable argument, replace it's contents
 return also passes by object-reference
 Objects – Summary
 Function arguments can be specified with defaults
 Objects – Summary
 Function arguments can be specified with defaults
 Default argument expressions evaluated once, when def
is executed
 Objects – Summary
 Function arguments can be specified with defaults
 Default argument expressions evaluated once, when def
is executed
 Python uses dynamic typing
 We don't specify types in advance
 Objects – Summary
 Function arguments can be specified with defaults
 Default argument expressions evaluated once, when def
is executed
 Python uses dynamic typing
 We don't specify types in advance
 Python uses strong typing
 Types are not coerced to match
 Objects – Summary
 Function arguments can be specified with defaults
 Default argument expressions evaluated once, when def
is executed
 Python uses dynamic typing
 We don't specify types in advance
 Python uses strong typing
 Types are not coerced to match
 Names are looked up in four nested scopes
 LEGB rule: Local, Enclosing, Global, and Built-ins
 Objects – Summary
 Function arguments can be specified with defaults
 Default argument expressions evaluated once, when def
is executed
 Python uses dynamic typing
 We don't specify types in advance
 Python uses strong typing
 Types are not coerced to match
 Names are looked up in four nested scopes
 LEGB rule: Local, Enclosing, Global, and Built-ins
 Global references can be read from a local scope
 Objects – Summary
 Function arguments can be specified with defaults
 Default argument expressions evaluated once, when def
is executed
 Python uses dynamic typing
 We don't specify types in advance
 Python uses strong typing
 Types are not coerced to match
 Names are looked up in four nested scopes
 LEGB rule: Local, Enclosing, Global, and Built-ins
 Global references can be read from a local scope
 Use global to assign to global references from a local
scope
 Objects – Summary
 Function arguments can be specified with defaults
 Default argument expressions evaluated once, when def
is executed
 Python uses dynamic typing
 We don't specify types in advance
 Python uses strong typing
 Types are not coerced to match
 Names are looked up in four nested scopes
 LEGB rule: Local, Enclosing, Global, and Built-ins
 Global references can be read from a local scope
 Use global to assign to global references from a local
scope
 Everything in Python is an object
 This includes modules and functions
 They can be treated just like other objects
 Objects – Summary
import and def result in binding to named references
 Objects – Summary
import and def result in binding to named referencestype
can be used to determine the type of an object
 Objects – Summary
import and def result in binding to named referencestype
can be used to determine the type of an objectdir() can
be used to introspect an object and get its attributes
 Objects – Summary
import and def result in binding to named referencestype
can be used to determine the type of an objectdir() can
be used to introspect an object and get its attributesThe
name of a function or module object can be accessed
through it's __name__ attribute
 Objects – Summary
 import and def result in binding to named referencestype
can be used to determine the type of an objectdir() can
be used to introspect an object and get its attributesThe
name of a function or module object can be accessed
through it's __name__ attributeThe docstring for a
function or module object can be accessed through its
__doc__ attribute
 Objects – Summary
 import and def result in binding to named referencestype
can be used to determine the type of an objectdir() can
be used to introspect an object and get its attributesThe
name of a function or module object can be accessed
through it's __name__ attributeThe docstring for a
function or module object can be accessed through its
__doc__ attribute

Use len() to measure the length of a string

 Objects – Summary
 import and def result in binding to named referencestype
can be used to determine the type of an objectdir() can
be used to introspect an object and get its attributesThe
name of a function or module object can be accessed
through it's __name__ attributeThe docstring for a
function or module object can be accessed through its
__doc__ attribute

 Use len() to measure the length of a stringYou can

multiple a string by an integer
 Produces a new string with multiple copies of the operand
 This is called the "repetition" operation