IS : 6955.

- 1973

Indian Standard ( Reaffirmed 1995 )

CODE OF PRACTICE FOR

SUBSURFACE EXPLORATION
FOR EARTH AND ROCKFILL DAMS
( Fourth Reprint DECEMBER 1993 )

UDC 627’8 : 624’131’32

0 Copyright 1973

BUREAU OF INDIAN STANDARDS

MANAK BHAVAN, 9 BAHADUR SHAH ZAFAR MARO
NBW DELHI 110002

Gr 6 October 1973
 IS t 6955- 1973

Indian Standard
CODE OF PRACTICE FOR
SUBSURFACE EXPLORATION
FOR EARTH AND ROCKFILL DAMS

Subsurface Exploration Sectional Committee, BDC 49

Chairman Representing
!&RI V. S. KRISHNASWAHY Geological Survey of India, Lucknow
Mem hers
CRIEB ENQINEER National Projects Construction Corporation Ltd,
New Delhi
SERI S. K. AQUARWAL(Alternate)
CHIEB ENQINEER( IRRIQATION) Irrigation & Power Department, Government of
Rajasthan
SHRI K. N. DADINA In personal capacity (P-820, Bbck P, J&w A&ore,
Calcutta )
SHRI K. R. DATYE In personal capacity (.No. 2 Rehem Mansion, First
Floor, Colaba Causeway, Bombay 400001)
SHRI R. C. DESAI Rodio Foundation Engineering Ltd; and Hazarat
& Co, Bombay
SHRI V. R. DEWSEAR Irrigation & Power Department, Government of
Maharashtra
SHRI S. M. BHALERAO( Alternate)
DIRECTOR( CSMRS ) Central Water & Power Commission, New Delhi
SUPERINTENDINO ENQINEER,
CHENAB INvI~sTIQ.~TION
CIRCLE (Alternate )
SHRI H. DOSEI Christensen-Longyear ( India ) Ltd, Bombay
SHRI V. L. GORIANI ( Alternate )
SHRI S. N. K. IPENQAR Cementation.C? Ltd, Bombay
SERI G. S. JAIN Cent;;lolorkydmg Research Institute ( CSXR ),

SHRI DEVENDRASHARYA ( Allernate )

SHRI V. K. ‘KIRPALANI Voltas Limited, Bombay
Snar A. N. INDURKAR( &era&e )
SHRI J. F. MISTRY Public Works Department, Government of Gujarat
SHRI H. C. PARNAR ( Alternate)
SHRI K. S. S. MTJRTHY Ministry of Irrigation & Power, New Delhi
( Continued on page 2 )

@ Copyright1973
BUREAU OF INDIAN STANDARDS
This publication is protected under the Indian Copyri& & (XIV of 1957) and
reproduction in whole br in part by any means except with written permission of the
publisher &all be deemed to be an infringement of copyright under the said Act.
IS:6955-1973
(Continwdfrom
jags 1 )
Members Represcn ting
SREI B. K. PANTHAKY Hindustan Construction Co Ltd, Bombay
SBRI M. S. DIWAN ( Altcrnote )
SERI C. GOIJALASWA~~YRao Public Works & Electrical Department, Govern-
ment of Mysore
REPBESENTATIVE Engineering Research Laboratories, Hyderabad
REPRESENTATIVE Government of Himachal Pradesh
SERI R. K. SABEARWAL Larsen & Toubro Ltd, Bombay
SHRI S. S. SAHI Public Works Department, Government of Punjab
SARI M. M. ANAND ( Alternate)
SRRI S. SATAPATHI Irrigation & Power Department, Government of
Orissa
SECRETARY Central Board of Irrigation & Power, New Delhi
DEPUTY SECRETARY ( Alternate )
SHRI H. D. SHARMA Irrigation Research Institute, Roorkee
SERI P. S. YOo Irrigation Department, Government of Uttar
Pradesh
SHRI D. ASITEA SIMEA, Director General, BIS ( Ex-ojicio Member )
Director ( Civ Engg )

Secretary
SHRI G. RAGMAN
Deputy Director ( Civ Engg), BIS

Subsurface Exploration For Earth and Rockiill Dams Pane! BDC 49 : P 10

Convener
SHRI P. s. Yoo Irrigation Department, Government of Uttar
Pradesh
Members
SHRI B. S. BHALLA Beas Design Organization, Nangal Township
&RI M. L. KAUSHAL ( Alternate)
SHRI D. N. BHAR~AVA Irrigation Research Institute, Roorkee
DEPUTY DIRECTOR ( E & RDD ) Central Water & Power Commission, New Delhi
EXEOUTIVE ENUINEER, CHENAB
INVESTIGATION CIRCLE ( Alternate )
DIRECTOR ( E & RDD ) Central Water & Power Commission, New Delhi
SUPE~INTENDXNCJ ENRINEER,
CHENAR INVESTIQATION
CIRCLE ( Alternate )
SHRI M. S. JAIN Geological Survey of India, Lucknow
SHRI B. N. HUKKU (Alternate)
SERI S. K. SHO~~E( Alternate )
 .. :4:’.. ,,
... ,:,

I
I

Indian Standard
CODE OF PRACTICEFOR
SUBSURFACE EXPLORATION
FOR EARTH AND ROCKFILL DAMS

0. FOREWORD
0.1 This Indian Standard was adopted by the Indian Standards Institution
on 3 April 1973, after the draft finalized by the Subsurface Exploration
Sectional Committee had been approved by the Civil Engineering Division
Council.
0.2 Earth dams have been constructed since the earliest of times. The
dams built in olden days, were generally of low to medium heights. With
increasing heights of dams and faster rates of construction there is greater
need for proper investigations and design based on the latest developments
in the fields of soil and rock mechanics. An important requisite for proper
design is adequate investigation. Subsurface explorations form an impor-
tant part of these rnvestigations.
0.3 In the forruulation of this standard due weightage has been given to
international co-ordination among lhe standards and practices prevailing in
different countries in addition to relating it to the practices in the field in
this country.

1. SCOPE
1.1 This standard gives guidance on the type, extent and details of
subsurface explorations needed -in connection with earth and rockfill dams.
It is not possible to lay down the required extent of exploration to cover
all types of cases. The standard provides guidelines for planning the
exploratory work through various stages. of the project development. These
recommendations may have to be modified for individual projects depend-
ing upon the site conditions and other conditions peculiar to each project
such as height and importance of the dam and the heterogeneity of
foundation formations.
1.2 The term subsurface exploration as used herein covers all types of
exploration connected with determination of the nature and extent of soil
andlor rock below the natural ground surface at/or near the dam site.

*
IS : 6955 - 1973

1.3 This code does not however cover the types and methods of explora-
tion for materials of construction for earth and rockfill dams such as soil
and rock and material for riprap protection. These will be covered by a
separate code on subsurface exploration for construction materials.

2. GENERAL CONDITIONS

2.1 The type and extent of exploration should be commensurate with the
size and importance of the project and will depend upon the size of the
dam and the type of foundation. These should be neither too little, result-
ing in inadequate data, nor too much resulting in excessive cost and time
for completion.

2.2 Subsurface explorations in connection with an earth and/or rockfill

dam would cover a specified area around the dam site and will be carried
to a specified depth. A complete programme of exploration should be able
to give information regarding the following points:
a) Types of different soil and rock masses that exist in the foundation
and abutments.
b) The location, sequence, thickness and area1 extent of each soil/
rock stratum, including a description and classification of the
soils and their structure, stratification in the undisturbed state,
significant geological or other structural features, such as buried
channels, seams, joints, fissures, and mineral and chemical
constituents.
c) The depth to and type of bedrock as well as the location, sequ-
ence, thickness, area1 extent, attitude, depth of weathering,
soundness, and description of rock in each rock stratum within
the depth of exploration.
d) The characteristics of the ground water, including whether the
water table is perched or normal, direction of Aow of ground
water, depth of and pressure in artesian zones, and quantity of
dissolved salts present in the ground water.
e) Engineering and index properties of the over burden and physical
characteristics of rocks.

3. STAGES OF EXPLORATION
3.1 The extent of foundation exploration required for a dam of given
size varies greatly from site to site depending on the subsurface conditions
and cannot be adequately visualized in advance. The exploration generally
proceeds in stages, the details af each stage growing out of the one before.
It normally follows a learn-as-you-go procedure in which characteristics

4
 IS f 6955- 1973

of the subsurface soils and conditions are developed in progressively greater.

detail as the exploration proceeds.
3.2 Explorations can be generally sub-divided into four stages as in 3.2.1
to 3.2.4.
3.2.1 Reconnaissance Stage- This should comprise of selection of suitable
alternative sites on the basis of regional and local geology, topographic
expression and anticipated depth to bed rock and impermeable strata.
This will consist of photo-geological interpretation and a general field
inspection by a qualified engineering geologist and engineer for an assess-
ment of the overall aspects of the geology of the site and foundation
conditions. On the basis of information gathered at this stage an evaluation
is made about the depth and characteristics of foundation strata which
would serve as a basis for initial planning of the programmes of field
work that will broaden or add to the existing knowledge of the site
conditions and the methods and scope of investigations and testing.

3.2.2 Preliminary Stage

3.2.2.1 Objectives and types and methods of exploration- During this stage
data formulation of the project would be collected. The coverage of
exploration should be adequate for examination of the feasibility which
includes estimation of the cost and evaluation. of the benefits. This stage
would also include studies for preliminary choice of the alignment as well
as the height of the dam. This stage of exploration includes the following
types and methods :

a>Exploration by test pits, trenches, drifts and shafts;

b) Exploration by geo-physical methods;
4 Exploration by drilling using coring and non-coring methods or
by other boring methods;
4 Determination of the depth to water table and evaluation of field
permeability; observation of temperature, pressure and discharge
of springs met at the surface or in exploratory borings, trenches,
etc;
4 Field penetration and field density tests in overburden; and
f) Laboratory tests on representative samples and undisturbed
samples for the determination of engineering and index properties
of the overburden material.
3.2.2.2 Choice of methods - Normally for dams up to 30 m height
exploration by trial pits, trenches and drill or auger holes would be
sufficient. Some field tests on permeability and penetration resistance would
also be necessary. For dams up to 100 m in addition drifts and shafts may

5
E -___- --..“.--_ -._ ._~.____ ~~_
._...
___

IS : 6955 - 1973

be required depending upon the geological complexity of the site. For

dams higher than 100 m geo-physical methods may be required in addition
to drifts and shafts.

3.2.2.3 Spacing - For portions of the dam less than 10 m in height

exploration by pits at a spacing of 250 to 300 m depending upon the
nature of the foundation material may be necessary. For lengths of the
dam where section is above 10 m the spacing may be l/lOth of the length
of the portion with particular attention being given for adequate coverage
to deeper sections. In between drill hole locations, trial pits or auger holes
would be sufficient.

3.2.2.4 Location - Exploratory holes, pits and auger holes may be

located along the axis of the dam for dam up to 100 m height. For dams
greater than 100 m, however, additional line of holes may be found
necessary depending on geological conditions.

3.2.2.5 Depth of exploration -In general, the depth up to which

explorations should be made depends upon the following factors:

a>has
Depth of overburden, depth up to which
progressed. Exploration should be
weathering of bed rock
carried to a depth to
locate all weak and compressible or otherwise undesirable layers
in the foundation, such as markedly pervious layers.

b) At the preliminary investigation stage the depth would be gene-

rally guided by the permeability characteristics of the strata. It
may be sufficient to explore up to a depth of i or 4 of the
hydraulic head at the location of the dam in groutable coreable
rock if found at shallow depths of less than $- to $ of the
hydraulic head. If the depth to rock is larger than + to 4 the
hydraulic head, one or two drill holes may be taken down 5 to
10 m into the in situ rock.

3.2.3 Detailed ( Pre-construction ) Investigations Stage

3.2.3.1 In this stage of investigation all data required for detailed

design and preparation of construction drawings should be collected.
Close co-ordination is essential between the work of the organizations for
exploration, geology and design. The design engineer and the geologist
should he closely associated with the exploration and they should be
required to prepare an outline of the scope and extent of exploration.
While the details would be left to those incharge of exploration, the
designer and the geologist should participate in the choice of the method
of investigation and the equipment so that they can appreciate the
limitations of the data obtained through field work.

6
 1s : 6%%5- 1973

3.2.3.2 Investigations at this stage would comprise the following:

a) Intensive exploration by additional drilling and pitting ( trenches
and shafts where found necessary) of the foundation to determine
spatial distribution and characteristics of different types of
foundation materials in relation to specific design features;
b) Use of geophysical methods to define in greater detail the sub-
surface conditions, such as the depth to bed rock or depth to
water table in specific sections of the dam base. During this stage
use of bore hoie geophysical methods, such as electric logging as
and when required may be found advantageous to define particular
characteristics of over burden and bed rock;
c) Defining of geohydraIogica1 characteristics of the foundat’ons
and its environments through pumping in or pumping out tests
as dictated by site conditions.
d) Ascertaining the groutability of foundations through trial grouting
of specified reaches; and
e) Special field tests like blasting tests and field shear tests where
found necessary.
3.2.3.3 Depth and sfiacing oJ holes

a) For dams less than 30 m in height two additional lines of holes ( in

addition to those indicated in 3.2.1 ) as dictated by design consi-
derations may be necessary. The holes should be suitably
staggered to provide information at 30 m intervals. The depth
of I/3 of these holes may be kept equal to the hydraulic head of
the dam.
b) For dams 30 to 100 m in height two additional rows of holes
would be required. Holes may be suitably located to give
information at 15 to 30 m intervals depending upon the foundation
conditions and the length of the dam. Half the number of holes
should be taken to depths equal to the hydraulic head and the
remaining to half the hydraulic head or to prove a continuous
impervious soil or rock or such strata that can be rendered
impervious by treatment. The depths to which exploration
should be continued in the impervious medium or medium that
can be rendered impervious by treatment should be decided on
the basis of design considerations.
c) For dams above 100 m in height three lines of holes should be
drilled at locations dictated by design considerations. The depth
of these holes should be equal to the hydraulic head. In addition,
trenches to explore the foundation sequence in the river bed
section and for collection of undisturbed samples may be required.

7
IS : 6955- 1973

The holes may be located to give information at 13 to 30 m

intervals. In addition drifts in abutments may be required, if
special geological conditions warrant.
3.2.4 Conslruction Stage - Construction stage exploration should aim at
making available data generally for the evaluation of specific foundation
features and preparation of foundation grade maps to guide foundation
preparation and treatment.
4. GENERAL OBSERVATION ON ADVANTAGES, LIMITATIONS
AND RELATIVE SUITABILITY OF VARIOUS METHODS OF
EXPLORATIONS WITH REFERENCE TO SPECIFIC OBJEC-
TIVES
4.1 Use of Geophysical Methods for Determination of the Depth
of Overburden- Results of seismic refraction studies can indicate the
depth of overburden only if there exists a sharp contrast in the properties
of the overburden and the rock. It is necessary to ascertain the validity
of the seismic refraction methods by drilling a few bore holes and compa-
ring the results of core drilling and sampling with the results ,of seismic
refraction survey.
4.2 Determination iof Permeability and Porosity Characteristics
with Reference to Seepage Control
4.2.1 For design of seepage control measures it is often necessary to
ascertain the depth of an extensive impervious stratum. Depth of the
impervious stratum indicated in a few bore holes could be misleading
unless the continuity of the stratum is confirmed by plotting the subsoil
profiles and existence of such a continuous stratum can be justified by the
local geological conditions.
4.2.2 Grain size distribution data are of extremely limited value for
determination of the in situ permeability. The field permeability is
determined by the continuity or otherwise of the more pervious lenses and
pockets rather than the average permeability of samples collected from
various bore holes. The in situ structure may have a radical influence on
the permeability and the geological origin is also a very important factor.
When lenses and Rockets are known to exist bore hole permeability tests
shall supplement grain size data and large scale pumping tests are neces-
sary to ascertain the quantitative significance of extent of lenses of
pervious material with regard to field permeability.
4.2.3 The existence of paths of preferential (concentrated ) seepage,
such as faults, shear zones and solution channels or pockets of open gravel
is very important for ascertaining the extent of erosion hazard. Geological
factors influencing the existence of such conditions shall be studied care-
fully for planning of explorations and drilling. Sampling operations and
core drnling shall be directed specifically towards detection of such
 IS : 6955 - 1973

features. Observations on open trenches and pits is essentialwhen previous

experience of the local conditions is not sufficient to justify reliance on
interpretation of data from hole sampling and field tests.
4.3 Determination of the Compressibility Characteristics of
Sandy Strata and their Relative Density - The compressibility and
relative density can best be judged by conducting static and dynamic
penetration tests. The indication of penetration tests are influenced by the
overburden pressure. The presence of cohesive pockets can completely
vitiate the interpretation of the penetration tests. It is? therefore,
desirable to conduct static penetration tests in conjunction with sampling
operations. Standard penetration test has the advantage that it permits
representative sampling along with dynamic testing. It is extremely
difficult in practice to determine the void ratio in situ of sandy soils by
sampling as disturbance always occurs in sampling of non-cohesive soils.
4.4 Determination of Shear Strength and Consolidation Properties
of Cohesive Strata
4.4.1 In situ properties are very much influenced by the micro and macro
structure of the clay, for example existence of fissures, metastable grain
structure, presence of varves. The reliability of sampling is dependent on
the sCnsitivity of the clay and sampling technique. Often it may be
desirable to determine the in ~ifu strength by field tests, such as vane shear
strength. Parameters such as liquidity index provide valuable indications
of the strength characteristics or compressibility.
4.4.2 An important consideration governing the consolidation behaviour
of clay is the ratio of the horizontal and vertical coefficients of consolida-
tion. Sampling from a few bore holes may fail to reveal the existence of
thin layers of sandy or silty material and their continuity. Past experience
of investigations of soils with similar depositional history may be utiIized
for judging the ratio of vertical and horizontal coefficients of consolidation.
In the absence of past experience a large scale load test with piezometer
observations may be essential. It may not be advisable to rely exclusively
on the results of tests on bore hole samples, no matter how closely are the
bore holes located or how carefully sampling operation was carried out.
4.4.2.1 In residual soils the structure of the parent rock from which
the soil is derived may influence the strength, permeability and consolida-
tion characteristics of the soil. It may, therefore, be necessary to study the
structure of the parent rock and to ascertain by observations in trenches
and pits how far the original structure of rock is retained by the soil.
5. METHODS OF EXPLORATION
5.1 The following categories of methods may be used for subsurface
exploration for earth and rockfill dams:
a) Geophysical,
b) Pits and trenches,
9
IS : 6955 - 1973

4 Borings ( auger boring and core drilling ),

4 Shafts and drifts, and
4 Field tests in situ.

5.1.1 Geophysical explorations enable gaining of knowledge of pro-

perties of subsurface strata by inference from measured rates of transmiss-
ion of electric current or seismic waves. In situ tests enable direct measure-
ment of properties in the ground. The rest are means of collection of
samples for visual examination and for performance of laboratory tests
thereon.

6. GEOPHYSICAL OBSERVATIONS
6.1 Geophysical’ methods can under appropriate conditions be used to
obtain in relatively very short time, information regarding the nature of
the various strata and their position and depths of change. However, since
,it is not a direct measurement, borings have to be made for correlation in
order to interpret correctly the geophysical data.
6.2 The geophysical methods are not adequate in themselves as tools for
subsurface investigation. Whereas they permit a fast coverage of the entire
area at low cost, and the process is not hampered by presence of boulders,
etc, which generally produce obstruction in boring, the correct interpreta-
tion of geophysical observations is difficult, particularly in areas of irregular
formations and irregular depths of strata and steep topography. It is,
therefore, imperative that interpretation from geophysical work be con-
firmed by borings.
6.3 Geophysical investigations should always be carried out with proper
equipment by properly trained and .experienced investigators, because
accuracy in observations and interpretation of data is very essential for
arriving at reliable conclusions. An ’ Indian Standard code of practice for
subsurface investigation by geophysical method’ is under preparation.
6.4 The principle methods applicable in case of explorations for dams are:
a) refraction seismic, and
b) electrical resistivity.
6.4.1 Refraction Seismic Method - Earth vibrations set up artificially by
explosions form the basis of this method. The earth waves travel in all
directions through the ground and are refracted or reflected back to the
surface by lower rock formations through which they travel with a different
velocity than through the overburden. The time of arrival of these waves
at any point on the surface of the ground is recorded by a special seis-
mograph and the time of travel from the explosion point to the pick-up

10
 IS t 6955 - 1973

point is thus determined. This information enables deductions to be drawn

regarding nature and depth of underlying formations.
6.4.1.1 This method may be used to determine the depth to bedrock,
the dip in special cases and other data regarding the underlying rock
formations which are useful for designing foundations for dams, such as
dynamic modulus from shear wave velocity and vibration characteristics
of the foundation. These studies may be required in special cases of weak
rocks and high dams.
6.4.2 Electrical Resistivity Method - This generally uses four electrodes at
equal distances along a straight line. An electric current is passed between
the outer two electrodes and is precisely measured by a milliammet,er. The
potential difference between the inner two electrodes is measured using
null point type of circuit. From the data obtained the electrical resistivity
is calculated.
6.4.2.1 The value of apparent resistivity changes at each change of
strata and since in general the distance between the electrodes is equal to
depth of layer being measured, it is by this method possible to measure
specific resistance to different depths by varying the electrode spacing.
With some knowledge of the local geology and of the typical values for
different strata, it is possible to determine the thickness and depth of the
different strata by use of one or more methods of interpretation, namely
mathematical analysis, empirical methods, inter-correlation with curves
and correlation with model experiments. Applied to dams, this method
can be employed for locating bedrock and water table.

7. EXPLORATION BY PITS
7.1 Deep trial .pits (see IS: 4453-1967*) may be used to investigate open
fissures, or to explore zones of weak rocks which would break up in the
core barrel and are incapable of being recovered in tact. In case of dams,
open pits are useful for investigating the nature of overburden in founda-
tion area.
7.2 At the surface the excavated material shall be placed in an orderly
manner around the pit and marked stakes shall be driven to indicate
depth of pit from which the material came, in order to facilitate logging
and sampling.
7.3 The level of the water table and the level, location and rate of seepage
flow in the test pit should be recorded date-wise.

8. EXPLORATION BY TRENCHES
8.1 Exploration by trenches ( see IS : 4453-1967* ) is useful in providing a
continuous explosure of the ground along a given line or sections. ‘They
*Code of practice for exploration by pits, trenchu, drifts and shafts.

11
IS: 69% - 1973

are best suited for shallow explorations ( 3 to 4.5 m ) on moderately steep

slopes, for example abutment of dams.
8.2 The profile exposed by these trenches may represent the entire depth
of significant strata in an abutment of a dam. However, their shallow
depth may limit explorations to the upper weathered zone of foundations.
8.2.1 Trenching permits visual inspection of the soil strata which
facilitates logging of the profile and selection of samples. It also aids in
obtaining large undisturbed samples for testing. Trenches in sloping
ground have the advantage of being self-draining.
8.3 The level of the water table and the level, location and the rate of
seepage if met with should be recorded date-wise.
8.4 The length and spacing will be determined on the basis of height and
length of dam and geological complexities.

9. EXPLORATION BY BORINGS
9.1 Borings provide the simplest method of subsurface investigation and
sampling. They may be used to indicate the subsurface stratum and to
collect samples from each of the strata.
9.2 Borings may be made by several methods depending upon the nature
of subsoil strata as detailed below:
For Soils For Rocks

i) Post hole auger i) Percussion boring

(JCCIS: 1892-1962*).
ii) Shell and auger boring ii) Rotary drilling ($8~ IS : 1892-
( see IS : 1892-1962* ) 1962*):
a) Mud-rotary drilling
b) Core drilling
( seeIS : 6926~1973t)
c) Short drilling
(see IS: 1892.1962*)
iii) Wash boring ( SIGIS : 1892-
1962* )
iv) Rotary drilling ( scc IS : 1892.
1962*)

*Code of practice for site investigations for foundations.

tCode of practice for diamond core drilling for rite investigation for river valley
projects.

12
 16 t 6933 - 1973

9.3 Auger Boring

9.3.1 Post Hole Auger - Hand-operated post-hole augers 10 to 30 cm in
diameter can be used for exploration up to about 6 m. However, with
the aid of the tripod, holes up to 25 m depth can be excavated. Depth of
auger investigations are limited by ground water table and by the amount
and maximum size of gravel, cobbles and boulders as compared to size of
equipment used.
9.3.1.1 Mechanically operated augers are also available and are
particularly suitable where a large number of holes are to be made, or in
gravelly soils. Machine driven augers are of three types and are given
below:
a) Helical augers 75 mm to 403 mm in dia
b) Disc augers Up to 1050 mm in dia
c) Bucket augers Up to 1200 mm in dia
9.3.1.2 An auger boring is made by turning the auger the desired
distance into the soil, withdrawing it and removing the soil for examina-
tion and sampling. The auger is inserted in the hole again and the process
is repeated. Holes are usually bored without addition of water in loose,
moderately cohesive moist soil. But in hard dry soils or cohesionless sands
the introduction of a small amount of water into the whole will very much
facilitate the drilling and sample extraction.
9.3.2 Shell and Auger Borings - Pipe casing or shell is required in un-
stable soil in which the bore hole collapses, and especially where the
boring is extended below the ground water level. The inside diameter of
the casing should be slightly larger than the diameter of the auger used.
Borings up to 200 mm dia and 25 m depth can be done with manual
operation. Power winch is required for deeper borings. The casing is
driven to a uepth not greater than the top of the next sample and is
cleaned out by means of the auger.
9.4 Gore Drilling
9.4.1 Core drilling should be done in accordance with IS : 6926-1973*
(see also IS : 4078-1967t and IS : 4464-1967x ).
9.4.2 The accuracy and dependability of the records furnished by
diamond drilling depend largely upon the size of the core in relation to
the kind of material drilled, the percentage of core recovery, the behaviour
*Code of practice for diamond core drilling for site investigationfor river valley
projects.
tCodc of practice for indexingand storage of drill cores.
iCode of practice for presentation sf drilling information and core description in
foundationinvestigation.

13
fS t 6955 - 1973

during drilling and the experience ot the drill crew. Largest practicable
diameter core should be obtained. Recovery of core is much more
important than rapid progress in drilling the hole. When drilling in soft
materials, the water circulation should be reduced or stopped entirely and
the core recovered ’ dry ‘.
9.4.3 Detailed history of mechanical operation of drilling including
observations on the loss of return water and its reappearance, difficulties
encountered and time taken in -these difficult areas and in areas of core
loss should be included in the drilling feport.
9.4.4 Percolation tests under speciied pressures should be done in drill
holes using packers, as the drilling progresses.
9.4.5 Completed holes should be capped to preserve them for use in
ground water level observations or as grout holes or for re-entry if it is
later found desirable to deepen the hole.

10.EXPLORATION BY DRIFTS
10.1 Drifts or tunnels ( w IS : 4453-1967* ) are normally employed to
explore at depth the continuity or character of subsurface formations.
They are most frequently used for the investigation of fault or shear zone,
buried channels and suspected places of weakness in dam foundation,
abutments and beneath steep slopes or back of cliff like faces to deter-
mine the extent of weathering, slump ione and bed rock configuration in
areas of fossil valleys.
10.1.1 They are also used for taking undisturbed samples of rock for
tests in the laboratory and for performing in S&J tests like the plate bearing
test and flat jack tests to determine the modules of elasticity and. deforma-
tion of rock formations and shear, etc, required to study the properties of
the rock.
10.2 Logging and sampling of exploratory drift should proceed concur-
rently with excavation operation. They should be mapped giving direction
of dip, fauh zones, shear zones and seams, etc, as detailed in IS : 4453-
1967*.
10.3 Level, location and piezometric heads of seepage flows if any occur
should be recorded date-wise.

11. EXPLORATION BY SHAFTS

11.1 Shafts ( see IS : 4453-1967* ) are vertical holes and are normally
employed to reach a particular point at a great depth, either to extend the
- .~.-____-.__.-.__..
*Code of practice for explorationby pits, trenches,drifts and shafts.

14
 IS I 6955 - 1973

exploration below river bed by means of drifts for dam foundation or for
explorating locations of structures, such as gates, underground diversion
tunnels, penstocks, etc. They also provide a continuous exposures of the
ground along the direction of shaft.

12. FIELD TESTS

12.1 Field tests ( in situ ) are those in which the material is tested without
actual removal of the material from its existing position. Those applicable
to earth and rock-fill dams are the following:
a) Strength tests:
1) Deep penetration tests, and
2) Shear tests.
b) Measurement of density of foundation material.
c) Permeability tests.
d) Blasting tests.
12.1.1 The necessity and the number of each type of test to be conduct-
ed depend on the foundation material and its degree of variability.
12.2 Strength Tests
,12.2.1 Deep Penetration Tests
12.2.1.1 These tests [see IS:2131-1963*, IS:4968 (Part I)-1968?,
IS : 4968 (Part II)-1968f and IS: 4968 (Part III )-I9715 ] consist of
measuring the resistance to penetration under static or dynamic loading of
different shaped tools. The tests are empirical and have been developed
from experience. They should be performed carefully in the prescribed
manner.
12.2.1.2 Static and dynamic penetration tests in bore holes or direct
provide a simple means of comparing the results of different bore hoIes on
the same site and for obtaining an indication of the bearing value of the
soils, and of the state of densification of non-cohesive soils. Correlation
between number of blows obtained in standard ( dynamic) penetration
tests ( sea IS : 2131-l 963* ) and between penetration resistance in static
penetration test with bearing capacity and relative density of non-cohesive
soils are given in several publications ( see also IS: 6403-1971\\ ). While

*Methods for standard penetration test for soils.

tMethod for subsurface sounding for soils : Part I Dynamic method using 50 mm
cone without bentonite slurry.
SMethod for subsurface sounding for soils : Part II Dynamic method using cone and
bentonite slurry.
§Method for subsurface sounding for soils : Part k1 Method using static cone penetra-
tion test.
IjCode of practice for determination of allowable bearing pressure on shallow
foundations.

15
IS t 6955 - 1973

these can be used as guides, a better method would be to do actual calibra-

tion of the apparatus, or at least use more than one method for comparison.
12.2.1.3 Where dams are to be founded on sandy deposits, these tests
are the only suitable methods for determining in situ densities at depth,
which information is very vital for assessment of settlements, and of poten-
tialities of liquifaction under earthquakes.
12.2.1.4 The number of tests should be fairly large to cover the entire
critical foundation area.
12.2.2 Shear Tests
12.2.2.1 Vuns shear tests-These tests ( see IS : 4434-1967*) measure
the in situ strength of cohesive soils Nhich are too soft or sensitive for
sampling.
12.2.2.2 Large shear tests-These tests may be necessary urder
special foundation conditions when large specimens of the foundation
material are to be tested for better stimulation of field conditions and
representation of the material which is not possible under laboratory tests.
Special loading and observation set up are required in such tests on the
same principles as those for laboratory tests.

12.3 Permeability Tests

12.3.1 Permeability of a soil is the property which governs the rate at
which water can flow through unit area under unit hydraulic gradient. A
knowledge of permeability of the soil is necessary in estimating seepage
through the foundation and in determining any foundation treatment that
may be needed.
12.3.2 Permeability is usually determined by in situ pumping in and
pumping out tests [see IS : 5529 ( Part I )-1969t and IS : 5529 (Part II )-
1973$.] in wells and may also be needed in preconstruction stage investi-
gations. The tests are of great importance in case of earth dams,
particularly where the foundation is not sufficiently impervious, and hence
they should be performed in sufficient number covering the entire area.
In rock foundations also water loss tests are done in sufficient number of
exploratory drill holes.

12.4 Measurement of Density of Foundation Material

12.4.1 In situ density of foundation material is used in stability analysis.
It also affords information on the state of compaction and to decide
whether further compaction is needed.

*Code of ,practicefor in situ vane shear test for soils.

tCode of practice for in situ permeability tests : Parr I Tests in overburden.
$Code of practice for in situ permeability tests : Part II Test in bedrock.

16
 IS : 6955- 1973

12.4.2 The sand density method is used to determine the in-place

density by excavating a hole from a horizontal surface, weighing the
material excavated and determining the volume of the hole by filling it
with calibrated sand [see IS : 2720 ( Part XXVIII )-1966*]. Other
methods for the determination of in situ density are the core cutter method
[ IS : 2720 (Part XXIX )-1966t ] and the rubber balloon method [ IS :
2720 (Part XXXIV)-1971$,]. The water content [see IS : 2720 (Part II)-
19695 ] of the soil at the place of determination of in situ density is needed
to calculate the dry density of the soil.
12.4.3 This test is applicable to very shallow depths only, or to the
depths of pits and trenches, where the tests are performed at their bottoms.
The density determination at depth should be made from undisturbed
samples obtained from depths, or by deep penetration tests in non-cohesive
soils. In cases of dams, surface tests have hardly any significance; hence
this may be performed in pits and trenches.
12.5 Blasting Test
12.5.1 Blasting test is often performed in foundations of saturated loose
non-cohesive soils mainly for assessment of the likely chances of liquifac-
tion and settlement in the event of earthquake, and also as prototype test
for studying the efficacy of blasting as means of compaction of non-cohesive
soils, where compaction is considered necessary or desirable.
12.52 The test consists in blasting charges of different strength and at
different depths and measuring induced accelerations, pore pressure rise
and settlements or heave at different points. No standards can be laid
down for the detailed procedure and strengths and depths of charge, and
these factors have to be decided taking into consideration the past work
on the subject and characteristics of the particular site and the proposed
structure. This is a special investigation which may not be needed in all
cases.

13. SAMPLING
13.1 The methods employed for enabling collection of samples for visual
examination and for performance of laboratory tests thereon have already
been described in 8 to 12.

*Methods of test for soils: Part XXVIII Determination of dry density of soils in-
place by the sand replacement method.
iMethods of test for soils : Part XXIX Determination of dry density of soils in-place
by the core cutter method.
3Methods of test for soils : Part XXXIV Determination of density of soils in-place by
the rubber balloon method.
$Methods of test for soils : Part II Determination of moisture content (jirst revision ).

17
IS : 69% - 1973

13.2 To take undisturbed samples from bore holes, properly designed:

sampling tools shall be used. These differ for cohesive and non-cohesive
soils and for rocks. Special samplers like piston samplers and/or the freez-
ing or grouting techniques may have to be employed in cases where
samples are to be collected from cohcsionless sand which cannot be
sampled by ordinary equipment and methods, particuk~rly those existing
below ground water table.
13.3 Sufficient quantity of representative undisturbed samples for
foundation exploration shail be collected for carrying out the necessary
tests.
13.4 While boring small diameter bore holes in foundation area of dams,
the total material recovered as core should be collected and stored in core
boxes ( see IS : 4078-1967* ). Samples of soil and rock should be collected
and preserved in sealed pint jars to preserve their natural water content.
Samples should be representative of the material as it is found in the area.
13.5 In the exploration of the materials in foundations, the excavation
from which are in substantial quantities and may be used in embankment
construction, samples should be collected representative of each stratum in
a volume sufficient to provide about 35 kg of material passing a 4’75-mm
IS Sieve. Material smaller than 75 mm should not be removed from this
sample.
13.6 Samples collected in the process of routine explorations are not as a
rule satisfactory for determination of properties of soii or rock enmasse in
its natural condition. For this purpose, samples should be collected of
material unaffected by seasonal climatic influence from large diameter
bore-holes ( 100 to 150 mm diameter minimum ) or from the bottom of
open pits.
13.6.1 Bore hole samples should be 30 to 60 cm long and open pit
samples 25 to 30 cm cubes. Every effort should be made to preserve such
samples as nearly in their natural condition as possible.

14. EXAMINATION AND TESTING OF SAMPLES

14.1 The samples of soils and rocks collected as described in 12.1 to 12.5
should be examined and tested in the laboratory for determining their
engineering properties. The various tests that are usually necessary are
given in 14.2 to 14.5.
14.2 Tests for Soils
14.2.1 Visual and Manual Examination- This would give general des-
cription of the soil or rock in terms of colour, consistency, structure,
lithological type, etc, to help in general classification of the material.

‘Code of practice for indexing and.storage of drill cores.

18
 IS t 6955-1973

14.2.2 JVatural Moisture Content -It helps in assessment of foundation

pore pressures [ ~68IS : 2720 ( Part II )-1969* 1.

14.2.3 Liquid and Plastic Limits - Liquid and plastic limits are sem-
quantitative measures of water absorption qualities of clay. They give an
indication of the cohesiveness of the soils, and are also useful in soil classifi-
cation [see IS : 2720 ( Part V)-1970t].

14.2.4 SjeciJc Gravily - Specific gravity indicates a basic characteristic

of the soil and is useful in calculating several of the soil parameters [ SM
IS : 2720 ( Part III )-19648 1.

14.2.5 Particle Size Distribution -A knowledge of particle size distribution

is of use for soil classification in understanding the foundation features,
such as density, permeability and susceptibility to liquifaction [see
IS : 2720 ( Part IV )-1965s ].

14.2.6 Bulk Density - In case of foundations, it is essential for computing

stability.

14.2.7 PermeabiliQ -A knowledge of permeability of different founda-

tion strata is essential for estimating general seepage loss, piping danger
and grouting requirements. It is also essential for the design of under
seepage control measures. Ratio of horizontal to vertical permeability can
indicate the degree of homogenuity and isotropy of the granular foundation
material.

14.2.8 Consolidation Characteristics - These are required for estimating

the magnitude and rate of settlement due to consolidation of soil and for
assessment of pore pressure development during construction. One dimen-
sional consolidation test [see IS:2720 (Part XV)-1965111 is also used for
determining the additional consolidation which occurs. in a soil, placed
at a particular moisture content when it gets saturated. A series of such
tests et different moisture contents helps determine the appropriate plact-
ment moisture percentage. Pore pressure development can be calculated
from data of one dimensional test, or directly by use of three dimensional
consolidation test.

14.2.9 Swelling Trsts -Swelling tests are useful for clays particularly
those of montmorihonite family to assess likely pressures the clay would
*Methods of test for soils : Part II Determination of moisture content (Jirztrevision ).
tMethods of test for soils: Part V Determination of liquid and plastic limits (.first
-_
re&hJ ) .
SMethods of test for soils : Part III Determination of specific gravity.
$Methods of test for soils : Part IV Grain size analysis.
llblethods of test fur soils : Part XV Determination of consolidation properties.

19
ISt6955 - 1973

exert on saturation. These tests should be conducted at the lowest moisture

content that may be obtained in the field.
14.2.10 Strength Charocterislics -Strength characteristics of soil may be
determined by unconfined compression test [see IS : 2720 (Part X)-1964*],
direct shear test [see IS: 2720 (Part XIII)-1972t] and triaxial shear test.
Unconfined compression test is generally suitable for rock samples for
determination of foundation strength. Strength characteristics of undisturb-
ed soil samples from foundations are usually determined by triaxial shear
test or direct shear test (different types being used for different conditions
of stability analysis ).
14.2.11 Combaction Test - May be required for comparison with in situ
densities [see IS: 2720 (Part VII)-1965$].
14.2.12 Densib Index (Relative Density) - For cohesionless soil to assess
the degree of compaction of the soil in situ [ see IS: 2720 (PartXIV)-1968$].
14.2.13 Mineralogical Composition - By differential and X-ray difraction
studies. May be required for expensive soils combined with low height
dams.
14.2.14 Chemical Analysis - Chemical tests may be performed on one
or two typical soil samples to determine soluble salt content [see IS : 2720
( PartXXI)-1965111, calcium carbonate content [see IS : 2720 ( Part XXIII )-
19667 ] and organic matter content [see IS : 2720 ( Part XXII )-1972**].
14.3 Tests for Rock
14.3.1 Petrographic Study -Petrographic study of the rock done by
petrographer helps to evaluate the stability of the constituent minerals
under conditions of prolonged saturation of the foundation material (see
IS : 1123-1957-j-T 1. These may be required in special cases.
14.3.2 Shear Strength Tests- Shear strength tests may be required in
the case of weak and layered rock foundations.
14.3.3 Spacijc Gravip and Porosity- This would indicate the state of
denseness of the rock (see IS : 1122-1957$$ ).
--
*Methods of test for soils: Part X Determination of unconfined compressive strength.
tMethods of test for soils : Part XIII Direct shear test (first reuision).
SMethods of test for soils: Part VII Determination of moisture content-dry density
relation using light compaction.
BMethods of test for soils : Part XIV Determination of density index ( relative density . .)
of khesionless soils.
j/Methods of test for soils : Part XXI Determination of total soluble solidr.
TMethods of test for soils : Part XXIII Determination of calcium carbonate.
**Methods of tebt for soils : Part XXII Determination of organic matter (Jirsi reuision).
TtMethod for petrographical examination of natural building stones.
$$Method for determination of specific gravity and porosity of natural building stones.

20
 . IS : 6955- 1973

14.3.4 Water Absorption -This test determines the capacity of rock for
absorbing water ( see IS : 1124-1957 *).
14.4 Chemical Analysis- Chemical tests may be performed on one or
two typical rock samples to determine, soluble salt content, calcium
carbonate content and organic matter content.
14.5 Water Analysis - Chemical analysis of river water and ground
water including determination of PH value (see IS: 3025-1964t) may be
done to assess the effects of water, such as corrosion, on underground, or
other hydromechanical installations and leaching of salts from the founda-
tion strata or deposition of salts from the percolating water underground.
15. RECORDING AND REPORTING OF DATA
15.1 General - Information collected from the explorations mentioned
should be recorded and presented in a concise and systematic manner,
suitable for convenient use, in the form of maps, subsurface sections, etc.
The locations of sections and points of exploration should be clearly
indicated on a map. Pits, trenches, drifts, shafts, different types of bore
holes, etc, should be indicated on location maps using suitable symbols
in accordance with the ‘ Indian Standard symbols and abbreviations for
use in geological maps, sections and subsurface exploratory logs ’ ( under
@@aration ) .
15.1.1 The scales used for maps should be in accordance with
IS: 6065 (Part I)-1971$.
15.2 Logging of Pits, Trenches and Holes
153.1 Location - Every pit, trench and hole should be defiiiitely located
on a map by being tied to a co-ordinate grid system. The top elevations
should be recorded, as also the inclination of the inclined holes.
15.2.2 Identijcation - The holes, pits, etc, should all be numbered
normally in the order in which they are drilled and with suitable symbols
as given in the ‘Indian Standard symbols and abbreviations for use
in geological maps, sections and subsurface exploratory logs’ (tinder
jwe~aration ) .
15.2.3 Logs - A standard and exhaustive log form should be used
giving as much information as possible ( see IS : 4453-1967s) and ( IS :
4464-196711).
-.
‘Methods of test for water absorption of natural building stones.
*Method of sampling and test ( physical and chemical ) for water used in industry.
$Recommendations for the preparation of geological and geotechnical maps for river
valley projetcs : Part I Scales.
ICode of practice for exploration by pits, trenches, drifts and shafts.
(ICode of practice for presentation of drilling Information and core description in
foundation investigation.

21
 if3 : 6955 - 1973
15.2.4 Description of Soils - The soils should be described in the logs
and in the records according to IS : 1498-1970*.

152.5 Description of Rock Cores - The description of the rock core should
include its typical name followed by data on its lithologic and structural
features, physical conditions, and any special geologic, mineralogic, or
physical features pertinent to interpretation of the subsurface conditions
(seeIS :4464-1967-i_).

15.3 Subsurface Sections - Sections showing subsurface conditions

believed to exist should be prepared. The locations of the sections should
be selected in a manner such that the information is presented in the best
possible manner. With different information like type and nature of
subsurface material, natural moisture content, density, permeability, etc,
shown for different strata, the sections present very useful data for
design studies.

*Classification and identification of soils for general engineering purpose8 (j&s:

revision) .
tCode of practice for presentation of drilling information and core description in
foundation investigation.

22
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