Adi Shankara

Adi Shankaracharya (Sanskrit: आ द शङ् कराचायः [aːdɪ

Adi Shankara
ɕɐŋkɐɽɐ])[note 1] was an Indian philosopher and theologian[2] who
consolidated the doctrine of Advaita Vedanta.[1][3][note 2] He is
credited with unifying and establishing the main currents of thought
in Hinduism.[5][6][7]

His works in Sanskrit discuss the unity of the Ātman and Nirguna
Brahman "brahman without attributes".[8] He wrote copious
commentaries on the Vedic canon (Brahma Sutras, Principal
Upanishads and Bhagavad Gita) in support of his thesis.[9] His
works elaborate on ideas found in the Upanishads. Shankara's
publications criticised the ritually-oriented Mīmāṃsā school of
Hinduism.[10] He also explained the key difference between
Hinduism and Buddhism, stating that Hinduism asserts "Ātman
(Soul, Self) exists", while Buddhism asserts that there is "no Soul, Adi Shankara, exponent of Advaita
no Self".[11][12][13] Vedanta
Personal
Shankara travelled across the Indian subcontinent to propagate his
philosophy through discourses and debates with other thinkers. He Born Shankara
established the importance of monastic life as sanctioned in the 788 CE[1](disputed)
Upanishads and Brahma Sutra, in a time when the Mīmāṃsā school Kalady, Kongu
established strict ritualism and ridiculed monasticism. He is reputed Chera dynasty
to have founded four mathas ("monasteries"), which helped in the (present-day Kochi,
historical development, revival and spread of Advaita Vedanta of India)
which he is known as the greatest revivalist.[14] Adi Shankara is
believed to be the organiser of the Dashanami monastic order and Died 820 CE[1](disputed)
unified the Shanmata tradition of worship. (aged 32)
Kedarnath,
Gurjara-Pratihara
dynasty (present-
Contents day Uttarakhand,
Biography India)
Sources Religion Hinduism
Birth-dates
Known for Expounded Advaita
Life Vedanta
Philosophical tour and disciples
Founder of Dashanami
Death
Sampradaya
Works
Philosophy Advaita Vedanta
Authentic works
Religious career
Works of doubtful authenticity or not authentic
Themes Guru Govinda
Bhagavatpada
Philosophy and practice
Knowledge of Brahman Honors Jagadguru
 Practice Kanchi Kamakoti Pithadhipati
Shankara's Vedanta and Mahayana Buddhism Preceded by Created
Differences Succeeded by Suresvaracharya
Atman
Logic versus revelation
Similarities
Historical and cultural impact
Historical context
Influence on Hinduism
Critical assessment
Mathas
Smarta Tradition
Film
See also
Notes
References
Sources
Printed sources
Web-sources
Further reading
External links

Biography

Sources

There are at least fourteen different known biographies of Adi Shankara's life.[15] Many of these are called
the Śankara Vijaya, while some are called Guruvijaya, Sankarabhyudaya and Shankaracaryacarita. Of
these, the Brhat-Sankara-Vijaya by Citsukha is the oldest hagiography but only available in excerpts, while
Sankaradigvijaya by Vidyaranya and Sankaravijaya by Anandagiri are the most cited.[15][16] Other
significant biographies are the Mādhavīya Śaṅkara Vijayaṃ (of Mādhava, c. 14th century), the Cidvilāsīya
Śaṅkara Vijayaṃ (of Cidvilāsa, c. between the 15th and 17th centuries), and the Keraļīya Śaṅkara Vijayaṃ
(of the Kerala region, extant from c. the 17th century).[17][18] These, as well as other biographical works on
Shankara, were written many centuries to a thousand years after Shankara's death,[19] in Sanskrit and non-
Sanskrit languages, and the biographies are filled with legends and fiction, often mutually
contradictory.[15][20]

Scholars note that one of the most cited Shankara hagiographies, Anandagiri's, includes stories and legends
about historically different people, but all bearing the same name of Sri Shankaracarya or also referred to as
Shankara but likely meaning more ancient scholars with names such as Vidya-sankara, Sankara-misra and
Sankara-nanda.[16] Some biographies are probably forgeries by those who sought to create a historical basis
for their rituals or theories.[16][19]

Adi Shankara died in the thirty third year of his life,[21] and reliable information on his actual life is
scanty.[16]
Birth-dates

The Sringeri records state that Shankara was born in the 14th year of
the reign of "VikramAditya", but it is unclear as to which king this
name refers.[22] Though some researchers identify the name with
Chandragupta II (4th century CE), modern scholarship accepts the
VikramAditya as being from the Chalukya dynasty of Badami, most
likely Vikramaditya II (733–746 CE),[22]

Several different dates have been proposed for Shankara:[21] The birthplace of Adi Shankara at
Kalady
509–477 BCE: This dating, is based on records of the
heads of the Shankara's cardinal institutions Maṭhas at
Dvaraka Pitha, the Govardhana matha and Badri and the Kanchi Peetham. According to their
records, these monasteries were founded in Kali 2593 (509 BCE) by a person named Adi
Shankara.[23] The successive heads of the Kanchi and all other major Hindu Advaita tradition
monasteries have been called Shankaracharya leading to some confusion, discrepancies and
scholarly disputes. The chronology stated in Kanchi matha texts recognizes five major
Shankaras: Adi, Kripa, Ujjvala, Muka and Abhinava. According to the Kanchi matha tradition, it
is "Abhinava Shankara" that western scholarship recognizes as the Advaita scholar Shankara,
while the monastery continues to recognize its 509 BCE chronology.[23][24]
44–12 BCE: the commentator Anandagiri believed he was born at Chidambaram in 44 BCE
and died in 12 BCE.[4]
6th century CE: Telang placed him in this century. Sir R.G. Bhandarkar believed he was born in
680 CE.[4]
c. 700 – c. 750 CE: Late 20th-century and early 21st-century scholarship tends to place
Shankara's life of 32 years in the first half of the 8th century.[25][26] According to the Indologist
and Asian Religions scholar John Koller, there is considerable controversy regarding the dates
of Shankara – widely regarded as one of India's greatest thinkers, and "the best recent
scholarship argues that he was born in 700 and died in 750 CE".[27]
788–820 CE: This was proposed by early 20th scholars and was customarily accepted by
scholars such as Max Müller, Macdonnel, Pathok, Deussen and Radhakrishna.[4][28][29] The
date 788–820 is also among those considered acceptable by Swami Tapasyananda, though
he raises a number of questions.[30] Though the 788–820 CE dates are widespread in 20th-
century publications, recent scholarship has questioned the 788–820 CE dates.[25]
805–897 CE: Venkiteswara not only places Shankara later than most, but also had the opinion
that it would not have been possible for him to have achieved all the works apportioned to him,
and has him live ninety two years.[4]

The popularly-accepted dating places Shankara to be a scholar from the first half of the 8th century
CE.[3][15]

Life

Shankara was born in the southern Indian state of Kerala, according to the oldest biographies, in a village
named Kaladi[31][15] sometimes spelled as Kalati or Karati.[32][33] He was born to Nambudiri Brahmin
parents.[34][35] His parents were an aged, childless, couple who led a devout life of service to the poor. They
named their child Shankara, meaning "giver of prosperity".[36] His father died while Shankara was very
young.[15] Shankara's upanayanam, the initiation into student-life, had to be delayed due to the death of his
father, and was then performed by his mother.[37]
Shankara's hagiography describe him as someone who was attracted to the
life of Sannyasa (hermit) from early childhood. His mother disapproved. A
story, found in all hagiographies, describe Shankara at age eight going to a
river with his mother, Sivataraka, to bathe, and where he is caught by a
crocodile.[38] Shankara called out to his mother to give him permission to
become a Sannyasin or else the crocodile will kill him. The mother agrees,
Shankara is freed and leaves his home for education. He reaches a Saivite
sanctuary along a river in a north-central state of India, and becomes the
disciple of a teacher named Govinda Bhagavatpada.[38][39] The stories in
various hagiographies diverge in details about the first meeting between
Shankara and his Guru, where they met, as well as what happened later.[38]
Several texts suggest Shankara schooling with Govindapada happened along
the river Narmada in Omkareshwar, a few place it along river Ganges in
Kashi (Varanasi) as well as Badari (Badrinath in the Himalayas).[39] Idol of Shankara at his
Samadhi Mandir, behind
The biographies vary in their description of where he went, who he met and Kedarnath Temple, in
debated and many other details of his life. Most mention Shankara studying Kedarnath, India
the Vedas, Upanishads and Brahmasutra with Govindapada, and Shankara
authoring several key works in his youth, while he was studying
with his teacher.[40] It is with his teacher Govinda, that Shankara
studied Gaudapadiya Karika, as Govinda was himself taught by
Gaudapada.[15] Most also mention a meeting with scholars of the
Mimamsa school of Hinduism namely Kumarila and Prabhakara, as
well as Mandana and various Buddhists, in Shastrarth (an Indian
tradition of public philosophical debates attended by large number of
people, sometimes with royalty).[39] Thereafter, the biographies
about Shankara vary significantly. Different and widely inconsistent
Murti of Shankara at the SAT
accounts of his life include diverse journeys, pilgrimages, public
Temple in Santa Cruz, California
debates, installation of yantras and lingas, as well as the founding of
monastic centers in north, east, west and south India.[16][39]

Philosophical tour and disciples

While the details and chronology vary, most biographies mention that Shankara traveled widely within
India, Gujarat to Bengal, and participating in public philosophical debates with different orthodox schools of
Hindu philosophy, as well as heterodox traditions such as Buddhists, Jains, Arhatas, Saugatas, and
Carvakas.[41] During his tours, he is credited with starting several Matha (monasteries), however this is
uncertain.[41] Ten monastic orders in different parts of India are generally attributed to Shankara's travel-
inspired Sannyasin schools, each with Advaita notions, of which four have continued in his tradition:
Bharati (Sringeri), Sarasvati (Kanchi), Tirtha and Asramin (Dvaraka).[42] Other monasteries that record
Shankara's visit include Giri, Puri, Vana, Aranya, Parvata and Sagara – all names traceable to Ashrama
system in Hinduism and Vedic literature.[42]

Shankara had a number of disciple scholars during his travels, including Padmapada (also called Sanandana,
associated with the text Atma-bodha), Sureshvara, Tothaka, Citsukha, Prthividhara, Cidvilasayati,
Bodhendra, Brahmendra, Sadananda and others, who authored their own literature on Shankara and Advaita
Vedanta.[41][43]

Death
Adi Sankara is believed to have died aged 32, at Kedarnath in the northern Indian state of Uttarakhand, a
Hindu pilgrimage site in the Himalayas.[42][44] Texts say that he was last seen by his disciples behind the
Kedarnath temple, walking in the Himalayas until he was not traced. Some texts locate his death in alternate
locations such as Kanchipuram (Tamil Nadu) and somewhere in the state of Kerala.[39]

Works
Adi Shankara's works are the foundation of Advaita Vedanta school of Hinduism, and his doctrine, states
Sengaku Mayeda, "has been the source from which the main currents of modern Indian thought are
derived".[44] Over 300 texts are attributed to his name, including commentaries (Bhāṣya), original
philosophical expositions (Prakaraṇa grantha) and poetry (Stotra).[44][45] However most of these are not
authentic works of Shankara and are likely to be by his admirers or scholars whose name was also
Shankaracharya.[46][47] Piantelli has published a complete list of works attributed to Adi Sankara, along with
issues of authenticity for most.[48]

Authentic works

Shankara is most known for his systematic reviews and commentaries (Bhasyas) on ancient Indian texts.
Shankara's masterpiece of commentary is the Brahmasutrabhasya (literally, commentary on Brahma Sutra),
a fundamental text of the Vedanta school of Hinduism.[44]

His commentaries on ten Mukhya (principal) Upanishads are also considered authentic by scholars,[44][46]
and these are: Bhasya on the Brihadaranyaka Upanishad, the Chandogya Upanishad, the Aitareya
Upanishad, the Taittiriya Upanishad, the Kena Upanishad,[49] the Isha Upanishad, the Katha Upanishad, the
Mundaka Upanishad, the Prashna Upanishad, and the Mandukya Upanishad.[50][51] Of these, the
commentary on Mandukya, is actually a commentary on Madukya-Karikas by Gaudapada.[51]

Other authentic works of Shankara include commentaries on the Bhagavad Gita (part of his Prasthana Trayi
Bhasya).[52] His Vivarana (tertiary notes) on the commentary by Vedavyasa on Yogasutras as well as those
on Apastamba Dharma-sũtras (Adhyatama-patala-bhasya) are accepted by scholars as authentic works of
Shankara.[50][53] Among the Stotra (poetic works), the Daksinamurti Stotra, the Bhajagovinda Stotra, the
Sivanandalahari, the Carpata-panjarika, the Visnu-satpadi, the Harimide, the Dasa-shloki, and the Krishna-
staka are likely to be authentic.[50][54]

Shankara also authored Upadesasahasri, his most important original philosophical work.[53][55] Of other
original Prakaranas ( करण, monographs, treatise), seventy six works are attributed to Shankara. Modern
era Indian scholars such as Belvalkar as well as Upadhyaya accept five and thirty nine works respectively as
authentic.[56]

Shankara's stotras considered authentic include those dedicated to Krishna (Vaishnavism) and one to Shiva
(Shaivism) – often considered two different sects within Hinduism. Scholars suggest that these stotra are not
sectarian, but essentially Advaitic and reach for a unified universal view of Vedanta.[54]

Shankara's commentary on the Brahma Sutras is the oldest surviving. However, in that commentary, he
mentions older commentaries like those of Dravida, Bhartrprapancha and others which are either lost or yet
to be found.[57]

Works of doubtful authenticity or not authentic

Commentaries on Nrisimha-Purvatatapaniya and Shveshvatara Upanishads are attributed to Shankara, but
their authenticity is highly doubtful.[46][51][58] Similarly, commentaries on several early and later
Upanishads attributed to Shankara are rejected by scholars[59] to be his works, and are likely works of later
scholars; these include: Kaushitaki Upanishad, Maitri Upanishad, Kaivalya Upanishad, Paramahamsa
Upanishad, Sakatayana Upanishad, Mandala Brahmana Upanishad, Maha Narayana Upanishad,
Gopalatapaniya Upanishad. However, in Brahmasutra-Bhasya, Shankara cites some of these Upanishads as
he develops his arguments, but the historical notes left by his companions and disciples, along with major
differences in style and the content of the commentaries on later Upanishad have led scholars to conclude
that the commentaries on later Upanishads were not Shankara's work.[51]

The authenticity of Shankara being the author of Vivekacūḍāmaṇi[60] has been questioned,[61][62] though it
is "so closely interwoven into the spiritual heritage of Shankara that any analysis of his perspective which
fails to consider [this work] would be incomplete."[62][note 3] According to Grimes, "modern scholars tend to
reject its authenticity as a work by Shankara," while "traditionalists tend to accept it."[63] Nevertheless, does
Grimes argue that "there is still a likelihood that Śaṅkara is the author of the Vivekacūḍāmaṇi," [63] noting
that "it differs in certain respects from his other works in that it addresses itself to a different audience and
has a different emphasis and purpose."[64]

Aparoksha Anubuti and Atmabodha are also attributed to Shankara, as his original philosophical treatises,
but this is doubtful. Paul Hacker has also expressed some reservations that the compendium Sarva-darsana-
siddhanta Sangraha was completely authored by Shankara, because of difference in style and thematic
inconsistencies in parts.[59] Similarly, Gayatri-bhasya is doubtful to be Shankara's work.[51] Other
commentaries that are highly unlikely to be Shankara's work include those on Uttaragita, Siva-gita,
Brahma-gita, Lalita-shasranama, Suta-samhita and Sandhya-bhasya. The commentary on the Tantric work
Lalita-trisati-bhasya attributed to Shankara is also unauthentic.[51]

Shankara is widely credited with commentaries on other scriptural works, such as the Vishnu sahasranāma
and the Sānatsujātiya,[65] but both these are considered apocryphal by scholars who have expressed
doubts.[51] Hastamalakiya-bhasya is also widely believed in India to be Shankara's work and it is included
in Samata-edition of Shankara's works, but some scholars consider it to be the work of Shankara's
student.[51]

Themes

Using ideas in ancient Indian texts, Shankara systematized the foundation for Advaita Vedanta in 8th
century CE, one of the six orthodox schools of Hinduism founded many centuries earlier by Badarayana.[55]
His thematic focus extended beyond metaphysics and soteriology, and he laid a strong emphasis on
Pramanas, that is epistemology or "means to gain knowledge, reasoning methods that empower one to gain
reliable knowledge". Anantanand Rambachan, for example, summarizes the widely held view on one aspect
of Shankara's epistemology before critiquing it as follows,

According to these [widely represented contemporary] studies, Shankara only accorded a

provisional validity to the knowledge gained by inquiry into the words of the Śruti (Vedas) and
did not see the latter as the unique source (pramana) of Brahmajnana. The affirmations of the
Śruti, it is argued, need to be verified and confirmed by the knowledge gained through direct
experience (anubhava) and the authority of the Śruti, therefore, is only secondary.

— Anantanand Rambachan[52]
Sengaku Mayeda concurs, adding Shankara maintained the need for objectivity in the process of gaining
knowledge (vastutantra), and considered subjective opinions (purushatantra) and injunctions in Śruti
(codanatantra) as secondary. Mayeda cites Shankara's explicit statements emphasizing epistemology
(pramana-janya) in section 1.18.133 of Upadesasahasri[66] and section 1.1.4 of Brahmasutra-bhasya.[67][68]
According to Michael Comans (aka Vasudevacharya), Shankara considered perception and inference as a
primary most reliable epistemic means, and where these means to knowledge help one gain "what is
beneficial and to avoid what is harmful", there is no need for or wisdom in referring to the scriptures.[69] In
certain matters related to metaphysics and ethics, says Shankara, the testimony and wisdom in scriptures
such as the Vedas and the Upanishads become important.[70]

Shankara cautioned against cherrypicking a phrase or verse out of context from Vedic literature, and remarks
in the opening chapter of his Brahmasutra-Bhasya that the Anvaya (theme or purport) of any treatise can
only be correctly understood if one attends to the Samanvayat Tatparya Linga, that is six characteristics of
the text under consideration: (1) the common in Upakrama (introductory statement) and Upasamhara
(conclusions); (2) Abhyasa (message repeated); (3) Apurvata (unique proposition or novelty); (4) Phala
(fruit or result derived); (5) Arthavada (explained meaning, praised point) and (6) Yukti (verifiable
reasoning).[71][72] While this methodology has roots in the theoretical works of Nyaya school of Hinduism,
Shankara consolidated and applied it with his unique exegetical method called Anvaya-Vyatireka, which
states that for proper understanding one must "accept only meanings that are compatible with all
characteristics" and "exclude meanings that are incompatible with any".[73][74]

Hacker and Phillips note that this insight into rules of reasoning and hierarchical emphasis on epistemic
steps is "doubtlessly the suggestion" of Shankara in Brahma-sutra, an insight that flowers in the works of his
companion and disciple Padmapada.[75] Merrell-Wolff states that Shankara accepts Vedas and Upanishads as
a source of knowledge as he develops his philosophical theses, yet he never rests his case on the ancient
texts, rather proves each thesis, point by point using pramanas (epistemology), reason and
experience.[76][77]

Shankara, in his text Upadesasahasri, discourages ritual worship such as oblations to Deva (God), because
that assumes the Self within is different from the Brahman.[78] The "doctrine of difference" is wrong, asserts
Shankara, because, "he who knows the Brahman is one and he is another, does not know Brahman".[79][80]
However, Shankara also asserts that Self-knowledge is realized when one's mind is purified by an ethical life
that observes Yamas such as Ahimsa (non-injury, non-violence to others in body, mind and thoughts) and
Niyamas. Rituals and rites such as yajna (a fire ritual), asserts Shankara, can help draw and prepare the mind
for the journey to Self-knowledge.[81] He emphasizes the need for ethics such as Akrodha and Yamas during
Brahmacharya, stating the lack of ethics as causes that prevent students from attaining knowledge.[81][82]

Shankara has been described as influenced by Shaivism and Shaktism. However, his works and philosophy
suggest greater overlap with Vaishnavism, influence of Yoga school of Hinduism, but most distinctly his
Advaitin convictions with a monistic view of spirituality.[15][55][83]

Philosophy and practice

Atma Shatkam (The song of the Self):
Knowledge of Brahman
I am Consciousness, I am Bliss, I am Shiva, I am Shiva.[note 4]
Shankara systematised the works of
preceding philosophers.[86] His system Without hate, without infatuation, without craving, without
marks a turn from realism to greed;
idealism.[87][88] His Advaita ("non- Neither arrogance, nor conceit, never jealous I am;
dualism") interpretation of the sruti Neither dharma, nor artha, neither kama, nor moksha am I;
postulates the identity of the Self I am Consciousness, I am Bliss, I am Shiva, I am Shiva.
(Ātman) and the Whole Without sins, without merits, without elation, without sorrow;
(Brahman [note 5]). According to Neither mantra, nor rituals, neither pilgrimage, nor Vedas;
Shankara, the one unchanging entity Neither the experiencer, nor experienced, nor the experience
(Brahman) alone is real, while am I,
changing entities do not have absolute I am Consciousness, I am Bliss, I am Shiva, I am Shiva.
existence. The key source texts for this
interpretation, as for all schools of Without fear, without death, without discrimination, without
Vedānta, are the Prasthanatrayi–the caste;
canonical texts consisting of the Neither father, nor mother, never born I am;
Upanishads, the Bhagavad Gita and the Neither kith, nor kin, neither teacher, nor student am I;
Brahma Sutras. I am Consciousness, I am Bliss, I am Shiva, I am Shiva.

Without form, without figure, without resemblance am I;

Practice Vitality of all senses, in everything I am;
Neither attached, nor released am I;
Advaita Vedanta is based on śāstra
I am Consciousness, I am Bliss, I am Shiva, I am Shiva.
("scriptures"), yukti ("reason") and
anubhava ("experiential knowledge"),
and aided by karmas ("spiritual —Adi Shankara, Nirvana Shatakam, Hymns 3–6[85]
practices").[89] Starting from
childhood, when learning has to start,
the philosophy has to be a way of life. Shankara's primary objective was to understand and explain how
moksha is achievable in this life, what it is means to be liberated, free and a Jivanmukta.[55] His
philosophical thesis was that jivanmukti is self-realization, the awareness of Oneness of Self and the
Universal Spirit called Brahman.[55]

Shankara considered the purity and steadiness of mind achieved in Yoga as an aid to gaining moksha
knowledge, but such yogic state of mind cannot in itself give rise to such knowledge.[90] To Shankara, that
knowledge of Brahman springs only from inquiry into the teachings of the Upanishads.[91] The method of
yoga, encouraged in Shankara's teachings notes Comans, includes withdrawal of mind from sense objects as
in Patanjali's system, but it is not complete thought suppression, instead it is a "meditative exercise of
withdrawal from the particular and identification with the universal, leading to contemplation of oneself as
the most universal, namely, Consciousness".[92] Describing Shankara's style of yogic practice, Comans
writes:

the type of yoga which Sankara presents here is a method of merging, as it were, the particular
(visesa) into the general (samanya). For example, diverse sounds are merged in the sense of
hearing, which has greater generality insofar as the sense of hearing is the locus of all sounds.
The sense of hearing is merged into the mind, whose nature consists of thinking about things,
and the mind is in turn merged into the intellect, which Sankara then says is made into 'mere
cognition' (vijnanamatra); that is, all particular cognitions resolve into their universal, which is
cognition as such, thought without any particular object. And that in turn is merged into its
universal, mere Consciousness (prajnafnaghana), upon which everything previously referred to
ultimately depends.[92]

Shankara rejected those yoga system variations that suggest complete thought suppression leads to
liberation, as well the view that the Shrutis teach liberation as something apart from the knowledge of the
oneness of the Self. Knowledge alone and insights relating to true nature of things, taught Shankara, is what
liberates. He placed great emphasis on the study of the Upanisads, emphasizing them as necessary and
sufficient means to gain Self-liberating knowledge. Sankara also emphasized the need for and the role of
Guru (Acharya, teacher) for such knowledge.[92]
Shankara's Vedanta and Mahayana Buddhism
Shankara's Vedanta shows similarities with Mahayana Buddhism; opponents have even accused Shankara of
being a "crypto-Buddhist," a qualification which is rejected by the Advaita Vedanta tradition, given the
differences between these two schools. According to Shankara, a major difference between Advaita and
Mahayana Buddhism are their views on Atman and Brahman.[93] According to both Loy and Jayatilleke,
more differences can be discerned.[94][95]

Differences

Atman

According to Shankara, Hinduism believes in the existence of Atman, while Buddhism denies this.[96]
Shankara, citing Katha Upanishad, asserted[12] that the Hindu Upanishad starts with stating its objective as

... this is the investigation whether after the death of man the soul exists; some assert the soul
exists; the soul does not exist, assert others." At the end, states Shankara, the same Upanishad
concludes with the words, "it exists."[97]

Buddhists and Lokāyatas, wrote Shankara, assert that soul does not exist.[11][note 6]

There are also differences in the understanding of what "liberation" means. Nirvana, a term more often used
in Buddhism, is the liberating realization and acceptance that there is no Self (anatman). Moksha, a term
more common in Hinduism, is liberating realization and acceptance of Self and Universal Soul, the
consciousness of one's Oneness with all existence and understanding the whole universe as the Self.[94][98]

Logic versus revelation

Stcherbatsky in 1927 criticized Shankara for demanding the use of logic from Madhyamika Buddhists,
while himself resorting to revelation as a source of knowledge.[99][note 7] Sircar in 1933 offered a different
perspective and stated, "Sankara recognizes the value of the law of contrariety and self-alienation from the
standpoint of idealistic logic; and it has consequently been possible for him to integrate appearance with
reality."[100]

Recent scholarship states that Shankara's arguments on revelation are about apta vacana (Sanskrit:
आ तवचन, sayings of the wise, relying on word, testimony of past or present reliable experts).[101][102] It is
part of his and Advaita Vedanta's epistemological foundation.[101] Advaita Vedanta school considers such
testimony epistemically valid asserting that a human being needs to know numerous facts, and with the
limited time and energy available, he can learn only a fraction of those facts and truths directly.[103]
Shankara considered the teachings in the Vedas and Upanishads as apta vacana and a valid source of
knowledge.[101] He suggests the importance of teacher-disciple relationship on combining logic and
revelation to attain moksha in his text Upadeshasahasri.[104] Anantanand Rambachan and others state
Shankara methodology did not rely exclusively on Vedic statements, but included a range of logical
methods, reasoning methodology and pramanas.[105][106]

Similarities
Despite Shankara's criticism of certain schools of Mahayana Buddhism, Shankara's philosophy shows strong
similarities with the Mahayana Buddhist philosophy which he attacks.[99] According to S.N. Dasgupta,

Shankara and his followers borrowed much of their dialectic form of criticism from the
Buddhists. His Brahman was very much like the sunya of Nagarjuna [...] The debts of Shankara
to the self-luminosity of the Vijnanavada Buddhism can hardly be overestimated. There seems
to be much truth in the accusations against Shankara by Vijnana Bhiksu and others that he was
a hidden Buddhist himself. I am led to think that Shankara's philosophy is largely a compound
of Vijnanavada and Sunyavada Buddhism with the Upanisad notion of the permanence of self
superadded.[107]

According to Mudgal, Shankara's Advaita and the Buddhist Madhyamaka view of ultimate reality are
compatible because they are both transcendental, indescribable, non-dual and only arrived at through a via
negativa (neti neti). Mudgal concludes therefore that

... the difference between Sunyavada (Mahayana) philosophy of Buddhism and Advaita
philosophy of Hinduism may be a matter of emphasis, not of kind.[108]

Historical and cultural impact

Historical context

Shankara lived in the time of the great "Late classical Hinduism",[109] which
lasted from 650 till 1100 CE.[109] This era was one of political instability
that followed the Gupta dynasty and King Harsha of the 7th century CE.[110]
It was a time of social and cultural change as the ideas of Buddhism,
Jainism, Islam and various traditions within Hinduism were competing for
members.[111][112][113] Buddhism in particular had emerged as a powerful
influence in India's spiritual traditions in the first 700 years of the 1st
millennium CE.[110][114] Shankara, and his contemporaries, made a
significant contribution in understanding Buddhism and the ancient Vedic
traditions, then transforming the extant ideas, particularly reforming the
Vedanta tradition of Hinduism, making it India's most important tradition for
Adi Sankara Keerthi
more than a thousand years.[110]
Sthampa Mandapam,
Kalady, Kochi

Influence on Hinduism

Shankara has an unparallelled status in the tradition of Advaita Vedanta. He travelled all over India to help
restore the study of the Vedas.[115] His teachings and tradition form the basis of Smartism and have
influenced Sant Mat lineages.[116]

He introduced the Pañcāyatana form of worship, the simultaneous worship of five deities – Ganesha, Surya,
Vishnu, Shiva and Devi. Shankara explained that all deities were but different forms of the one Brahman,
the invisible Supreme Being.[117]
Benedict Ashley credits Adi Shankara for unifying two seemingly disparate philosophical doctrines in
Hinduism, namely Atman and Brahman.[118] Isaeva states Shankara's influence included reforming
Hinduism, founding monasteries, edifying disciples, disputing opponents and engaging in philosophic
activity that, in the eyes of Indian tradition, help revive "the orthodox idea of the unity of all beings" and
Vedanta thought.[119]

Prior to Shankara, views similar to his already existed, but did not occupy a dominant position within the
Vedanta.[120] According to Nakamura, it was only after Shankara that "the theologians of the various sects
of Hinduism utilized Vedanta philosophy to a greater or lesser degree to form the basis of their
doctrines,"[121] whereby "its theoretical influence upon the whole of Indian society became final and
definitive."[122]

Critical assessment

Some scholars doubt Shankara's early influence in India.[123] The Buddhist scholar Richard E. King states,

Although it is common to find Western scholars and Hindus arguing that Sankaracarya was the
most influential and important figure in the history of Hindu intellectual thought, this does not
seem to be justified by the historical evidence.[124]

According to King and Roodurmun, until the 10th century Shankara was overshadowed by his older
contemporary Mandana-Misra, the latter considered to be the major representative of Advaita.[124][125]
Other scholars state that the historical records for this period are unclear, and little reliable information is
known about the various contemporaries and disciples of Shankara.[126] For example, Advaita tradition
holds that Mandana-Misra is the same person as Suresvara, a name he adopted after he became a disciple of
Shankara after a public debate which Shankara won.[127][128]

Some scholars state that Maṇḍana-Miśra and Sureśvara must have been two different scholars, because
their scholarship is quite different.[129][127] Other scholars, on the other hand, state that Mandana-Miśra and
Shankara do share views, because both emphasize that Brahman-Atman can not be directly perceived, rather
it is discovered and defined through elimination of division (duality) of any kind.[130][126] The Self-
realization (Soul-knowledge), suggest both Mandana Misra and Shankara, can be described cataphatically
(positive liberation, freedom through knowledge, jivanmukti moksha) as well as apophatically (removal of
ignorance, negation of duality, negation of division between people or souls or spirit-matter).[130] While
both share core premises, states Isaeva, they differ in several ways, with Mandana Misra holding Vedic
knowledge as an absolute and end in itself, while Shankara holds Vedic knowledge and all religious rites as
subsidiary and means to the human longing for "liberation, freedom and moksha".[130]

Several scholars suggest that the historical fame and cultural influence of Shankara grew centuries later,
particularly during the era of Muslim invasions and consequent devastation of India.[123][131] Many of
Shankara's biographies were created and published in and after 14th century, such as the widely cited
Vidyaranya's Śankara-vijaya. Vidyaranya, also known as Madhava, who was the 12th Jagadguru of the
Śringeri Śarada Pītham from 1380 to 1386,[132] inspired the re-creation of the Hindu Vijayanagara Empire
of South India in response to the devastation caused by the Islamic Delhi Sultanate.[131][133] He and his
brothers, suggest Paul Hacker and other scholars,[123][131] wrote about Śankara as well as extensive Advaitic
commentaries on Vedas and Dharma. Vidyaranya was a minister in Vijayanagara Empire and enjoyed royal
support,[133] and his sponsorship and methodical efforts helped establish Shankara as a rallying symbol of
values, and helped spread historical and cultural influence of Shankara's Vedanta philosophies. Vidyaranya
also helped establish monasteries (mathas) to expand the cultural influence of Shankara.[123] It may be these
circumstances, suggest scholars,[134] that grew and credited Shankara for various Hindu festive traditions
such as the Kumbh Mela – one of the world's largest periodic religious pilgrimages.[135]

Mathas

Shankara is regarded as the founder of the Daśanāmi Sampradāya of

Hindu monasticism and Ṣaṇmata of Smarta tradition. He unified the
theistic sects into a common framework of Shanmata system.[136]
Advaita Vedanta is, at least in the west, primarily known as a
philosophical system. But it is also a tradition of renunciation.
Philosophy and renunciation are closely related:[web 1]

Most of the notable authors in the advaita tradition were

Vidyashankara temple at Sringeri
members of the sannyasa tradition, and both sides of the
Sharada Peetham, Shringeri
tradition share the same values, attitudes and
metaphysics.[web 1]

Shankara, himself considered to be an incarnation of Shiva,[web 1] established the Dashanami Sampradaya,

organizing a section of the Ekadandi monks under an umbrella grouping of ten names.[web 1] Several other
Hindu monastic and Ekadandi traditions remained outside the organisation of the Dasanāmis.[137][138]

Adi Sankara organised the Hindu monks of these ten sects or names under four Maṭhas (Sanskrit: मठ)
(monasteries), with the headquarters at Dvārakā in the West, Jagannatha Puri in the East, Sringeri in the
South and Badrikashrama in the North.[web 1] Each math was headed by one of his four main disciples, who
each continues the Vedanta Sampradaya.

Yet, according to Pandey, these Mathas were not established by Shankara himself, but were originally
ashrams established by Vibhāņdaka and his son Ŗșyaśŗnga.[139] Shankara inherited the ashrams at Dvārakā
and Sringeri, and shifted the ashram at Śŗngaverapura to Badarikāśrama, and the ashram at Angadeśa to
Jagannātha Purī.[140]

The advaita sampradaya is not a Shaiva sect,[web 1][141] despite the historical links with Shaivism:

Advaitins are non-sectarian, and they advocate worship of Shiva and Vishnu equally with that
of the other deities of Hinduism, like Sakti, Ganapati and others.[web 1]

Nevertheless, contemporary Sankaracaryas have more influence among Shaiva communities than among
Vaisnava communities.[web 1] The greatest influence of the gurus of the advaita tradition has been among
followers of the Smartha Tradition, who integrate the domestic Vedic ritual with devotional aspects of
Hinduism.[web 1]

According to Nakamura, these mathas contributed to the influence of Shankara, which was "due to
institutional factors".[86] The mathas which he built exist until today, and preserve the teachings and
influence of Shankara, "while the writings of other scholars before him came to be forgotten with the
passage of time".[142]

The table below gives an overview of the four Amnaya Mathas founded by Shankara, and their
details.[web 2]
 Shishya
Direction Maṭha Mahāvākya Veda Sampradaya
(lineage)
Puri Govardhana Prajñānam brahma Rig
Padmapāda East Bhogavala
Pīṭhaṃ (Consciousness is Brahman) Veda

Sringeri Śārada Aham brahmāsmi (I am Yajur

Sureśvara South Bhūrivala
Pīṭhaṃ Brahman) Veda

Dvāraka Kālikā Sama

Hastāmalakācārya West Tattvamasi (That thou art) Kitavala
Pīṭhaṃ Veda

Badari
Ayamātmā brahma (This Atharva
Toṭakācārya North Jyotirmaṭha Nandavala
Atman is Brahman) Veda
Pīṭhaṃ

Smarta Tradition

Traditionally, Shankara is regarded as the greatest teacher[143][144] and reformer of the Smarta.[145][144]

According to Alf Hiltebeitel, Shankara established the nondualist interpretation of the Upanishads as the
touchstone of a revived smarta tradition:

Practically, Shankara fostered a rapprochement between Advaita and smarta orthodoxy, which
by his time had not only continued to defend the varnasramadharma theory as defining the
path of karman, but had developed the practice of pancayatanapuja ("five-shrine worship") as a
solution to varied and conflicting devotional practices. Thus one could worship any one of five
deities (Vishnu, Siva, Durga, Surya, Ganesa) as one's istadevata ("deity of choice").[146]

Film
In 1977 Jagadguru Aadisankaran, a Malayalam film directed by P. Bhaskaran was released in
which Murali Mohan plays the role of Adult Aadi Sankaran and Master Raghu plays childhood.
In 1983 a film directed by G.V. Iyer named Adi Shankaracharya was premiered, the first film
ever made entirely in Sanskrit language in which all of Adi Shankaracharya's works were
compiled.[147] The movie received the Indian National Film Awards for Best Film, Best
Screenplay, Best Cinematography and Best Audiography.[148][149]

See also
Swami Vivekananda
Adi Shri Gauḍapādāchārya
Jnana Yoga
Upanishads
Shri Gaudapadacharya Math
Shri Govinda Bhagavatpadacharya
Vairagya
Vivekachudamani
Soundarya Lahari
Shivananda Lahari
 Self-consciousness (Vedanta)
Govardhan Peetham (East), Puri, Odisha
Dwarka Kalika Pitha (West), Dwarka, Gujarat
Jyotirmath Peetham (North), Jyotirmath, Badrikashram, Uttarakhand
Shri Sringeri Sharada Peetham (South), Sringeri, Karnataka
Shri Kanchi Kamakoti Peetham, Kanchipuram, Tamil Nadu

Notes
1. He is also known as Adi Shankaracharya, Shankara Bhagavatpada, sometimes spelled as
Sankaracharya, (Ādi) Śaṅkarācārya, Śaṅkara Bhagavatpāda and Śaṅkara
Bhagavatpādācārya.
2. Modern scholarship places Shankara in the earlier part of the 8th century CE (c. 700–750).[3]
Earlier generations of scholars proposed 788–820 CE.[3] Other proposals are 686–718 CE, 44
BCE,[4] or as early as 509–477 BCE.
3. See also IndiaDivine.org, Authorship of Vivekachudamani (http://www.indiadivine.org/audarya/
advaita-vedanta/142896-authorship-vivekachudamani.html) and arshabodha.org, Sri
Sankara's Vivekachudamani (http://www.arshabodha.org/adiShankara/Vivekachudamani_eBo
ok.pdf), pp. 3–4, The Question of Authorship of Vivekachudamani
4. Swami Vivekananda translates Shivoham, Shivoham as "I am he, I am he".[84]
5. Brahman is not to be confused with the personalised godhead Brahma.
6. Shankara (?): "(...) Lokayatikas and Bauddhas who assert that the soul does not exist. There
are four sects among the followers of Buddha: 1. Madhyamicas who maintain all is void; 2.
Yogacharas, who assert except sensation and intelligence all else is void; 3. Sautranticas, who
affirm actual existence of external objects no less than of internal sensations; 4. Vaibhashikas,
who agree with later (Sautranticas) except that they contend for immediate apprehension of
exterior objects through images or forms represented to the intellect."[11]
7. Shcherbatsky: "Shankara accuses them of disregarding all logic and refuses to enter in a
controversy with them. The position of Shankara is interesting because, at heart, he is in full
agreement with the Madhyamikas, at least in the main lines, since both maintain the reality of
the One-without-a-second, and the mirage of the manifold. But Shankara, as an ardent hater
of Budhism, could never confess that. He therefore treats the Madhyamika with great contempt
[...] on the charge that the Madhyamika denies the possibility of cognizing the Absolute by
logical methods (pramana). Vachaspati Mishra in the Bhamati rightly interprets this point as
referring to the opinion of the Madhyamikas that logic is incapable to solve the question about
what existence or non-existence really are. This opinion Shankara himself, as is well known,
shares. He does not accept the authority of logic as a means of cognizing the Absolute, but he
deems it a privilege of the Vedantin to fare without logic, since he has Revelation to fall back
upon. From all his opponents, he requires strict logical methods."[99]

References
1. Sharma 1962, p. vi.
2. "Shankara | Indian philosopher" (https://www.britannica.com/biography/Shankara).
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3. Comans 2000, p. 163.
4. Y. Keshava Menon, The Mind of Adi Shankaracharya 1976 pp. 108
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Perspectives on Diaspora, ISBN 978-1-4724-1913-2, p. 105, Quote: "In other words, according
to Adi Shankara's argument, the philosophy of Advaita Vedanta stood over and above all other
forms of Hinduism and encapsulated them. This then united Hinduism; (...) Another of Adi
Shankara's important undertakings which contributed to the unification of Hinduism was his
founding of a number of monastic centers."
6. Shankara, Student's Encyclopedia Britannia – India (2000), Volume 4, Encyclopaedia
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David Crystal (2004), The Penguin Encyclopedia, Penguin Books, p. 1353, Quote: "[Shankara]
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7. Christophe Jaffrelot (1998), The Hindu Nationalist Movement in India, Columbia University
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one – which became formalized in a way that approximates to an ecclesiastical structure was
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8. Sri Adi Shankaracharya (http://www.sringeri.net/history/sri-adi-shankaracharya), Sringeri
Sharada Peetham, India
9. Pattanaik, Devdutt. "How Adi Shankaracharya united a fragmented land with philosophy,
poetry and pilgrimage" (https://scroll.in/article/816610/how-adi-shankaracharya-united-a-fragm
ented-land-with-philosophy-poetry-and-pilgrimage). Scroll.in.
10. Shyama Kumar Chattopadhyaya (2000) The Philosophy of Sankar's Advaita Vedanta (https://b
ooks.google.com/books?ei=09d0T6ygK4PTrQf5l4SgDQ&id=IPasbJW-1PwC&dq=inauthor%3
A%22Shyama+Kumar+Chattopadhyaya%22&q=Mimamsa#v=snippet&q=Mimamsa&f=false),
Sarup & Sons, New Delhi ISBN 81-7625-222-0, 978-81-7625-222-5
11. Edward Roer (Translator), to Brihad Aranyaka Upanishad. Shankara's Introduction (https://boo
ks.google.com/books?id=3uwDAAAAMAAJ) at Google Books
12. Edward Roer (Translator), Shankara's Introduction (https://books.google.com/books?id=3uwD
AAAAMAAJ&pg=PA3), p. 3, at Google Books to Brihad Aranyaka Upanishad at p. 3,
OCLC 19373677 (https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/19373677)
13. KN Jayatilleke (2010), Early Buddhist Theory of Knowledge, ISBN 978-81-208-0619-1, p. 246–
249, from note 385 onwards;
Steven Collins (1994), Religion and Practical Reason (Editors: Frank Reynolds, David Tracy),
State Univ of New York Press, ISBN 978-0-7914-2217-5, p. 64; Quote: "Central to Buddhist
soteriology is the doctrine of not-self (Pali: anattā, Sanskrit: anātman, the opposed doctrine of
Ātman is central to Brahmanical thought). Put very briefly, this is the [Buddhist] doctrine that
human beings have no soul, no self, no unchanging essence.";
Edward Roer (Translator), Shankara's Introduction (https://books.google.com/books?id=3uwD
AAAAMAAJ) at Google Books]
Katie Javanaud (2013), Is The Buddhist 'No-Self' Doctrine Compatible With Pursuing Nirvana?
(https://philosophynow.org/issues/97/Is_The_Buddhist_No-Self_Doctrine_Compatible_With_P
ursuing_Nirvana), Philosophy Now;
John C. Plott et al. (2000), Global History of Philosophy: The Axial Age, Volume 1, Motilal
Banarsidass, ISBN 978-81-208-0158-5, p. 63, Quote: "The Buddhist schools reject any Ātman
concept. As we have already observed, this is the basic and ineradicable distinction between
Hinduism and Buddhism".
14. The Seven Spiritual Laws Of Yoga (https://books.google.com/books?id=lsJbVICEOTcC&pg=P
A13&dq=Adi+Shankara&hl=en&sa=X&ei=Es90T7a9NIy3rAeE3_HmCg&ved=0CFAQuwUwBg
#v=onepage&q=Adi%20Shankara&f=false), Deepak Chopra, John Wiley & Sons, 2006,
ISBN 81-265-0696-2, 978-81-265-0696-5
15. Mayeda 2006, pp. 3–5.
16. Isaeva 1993, pp. 69–82.
17. Vidyasankar, S. "The Sankaravijaya literature" (http://www.advaita-vedanta.org/avhp/sankara-v
ijayam.html). Retrieved 23 August 2006.
18. Tapasyananda, Swami (2002). Sankara-Dig-Vijaya. viii.
19. Pande 2011, p. 35.
20. The hagiographies of Shankara mirror the pattern of synthesizing facts, fiction and legends as
with other ancient and medieval era Indian scholars. Some biographic poems depict Shankara
as a reincarnation of deity Shiva, much like other Indian scholars are revered as reincarnation
of other deities; for example, Mandana-misra is depicted as an embodiment of deity Brahma,
Citsukha of deity Varuna, Anandagiri of Agni, among others. See Isaeva (1993, pp. 69–72).
21. Isaeva 1993, pp. 83–87.
22. K.A. Nilakantha Sastry, A History of South India, 4th ed., Oxford University Press, Madras,
1976.
23. Roshen Dalal (2010). Hinduism: An Alphabetical Guide (https://books.google.com/books?id=D
H0vmD8ghdMC&pg=PA376). Penguin. p. 376. ISBN 978-0-14-341421-6.
24. T.S. Narayana Sastry (1916, republished 1971), The Age of Sankara (http://www.easterntraditi
on.org/article/Age%20of%20Sankara%20by%20Narayana%20Sastry.pdf)
25. Adi Shankara (https://www.britannica.com/biography/Shankara), Encyclopedia Britannica
(2015)
26. N.V. Isaeva (1993). Shankara and Indian Philosophy (https://books.google.com/books?id=hsha
Wu0m1D4C). State University of New York Press. pp. 84–87 with footnotes. ISBN 978-0-7914-
1281-7.
27. John Koller (2013). Chad Meister and Paul Copan (ed.). Routledge Companion to Philosophy
of Religion (https://www.taylorfrancis.com/books/e/9781136696862/chapters/10.4324%2F9780
203813010-17). Routledge. doi:10.4324/9780203813010-17 (https://doi.org/10.4324%2F9780
203813010-17) (inactive 15 March 2020). ISBN 978-1-136-69685-5.
28. The dating of 788–820 is accepted in Keay, p. 194.
29. Madhava-Vidyaranya. Sankara Digvijaya – The traditional life of Sri Sankaracharya, Sri
Ramakrishna Math. ISBN 81-7823-342-8. Source: [1] (https://books.google.com/books?id=0Ls
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30. Tapasyananda, Swami (2002). Shankara-Dig-Vijaya. pp. xv–xxiv.
31. Students' Britannica India (https://books.google.com/books?id=ISFBJarYX7YC&pg=PA379).
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97-7.
33. this may be the present day Kalady in central Kerala.
34. Joël André-Michel Dubois (2014). The Hidden Lives of Brahman: Sankara's Vedanta Through
His Upanisad Commentaries, in Light of Contemporary Practice. SUNY Press.
35. Roshen Dalal (2010). The Religions of India: A Concise Guide to Nine Major Faiths. Penguin
Books India.
36. Adago, John (2018). East Meets West. UK: Program Publishing; 2 edition. ISBN 978-
0692124215.
37. Menon, Y. Keshava (1976). The Mind of Adi Shankara. Jaico. p. 109. ISBN 978-8172242145.
38. Isaeva 1993, pp. 74–75.
39. Pande 2011, pp. 31–32, also 6–7, 67–68.
40. Isaeva 1993, pp. 76–77.
41. Pande 2011, pp. 5–36.
42. Isaeva 1993, pp. 82–91.
43. Isaeva 1993, pp. 71–82, 93–94.
44. Mayeda 2006, pp. 6–7.
45. Isaeva 1993, pp. 2–3.
46. Paul Hacker, Philology and Confrontation: Paul Hacker on Traditional and Modern Vedanta
(Editor: Wilhelm Halbfass), State University of New York Press, ISBN 978-0-7914-2582-4, pp.
30–31
47. W Halbfass (1983), Studies in Kumarila and Sankara, Studien zur Indologie und Iranistik,
Monographic 9, Reinbeck
48. M Piantelly, Sankara e la Renascita del Brahmanesimo, Indian Philosophical Quarterly, Vol. 4,
No. 3 (Apr. 1977), pp. 429–435
49. Kena Upanishad has two commentaries that are attributed to Shankara – Kenopnishad
Vakyabhasya and Kenopnishad Padabhasya; scholars contest whether both are authentic,
several suggesting that the Vakyabhasya is unlikely to be authentic; see Pande (2011, p. 107).
50. Isaeva 1993, pp. 93–97.
51. Pande 2011, pp. 105–113.
52. A Rambachan (1991), Accomplishing the Accomplished: Vedas as a Source of Valid
Knowledge in Sankara, University of Hawaii Press, ISBN 978-0-8248-1358-1, pp. xii–xiii
53. Wilhelm Halbfass (1990), Tradition and Reflection: Explorations in Indian Thought, State
University of New York Press, ISBN 978-0-7914-0362-4, pp. 205–208
54. Pande 2011, pp. 351–352.
55. John Koller (2007), in Chad Meister and Paul Copan (Editors): The Routledge Companion to
Philosophy of Religion, Routledge, ISBN 978-1-134-18001-1, pp. 98–106
56. Pande 2011, pp. 113–115.
57. Mishra, Godavarisha. "A Journey through Vedantic History – Advaita in the Pre-Sankara,
Sankara and Post-Sankara Periods" (https://web.archive.org/web/20060622102818/http://och
s.org.uk/downloads/classes/gmishra02mmas04.pdf) (PDF). Archived from the original (http://w
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59. Paul Hacker, Sankaracarya and Sankarabhagavatpada: Preliminary Remarks Concerning the
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2582-4, pp. 41–56
60. Adi Shankaracharya, Vivekacūḍāmaṇi (https://archive.org/stream/vivekachudamanio00sankric
h#page/n3/mode/2up) S Madhavananda (Translator), Advaita Ashrama (1921)
61. Grimes 2004.
62. Shah-Kazemi 2006, p. 4.
63. Grimes 2004, p. 23.
64. Grimes 2004, p. 13.
65. Johannes Buitenen (1978). The Mahābhārata (vol. 3) (https://books.google.com/books?id=wFt
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Chicago: University of Chicago Press. ISBN 978-0-226-84665-1
66. Note: some manuscripts list this verse as 2.18.133, while Mayeda lists it as 1.18.133, because
of interchanged chapter numbering; see Upadesa Sahasri: A Thousand Teachings, S
Jagadananda (Translator, 1949), ISBN 978-81-7120-059-7, Verse 2.8.133, p. 258;
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ccording%20to%20Sri%20Sankara%20by%20Swami%20Vireswarananda%20%5BSanskrit-E
nglish%5D.pdf), S Vireswarananda (Translator), p. 35
69. Comans 2000, p. 168.
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71. George Thibaut (Translator), Brahma Sutras: With Commentary of Shankara, Reprinted as
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72. Mayeda 2006, pp. 46–53.
73. Mayeda & Tanizawa (1991), Studies on Indian Philosophy in Japan, 1963–1987, Philosophy
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Elsewhere, Shankara's Bhasya on various Upanishads repeat "give up rituals and rites", see
for example Shankara's Bhasya on Brihadaranyaka Upanishad (https://archive.org/stream/Brih
adaranyaka.Upanishad.Shankara.Bhashya.by.Swami.Madhavananda#page/n375/mode/2up)
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Further reading
Ingalls, Daniel H.H. (1954). "Śaṁkara's Arguments against the Buddhists" (https://web.archive.
org/web/20110628221923/http://ccbs.ntu.edu.tw/FULLTEXT/JR-PHIL/ew27155.htm).
Philosophy East and West. 3 (4): 291–306. doi:10.2307/1397287 (https://doi.org/10.2307%2F1
397287). JSTOR 1397287 (https://www.jstor.org/stable/1397287). Archived from the original (h
ttp://ccbs.ntu.edu.tw/FULLTEXT/JR-PHIL/ew27155.htm) on 28 June 2011. Retrieved
26 February 2009.
Mishra, Parameshwar Nath (2003), "Era of Adi Shankaracharya 507 B.C.–475 B.C.", Howrah
Samskriti Rakshak Parishad, West Bengal.
Mishra, Parameshwar Nath, "Amit Kalrekha", 3 vols. (in Hindi), Howrah Samskriti Rakshak
Parishad, West Bengal.
Succession of Shankaracharyas (a chronology) (http://www.srikanta-sastri.org/succession-of-s
hankaracharyas/4582493144) (from Gaudapada onwards)
Reigle, David (2001). "The Original Sankaracarya" (http://www.theosophycanada.com/files/foh
at-fall-2001.pdf) (PDF). Fohat. 5 (3): 57–60, 70–71.
Frank Whaling (1979), Śankara and Buddhism (https://www.jstor.org/stable/23440361),
Journal of Indian Philosophy, Vol. 7, No. 1, pp. 1–42
"Sri Shankaracharya in Cambodia..?" (http://www.srikanta-sastri.org/sri-shankara-in-cambodia/
4584994981) by S. Srikanta Sastri
Navone, J.J. (1956). "Sankara and the Vedic Tradition". Philosophy and Phenomenological
Research. 17 (2): 248–255. doi:10.2307/2104222 (https://doi.org/10.2307%2F2104222).
JSTOR 2104222 (https://www.jstor.org/stable/2104222).
Biderman, Shlomo (1978). "Śankara and the Buddhists". Journal of Indian Philosophy. 6 (4).
doi:10.1007/BF00218430 (https://doi.org/10.1007%2FBF00218430).
Rukmani, T.S. (2003). "Dr. Richard de Smet and Sankara's Advaita" (https://doi.org/10.7825/21
64-6279.1295). Journal of Hindu-Christian Studies. 16. doi:10.7825/2164-6279.1295 (https://d
oi.org/10.7825%2F2164-6279.1295).
A Questioning Approach: Learning from Sankara's Pedagogic Techniques (http://ced.sagepub.
com/content/2/2/137.short), Jacqueline Hirst, Contemporary Education Dialogue, Vol. 2, No. 2,
pp. 137–169

External links
 Works by Adi Shankara (https://www.gutenberg.org/author/Sankaracarya) at Project
Gutenberg
Adi Shankara (https://curlie.org/Society/Religion_and_Spirituality/Hinduism/Gurus_and_Saints/
Adi_Sankaracharya/) at Curlie
Works by or about Adi Shankara (https://archive.org/search.php?query=%28%22Adi+Shankar
a%22+OR+%22Adi+Shankaracharya%22+OR+%22Shankara+Bhagavatpada%22+OR+Sank
aracharya+OR+Śaṅkarācārya+OR+%22Śaṅkara+Bhagavatpāda%22+OR+%22Śaṅkara+Bha
gavatpādācārya%22%29) at Internet Archive
Majors works of Adi Sankara (https://archive.org/details/CompleteWorksOfSriSankaracharyaIn
20Volumes1910Edition) Volumes 1–20, (Sanskrit and English Translations)
A Note on the date of Sankara (Adi Sankaracharya) (http://www.srikanta-sastri.org/a-note-on-t
he-date-of-samkara/4578439836) by S. Srikanta Sastri

Religious titles
Preceded by Jagadguru of Sringeri Sharada
Succeeded by
Bhagawan Govinda Peetham
Sureshwaracharya
Bhagavat Pada ?–820 (videha-mukti)

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