Urban and Agricultural Communities:

Opportunities for Common Ground

Council for Agricultural Science and Technology

Printed in the United States of America

Cover design by Lynn Ekblad, Different Angles, Ames, Iowa

Graphics by Richard Beachler, Instructional Technology Center,
Iowa State University, Ames

ISBN 1-887383-20-4
ISSN 0194-4088
05 04 03 02 4 3 2 1

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Urban and Agricultural Communities: Opportunities for Common Ground

p. cm.
Includes bibliographical references (p. ).
ISBN 1-887383-20-4 (alk. paper)
1. Urban agriculture. 2. Land use, Urban. 3. Agriculture--Economic aspects.
I. Council for Agricultural Science and Technology.
S494.5.U72 U74 2002
630'.91732-dc21 2002005851
CIP

Task Force Report

No. 138 May 2002

Council for Agricultural Science and Technology

Ames, Iowa
 Task Force Members
Lorna Michael Butler (Cochair and Lead Coauthor), College of Agriculture, Departments of Sociology and
Anthropology, Iowa State University, Ames

Dale M. Maronek (Cochair and Lead Coauthor), Department of Horticulture and Landscape Architecture,
Oklahoma State University, Stillwater

Contributing Authors
Nelson Bills, Department of Applied Economics and Management, Cornell University, Ithaca, New York

Tim D. Davis, Texas A&M University Research and Extension Center, Dallas

Julia Freedgood, American Farmland Trust, Northampton, Massachusetts

Frank M. Howell, Department of Sociology, Anthropology, and Social Work, Mississippi State University,
Mississippi State

John Kelly, Public Service and Agriculture, Clemson University, Clemson, South Carolina

Lawrence W. Libby, Department of Agricultural, Environmental, and Development Economics, The Ohio State
University, Columbus

Kameshwari Pothukuchi, Department of Geography and Urban Planning, Wayne State University, Detroit,
Michigan

Diane Relf, Department of Horticulture, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, Blacksburg

John K. Thomas, Department of Rural Sociology, Texas A&M University and the Texas Agricultural Experi-
ment Stations, College Station

Paul B. Thompson, Department of Philosophy, Purdue University, West Lafayette, Indiana

Reviewers
Mark B. Lapping, Edmund S. Muskie School of Public Service, University of Southern Maine, Portland

Douglas J. Lawrence, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Natural Resources Conservation Service, Washing-
ton, D.C.

John J. Sloan, Texas Agricultural Experiment Station, Texas A&M University–Dallas, Dallas

ii
 Contents

Interpretive Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
Agriculture's Contributions to Urbanization, 1
Policy and Institutional Dimensions, 1
New Visions for Urban Agriculture, 2
Conclusions, 3
Executive Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
Introduction, 4
Agriculture's Service Role, 8
Agriculture's Benefits to the Urbanizing Society, 8
Recreation and Leisure, 8
Policy and Institutional Dimensions of Urban Agriculture, 9
New Visions for Urban Agriculture, 10
Conclusions, 11
1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
The Rural-Urban Agroecosystem, 13
Urban Agriculture Defined, 14
Objectives, 14
Historical Context of Agriculture, 15
Agriculture Represents an Opportunity, 17
Background and Situation, 18
Recent U.S. Demographic Changes, 22
Today's Rural-Urban Agriculture, 23
Myths, Stereotypes, and Realities, 24
The Scope of Urban Agriculture, 25
2 Agriculture's Service Role in the Urbanizing Society. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
Introduction, 27
Agroecosystem Services for Restoration and Remediation, 27
Storm Water Management, 27
Water Remediation and Wastewater Reclamation, 28
Waste Recycling, 30
Carbon Sequestration, 31
Remediation of Brownfields, 31
3 Agriculture's Service Role in Planning and Revitalization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
Introduction, 33
Managing Growth, 34
Landscape and Energy Modifications, 35
Indoor-Outdoor Air Quality, 36
Insect, Disease, and Wildlife Management, 36
Conserving and Revitalizing Land Areas, 38
Merging the Interests of Stakeholders in the Planning Process, 40
4 Agriculture's Busines Contribution to the Urbanizing Society . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
Introduction, 41
Environmental Horticulture and the Green Industry, 41
Nursery and Greenhouse Crop Production, 42

iii
iv Contents

Retail Garden Centers and Nurseries, 43

Landscape Design, Installation, and Maintenance, 43
Turfgrass Production and Management, 44
Foliage Plants and Interiorscapes, 44
Cut Flowers, 45
Companion Animal Industry, 46
Equine Industry, 46
Aquaculture, 47
5 Agriculture's Contributions to Community Health and Well-Being . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
Introduction, 48
Individual Health and Well-Being, 48
Community Quality of Life, 51
Community Food Systems, 53
Community Supported Agriculture, 54
Entrepreneurial Food Gardens and Farms, 55
Farmers' Markets, 58
Farm-to-Table Programs, 60
6 Recreation and Leisure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
Introduction, 62
On-Farm Recreation and Entertainment Farming, 62
Consumer Horticulture, 63
Horticultural Tourism, 64
Touring Green Industry Businesses, 64
Public Gardens and Zoos, 65
Golf and Other Sports, 66
7 Policy and Institutional Dimensions of Urban Agriculture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
Introduction, 68
Setting Policy, 69
Land Protection Initiatives, 70
The Farmland Protection Toolbox, 71
Regulatory Programs, 71
Incentive Programs, 72
8 New Visions for Urban Agriculture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
Introduction, 78
Comprehensive Planning, 80
Public Policy, 81
Land Use, 81
Food Systems, 82
Human Capital Development, 83
Higher Education, 83
Research, 85
Partnerships and Collaboration, 89
Conclusions, 93

Appendix A: Tables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95

Appendix B: Abbreviations, Acronyms, and Symbols . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108

Appendix C: Glossary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109

Literature Cited . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111

Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
 Figures

S.1 Rural and urban areas of Richmond, Virginia, 4

S.2 Corn production in Colorado, 6
S.3 Neighborhood residents in Chicago, Illinois, work in the community vegetable garden, 6
S.4 Researchers in Arizona spray a mix of common liquid dishwashing detergent and cooking oil that kills
sweet potato whiteflies, as well as several common home garden pests, 8
S.5 Visitors to the Chicago Botanic Garden enjoy a summer day in the English Oak Meadow, 9
1.1 Understanding the functionality of the rural-urban agroecosystem within an urbanizing society can be
helpful in establishing how parts interact with each other and areas of common ground to ensure the
health of the whole society, including the total agricultural system, 14
1.2 Today's urban agriculture system is a complex system composed of a central core of activities along with
a wide variety of services and outcomes that support the total population, 14
1.3 The rural-urban agroecosystem encompasses a series of shared problems, goods and services, and bene-
fits. Although the problems are not always common to all urban and rural agricultural communities, the
examples show ways that goods and services can be mutually beneficial, 18
2.1 Wetland and streamside vegetation serves as a buffer to filter excess nutrients from water running off
agricultural land, 28
2.2 A view into the South Burlington Living Machine Wastewater Treatment System in Vermont. Many
economically viable plants can be produced in these systems including cut flowers, landscape plants, and
even food for humans and animals, 30
2.3 A Suwanee County, Florida, poultry farmer adds water to compost to keep the bacteria working that
ultimately turn chicken waste into usable topsoil, 30
3.1 Mahantango Creek watershed near Klingerstown, Pennsylvania. The combination of land use, soil prop-
erties, and hydrogeology largely determines vulnerability to surface and groundwater contamination by
agricultural activities, 33
3.2 In a wind tunnel, a technician prepares to measure how live plants and straw residue slow windblown
soil erosion, 35
3.3 Technicians at the base of a 3-story rainfall simulator study rainfall interception by foliage, 36
3.4 A local resident works in a community garden in Chicago, Illinois, 39
4.1 A homeowner and his daughter weed a flower garden in front of their home in Placerville, California, 41
4.2 Poinsettia is the number-one flowering potted plant in the United States, even though its traditional
sales period is just six weeks, 42
4.3 Greenhouse production of bedding plants, 43
4.4 Lawn and garden retail sales and store numbers for various types of retail outlets represented in the top
100 U.S. retailers, 43

v
vi figures

4.5 Street vendor selling cut flowers, 45

4.6 Horses graze next to housing in Montgomery County, Maryland, 46
4.7 Workers harvest catfish from the Delta Pride Catfish farm in Mississippi, 47
5.1 Raised-bed gardens make gardening accessible to all ages and ability levels, 49
5.2 Gardening can be enjoyed by persons of all ages, 50
5.3 Residents enjoy their community garden at the Northpoint Apartments in Mt. Olive, North Carolina, 51
5.4 Assisted by staff from the Chicago Botanic Garden, Chicago public school students work in a teaching
garden, 52
5.5 An abundance of fresh vegetables is offered for sale at a weekly farmers' market, 54
5.6 The Crescent City Farmers' Market meets in New Orleans, Louisiana, every Saturday morning, 58
5.7 A soil conservationist and a graduate student at Fresno State University check on the growth of Asian
vegetables that will be sold at local farmers' markets, 59
6.1 Visitors to the Chicago Botanic Garden enjoy a stroll through Sansho-En, the Japanese Garden, 62
6.2 Visitors can tour the grounds at Calloway's Stonegate Nursery, a retail garden center in Fort Worth,
Texas, 65
6.3 The Flower Fields in Carlsbad, California, 65
6.4 A Chicago Botanic Garden staff member joins students at the Von Schiller School to plant a new commu-
nity garden, 66
8.1 Common problems and potential impacts within the rural-urban agroecosystem, 79
8.2 A faculty member points out qualities of a pond-raised hybrid striped bass for a student studying fisher-
ies science at Delaware State University, 84
8.3 A plant pathologist examines cultures of different root pathogens that can reduce yields of strawberries
grown in poorly or nonfumigated soil, 86
 Tables

1.1 Metropolitan status of U.S. counties, 1970 to 1990, by size of population, 20

1.2 Rural-Urban Continuum Codes, 1993, 21
1.3 Components of county population change, 1980 to 1998, by metropolitan proximity in 1993, 22
4.1 Nursery and greenhouse crop production data for the top five states in terms of total sales for the
year 1997. Data from 1992 also included for comparative purposes, 42
4.2 Production area and wholesale sales data for major components of the U.S. nursery and greenhouse
crop production in 1997, 42
4.3 Top ten states in terms of lawn and garden retail sales in 1997, 43
A.1 Historical patterns of size of farm population and percentage of U.S. population, 95
A.2 Historical patterns of number of farms, acres in farms, percentage of land in farms, and average size
of farms, 1850 to 1997, 96
A.3 Population by ethnicity, 1980 to 1999, and county metropolitan proximity in 1993, 97
A.4 County population change, 1980 to 1999, by ethnicity and metropolitan proximity in 1993, 98
A.5 Employment in the agricultural, forestry, and fisheries industry, 1980 to 1997, by county metropoli-
tan proximity in 1993, 99
A.6 Employment in agricultural (farming, forestry, and fishing) occupations, 1980 to 1997, by county
metropolitan proximity in 1993, 100
A.7 Total number of farms, 1978 to 1997, by metropolitan proximity in 1993, 101
A.8 Percentage of county acres in farmland, 1978 to 1997, by metropolitan proximity in 1993, 102
A.9 Average farm size in acres, 1978 to 1997, by metropolitan proximity in 1993, 103
A.10 Total gross sales ($000s) for farms, 1978 to 1997, by metropolitan proximity in 1993, 104
A.11 Value of crop sales ($000s) for farms, 1978 to 1997, by metropolitan proximity in 1993, 105
A.12 Value of livestock and poultry sales ($000s) for farms, 1978 to 1997, by metropolitan proximity in
1993, 106
A.13 Locations and total production areas of the top five floricultural producers in the United States, 107
A.14 Top ten U.S. lawn and garden retail businesses in 1999, 107

Textbox
7.1 Primary public farmland protection tools: Benefits and drawbacks, 73

vii
 Foreword

Following a recommendation by the CAST National We also thank the employers of the scientists, who
Concerns Committee, the CAST Board of Directors made the time of these individuals available at no cost
authorized preparation of a report on urban agricul- to CAST. CAST thanks all members who made addi-
ture. tional contributions to assist in the preparation of this
Dr. Lorna Michael Butler, Henry A. Wallace En- document. The members of CAST deserve special
dowed Chair for Sustainable Agriculture, Iowa State recognition because the unrestricted contributions
University, and Dr. Dale M. Maronek, Head of the they have made in support of CAST also have financed
Department of Horticulture and Landscape Architec- the preparation and publication of this report.
ture, Oklahoma State University, served as cochairs This report is being distributed widely; recipients
and lead authors for the report. A highly qualified include Members of Congress, the White House, the
group of scientists served as task force members and U.S. Department of Agriculture, the Congressional
reviewers. The group included individuals with ex- Research Service, the Food and Drug Administration,
pertise in agricultural anthropology; rural sociology; the Environmental Protection Agency, and the Agen-
horticulture; landscape architecture; agricultural, re- cy for International Development. Additional recipi-
source, and managerial economics; agricultural exten- ents include media personnel and institutional mem-
sion; geography and urban planning; public policy; bers of CAST. Individual members of CAST may
and philosophy. receive a complimentary copy upon request for a $3.00
The task force prepared an initial draft of the re- postage and handling fee. The report may be repro-
port, which was reviewed by the credited reviewers. duced in its entirety without permission. If copied in
The task force revised all subsequent drafts and the any manner, credit to the authors and to CAST would
task force and credited reviewers reviewed the proofs. be appreciated.
The CAST Executive Committee and Editorial and Brad L. Inman
Publications Committee reviewed the final draft. The President
CAST staff provided editorial and structural sugges-
tions and published the report. The authors are re- Teresa A. Gruber
sponsible for the report's scientific content. Executive Vice President
On behalf of CAST, we thank the cochairs, authors,
and reviewers who gave of their time and expertise Linda M. Chimenti
to prepare this report as a contribution by the scien- Managing Scientific Editor
tific community to public understanding of the issue.

viii
 Interpretive Summary

Agriculture is an integral part of urban growth and • Restoration and Remediation: storm water
population change. This fact is frequently unrecog- management, water remediation and waste water
nized by the general public, mainstream agricultur- reclamation, waste recycling, carbon sequestra-
al interests, and political leaders. In many people’s tion, and remediation of brownfields
minds, there is the perception of a rural-urban split • Planning and Revitalization: growth manage-
that results in competition for resources, separate ment, landscape and energy modification, indoor-
policies, and inaccurate stereotypes. A critical need outdoor air quality, insect and wildlife manage-
exists to gain a better understanding of our current ment, and revitalization of land areas
agricultural situation and to coalesce the interests • Business and Economic Benefits: environmen-
and goals of rural and urban areas. Agriculture is one tal horticulture and the green industry; nursery
way to meet this need. and greenhouse production; retail garden centers;
This report focuses on the role that agriculture can landscape and interiorscape design, installation,
play in serving as a common denominator between and maintenance; turfgrass production and man-
rural and urban sectors. The intent is two-fold: to agement; companion animal industry; aquacul-
move our thinking beyond agriculture’s traditional ture; and the equine industry
production and rural roots focus, and to identify com-
ponents of contemporary agriculture that can be a • Individual Health and Well-Being: human/an-
resource for civic leaders and planners who are chal- imal relationships, plants and planted landscapes
lenged by issues of sprawl, vacant city lots, public • Community Health and Well-Being: commu-
desire for safe local food, and community livability. nity food systems such as entrepreneurial gardens
The objectives of this report are to and farms, farmers’ markets, community support-
ed agriculture, and farm-to-table programs
• broaden understanding of agriculture in an urban-
izing society; • Recreation and Leisure: gardening, golf, hik-
ing, equestrian activities, wildlife and bird watch-
• identify opportunities for urban and agricultural
ing, public parks, arboreta, botanical gardens, and
constituencies to work cooperatively toward com-
entertainment farms
mon goals;
• document agriculture’s contributions and/or ser-
vices to both rural and urban sectors; Policy and Institutional
• stimulate broad debate and discussion about pro-
gram and policy directions and priorities pertain- Dimensions
ing to agriculture in an urbanizing society; and Population growth and a desire for country living
• propose ways in which contemporary agriculture, have fueled public interest in land management is-
with other partners, can help meet the challeng- sues. According to the USDA National Resources In-
es associated with urbanization. ventory, between 1982 and 1992, 29% of U. S. agri-
cultural land converted to urban use was prime
agricultural land. During 1992 to 1997, the rate of
Agriculture’s Contributions to land conversion reached 2.2 million acres annually,
not counting land used for transportation routes. This
Urbanization was 1.2 times the conversion that occurred in the pre-
This report presents an extensive discussion of the vious decade.
ways in which agriculture contributes to urban com- A number of tools are in place to protect farmland.
munities. The following topics are considered. The best programs combine regulatory and incentive-

1
2 Urban and Agricultural Communities: Opportunities for Common Ground

based strategies, such as the following. rural-urban agroecosystem

• Regulatory Programs: agricultural protection • Form rural-urban outreach and extension teams
zoning and comprehensive planning that include urban leaders and planners
• Incentive Programs: agriculture tax programs, • Monitor and analyze community food systems; ed-
right-to-farm laws, agricultural districts, purchase of ucate about nutrition and diet, community gar-
development rights, transfer of development rights (or dens, food-related employment, farmer-consum-
purchase of agricultural conservation easement pro- er linkages, sustainable production and
grams), and private land trusts management systems, and food security strate-
gies
• Facilitate public understanding of changes in the
New Visions for Urban Agriculture status of agriculture land, natural resources, and
open space; provide outreach education on farm-
This report proposes initiatives that the agricultur- land protection tools and policies while maintain-
al system, higher education, and governments must ing neutrality and promoting diverse stakehold-
undertake jointly to remain relevant to society. Each er participation; document successful farmer
of the initiatives has research, extension, and educa- adaptations
tional opportunities that are addressed in the report. • Identify common ground and promote bridge-
building activities and policies between urban
1. Comprehensive Planning Initiatives
and rural constituents
• Build public understanding of the rural-urban
• Encourage professional development on urban ag-
agroecosystem
riculture issues and the rural-urban agroecosystem
• Integrate agriculture into long-term, rural-urban
• Foster internal planning to share resources, iden-
comprehensive planning
tify funding sources, and build new partnerships
• Promote knowledge of community food systems to
achieve desired local/regional goals 4. Research Initiatives
• Use urban agriculture as a tool for improving pub- • Pursue research on urban agricultural topics in
lic education and community livability plant adaptability and production systems, urban
soils, water management, and pest management
• Identify financial incentives and revenue sourc-
es for entrepreneurial urban agricultural activities • Encourage research on entrepreneurial products,
farmland preservation, and social and economic
• Draw on existing resources for science-based in-
dimensions of the rural-urban agroecosystem
formation
5. Partnerships and Collaboration Initiatives
2. Public Policy Initiatives
• Broaden the mix of partners (higher education,
• Study agricultural land use; analyze alternative
government agencies, nonprofit organizations,
policy instruments; document land conversion
private sector)
and decision-making behavior; implement spatial
models of land use for policy design; and identify • Foster partnerships between farmers or rural peo-
roles for levels of government in policy and devel- ple and urban planners and urban-oriented inter-
opment est groups on community food systems, commu-
nity greening, sustaining and remediating natural
• Strengthen understanding of local/regional food
resources, wildlife and recreation issues, and wa-
systems; encourage policies that improve food ac-
tershed protection
cess; promote food system sustainability; estab-
lish food policy councils; establish local mecha- • Encourage higher education faculty collaboration
nisms for food production, distribution, and use; with urban agriculture partners to address urban
and monitor consumption patterns of disadvan- agriculture problems and issues
taged populations • Expand cooperative extension’s role in urban ag-
• Develop policies to ensure a new generation of riculture issues, using a team approach to address
farmers who can interact successfully with the ur- rural-urban agroecosystem issues, coalition build-
banizing society ing, land protection tools, and policies; offer urban
agriculture professional development
3. Higher Education Initiatives
• Initiate urban agriculture experiential learning to
• Establish curricula in urban agriculture and the engage K–12 educators, undergraduates, and
Executive
Interpretive
Summary
Summary 3

graduate students in public and private colleges urbanization. The wealth of knowledge associated
and universities with the agricultural sciences can be put to valuable
• Develop creative funding strategies to support an use in helping to meet the challenges of urbanization.
expanded rural-urban agriculture agenda; coop- Together, rural and urban communities have the po-
erate with state and federal agencies to stimulate tential to create a situation beneficial to both, based
dialogue and planning on the rural-urban agroec- on their unique resources and experiences. This sit-
osystem; engage legislators, planners, business uation will come about only with proactive leadership,
and industry leaders, and nonprofit organizations shared resources, creative policy options, and a will-
in joint proposals; create profit-sharing entrepre- ingness to work together. Land grant universities,
neurial models industry, traditional agricultural interest groups, and
urban partners—such as metropolitan educational in-
Conclusions stitutions, city leaders, and urban planners—will
need to work together to embrace change and promote
Agriculture must be redefined in the context of a new and exciting future for everyone.
 Executive Summary

Introduction factors, all of which are important to both rural and

urban people.
Agriculture is an integral part of urban growth and The central goal of this report is to broaden our
population change. This fact is frequently unrecog- perceptions of agriculture beyond its traditional ru-
nized by the general public, mainstream agricultur- ral roots and commodity production focus. A vital
al interests, and political leaders. In many people’s need exists to meld the interests of rural and urban
minds, there is the perception of a rural-urban split people to create the environment in which rural and
that results in competition for resources, separate urban populations work cooperatively toward com-
policies, and unfortunate stereotypes. A critical need mon goals. Technology and long-distance commuting
exists to gain a better understanding of our current are merging what once were thought of as contrast-
agricultural situation and to coalesce the interests ing urban and rural values. In addition, migration
and goals of rural and urban areas. Agriculture is one and new immigrant populations are changing the face
way to meet this need. of both rural and urban areas. Now is the time to
For many people, agriculture represents a deep- expand the way in which agriculture, and its contri-
seated cultural value, sometimes expressed by the sat- butions to future societal needs, is viewed.
isfaction of working in the soil, spending time close Historically and culturally, the concepts of farm-
to nature, enjoying the companionship of a pet, or get- ing and agriculture are synonymous. With the inten-
ting to know the farmer who grows their food. This sification and consolidation of agriculture, however,
document paints a broad picture of agriculture, going agribusiness has assumed a more prominent economic
beyond its traditional rural roots and production fo- role in U.S. agriculture. Contemporary agriculture
cus and moving our thinking toward agriculture as a is now defined more broadly than just “farming.” Ag-
common denominator between rural and urban sec- riculture, as defined in this report, has five major com-
tors (Figure S.1). The report documents some of the ponents:
diverse components of agriculture that are an inte- 1. It includes the development and manufacture of
gral part of the rural-urban agroecosystem, a holistic biotechnologies, agrichemicals, mechanical equip-
concept used to highlight the connections between ment, and other technologies that enhance pro-
rural and urban economic, environmental, and human duction capabilities, increase product safety, and
improve product quality for consumers.
2. It includes conservation and preservation enter-
prises aimed at sustaining and remediating nat-
ural resources, and promoting eco-recreation and
agritourism.
3. It includes creating and effectively managing func-
tional, attractive landscapes that enhance the ur-
ban environment and make cities more livable.
4. It involves the producing, gathering, processing,
and marketing of food, fiber, ornamental plants,
and forest products for consumers.
5. It embraces the activities of people and organi-
zations that produce, disseminate, and/or use ag-
Figure S.1. Rural and urban areas of Richmond, Virginia. Photo
riculturally related information for decision-mak-
by Tim McCabe, U.S. Department of Agriculture. ing purposes and for public education.

4
Executive Summary 5

In the last decade, more attention has been paid • provide services to the environment and commu-
to the role of the consumer because of the growing nity,
awareness of the impacts that consumers have on de- • generate direct and indirect business (including
mand and public policies affecting community health food production, food technology, and marketing)
and quality-of-life issues. The urban and suburban as well as health benefits to the total society, and
contribution to many of these diverse agricultural • contribute recreational and leisure outlets for an
components is neither well documented nor well un- urbanizing society.
derstood.
Rural and urban lives no longer represent contrast- The concept of a rural-urban agroecosystem more
ing styles and values. Urban and rural people want accurately describes the total agricultural system
access to a similar quality of life. Both populations because all parts of the system interact with each oth-
are intimately connected through wealth, policies, lif- er and with the total system. Whether the problems
estyles, and goods and services that frequently origi- considered are those such as urban sprawl, loss of
nate in urban centers. Through the sheer power of farmland, pollution, water availability, or waste dis-
the urban market place and the political sector, much posal, the connections between the economic, environ-
of the future of rural areas is tied to that of the urban mental, biological, and social factors are clear. This
system. Today, agriculture is found in both rural and approach provides useful insights about who is im-
urban locations, but in differing forms and intensities pacted by decisions, where to go for resources to fix
and often in response to differing demands and oppor- problems, and who to involve in identifying solutions.
tunities. Today’s agricultural system and its many The synergy associated with the whole system, and a
diverse components (food, fiber, technology, remedi- broader group of players, can generate more political
ation, conservation, landscape and environmental clout, more problem-solving creativity, and more fund-
enhancement, and human recreational and consump- ing to address solutions.
tion activities) are embedded into an interconnected
political, economic, cultural, and ecological system
that is driven largely by urban leaders and urban or- Urban Agriculture Defined
ganizations. Urban agriculture is a phrase that seems contrived,
Nevertheless, agriculture is a common denomina- almost an oxymoron. Views of agriculture are not the
tor that connects both rural and urban areas. It con- same for everyone. Agriculture is a word often asso-
tributes to food availability, recreation and tourism, ciated with the production of food and fiber commod-
land restoration, waste recycling, community entre- ities such as corn, cotton, wheat, soybeans, beef, dairy,
preneurship, and scenic amenities. Similarly, it com- poultry, pork, and eggs. Such production takes place
petes with urban areas for the same resources, such mostly in the countryside, outside urban areas (Fig-
as water, land, and energy. Agriculture has always ure S.2). Yet if one considers activities that are con-
involved relationships between people and their en- ducted and regulated by federal and state depart-
vironment. When agriculture is carried out in close ments of agriculture, or research and educational
proximity to community residents, it can produce both activities in agricultural colleges and research insti-
positive and negative impacts on the neighborhood, tutes, agriculture can be defined in a much broader
the economy, natural areas, and wildlife. way. This broader definition includes grasses, flow-
ers, and all types of small-scale greenhouse produc-
tion; horses; aquaculture; pest control measures, in-
The Rural-Urban Agroecosystem cluding those for rodents and insects; forestry and
Rural and urban areas are interdependent ele- wildlife management; the food that we eat such as
ments of U.S. society, which is becoming increasing- fruits and vegetables; human relationships built
ly urban. This fact suggests that both rural and met- around farmers’ markets and community gardens;
ropolitan environments can best be viewed as one and the quality of life in our communities. All of these
comprehensive agroecosystem in which the compo- components can be important to both rural and ur-
nent parts are mutually dependent and synergistical- ban populations. In addition, many city dwellers have
ly tied to one another. For the purposes of this report, undertaken food production and community beauti-
the rural-urban agroecosystem is defined as a biolog- fication programs of their own, or in groups (Figure
ical and natural resources system that is managed S.3). Even traditional rural commodity production
jointly by rural and urban people to has found a place in urban and suburban areas well
6 Urban and Agricultural Communities: Opportunities for Common Ground

beyond people’s dependency on it for food and fiber. Report Objectives

And even this description of the activities associated
with agriculture neglects the many roles that agricul- The objectives of this report are to
ture plays in people’s personal and civic lives: for ex- • broaden understanding of agriculture in an ur-
ample, home gardening, therapeutic riding, compan- banizing society;
ion animal rearing, horticultural therapy, and the
locally grown food that is becoming increasingly pop- • identify opportunities for urban and agricultur-
ular in restaurants. al constituencies to work cooperatively toward
Today’s contemporary urban agriculture is a com- common goals;
plex system encompassing a full spectrum of inter- • document the contributions and/or services that
ests—from a core of traditional production, process- agriculture provides to both rural and urban sec-
ing, marketing, distribution, and consumption tors;
activities to more extensive system components in- • stimulate broad debate and discussion about pro-
cluding recreation and leisure, business entrepre- gram and policy directions and priorities pertain-
neurship, neighborhood beautification, environmen- ing to agriculture in an urbanizing society; and
tal restoration and remediation, individual and • propose ways in which contemporary agriculture,
community health and well-being, agroecosystem ser- with other partners, can help society meet the
vices, and economic vitality. challenges associated with urbanization.
This report is intended for policymakers and plan-
ners, administrators and faculty of colleges and uni-
versities, and members of diverse agricultural inter-
est groups found in urban and urban-edge
communities, cities, and rural areas. Although the
contents are applicable to the interests of traditional
agricultural clientele, such as agriculture commodi-
ty groups, this report also has direct relevance to the
needs of local government decision makers and plan-
ners, as well as to urban-oriented organizations con-
cerned with growth and development. In addition, the
contents will be informative for individuals and
groups involved in consumer advocacy and local food
systems work, food security and food safety, women
in agriculture, environmental and farmland protec-
tion, and sustainable agriculture.

Figure S.3. Neighborhood residents in Chicago, Illinois,

Figure S.2. Corn production in Colorado. Photo by Scott Bauer, work in the community vegetable garden.
Agricultural Research Service, U.S. Department of Photo by Ken Hammond, U.S. Department of
Agriculture, Beltsville, Maryland. Agriculture.
Executive Summary 7

Historical Context of Agriculture Agriculture Represents an Opportunity

Agriculture has played a particularly significant Urban agriculture represents an opportunity for
role in U.S. history. Our founding fathers, notably greater social and cultural integration across differ-
Thomas Jefferson and Benjamin Franklin, viewed ag- ing experiences, perspectives, and demands. The
riculture as a way to avoid the problems and injus- outcome will be a better society for everyone. Rural
tices of eighteenth-century Europe. Later, the U.S. and urban leaders, policymakers, and administrators
Congress passed the Homestead Act to encourage in higher education can play an important role in
westward migration and farming. The land-grant building bridges between rural and urban sectors.
university system was created to ensure that the farm Contemporary agriculture can be a resource for civic
population and the working classes enjoyed the ben- leaders and planners who are challenged by issues of
efits of education. Federally funded research and ex- sprawl, vacant city lots, clean air and water, water
tension programs were developed to provide addition- availability, waste recycling, safe and healthy local
al technical assistance to farmers. Railroads provided food, or expanded economic development.
farmers with access to markets, and in doing so,
helped midwestern states build agricultural econo-
mies. These activities also helped with the develop- Agricultural and Demographic Changes
ment of cities and other industries. Although U.S. An array of terms and definitions has been used to
residents thought of themselves as an agrarian soci- describe, locate, and classify rural and urban, and
ety, the close relationship between farmers, farming, metropolitan and nonmetropolitan, counties. Because
and factories actually stimulated the growth of an of changes in county classification systems, it is easy
overwhelmingly urban nation. By the end of the twen- to misinterptet the importance of metropolitan and
tieth century, few U.S. residents had worked on a nonmetropolitan counties with regard to agriculture.
farm. Many had never seen one. The latest revision, applied in the 1990 census count,
Whereas scholars have explored the transforma- defined a county adjacent to a metropolitan statisti-
tion and structure of agriculture and the natural land- cal area as nonmetropolitan if it had 2% or more of
scape, relatively little attention has been paid to ag- its employed labor force commuting to central metro-
riculture’s urban dimensions or to the social, politan counties. When the farm population was first
economic, and ecological portents relative to the ag- enumerated in 1880, it included 21.9 million people,
ricultural industry. In addition to clarifying terms approximately 44% of the total U.S. population. Both
such as metropolitan and nonmetropolitan, urban, the farm population and its proportion of the total
urban fringe, farm, and rural, this report provides population declined every decade in the 1900s. In
geographical, demographic, and historical back- 1991, the farm population was 4.6 million, or approx-
ground on imately 1.9% of the total U.S. population. Most of the
• patterns of change in U.S. agriculture and their twentieth century was dominated by two demographic
urban relevance; trends:
• demographic changes in U.S. society that charac- • nonmetropolitan growth occurred because of nat-
terize the rural-urban interface; and ural increases in the population, and
• the socioeconomic features of agriculture in con- • the number of people leaving nonmetropolitan ar-
temporary rural and urban areas. eas exceeded the number entering those areas.

Data are presented to show that agriculture in ur-

ban or metropolitan areas is significant with regard The Scope of Urban Agriculture
to the landscape that it occupies, the jobs that it pro-
vides, and the level of gross farm sales that it earns Examining agriculture through changes in metro-
when compared with agriculture in rural or nonmet- politan and nonmetropolitan county data suggests
ropolitan areas. For example, contributions to agri- that our beliefs about where farming occurs, and what
culture from within metropolitan areas are substan- it contributes, may not be totally accurate. For ex-
tially greater than those from nonmetropolitan areas ample, since 1978, metropolitan counties have had the
for total employment in industry and gross sales of largest average and median number of farms. In
particular commodities, such as fruits, nuts and ber- 1997, metropolitan counties accounted for over one-
ries, hay and silage, cotton, and dairy and related half of all agricultural employment compared with
products. nonmetropolitan counties. Also in 1997, metropoli-
8 Urban and Agricultural Communities: Opportunities for Common Ground

tan and nonadjacent, nonmetropolitan counties aver-

aged $108 million and $112 million in gross farm
Agriculture’s Benefits to the
sales, respectively, compared with $89 million by ad- Urbanizing Society
jacent, nonmetropolitan counties. Agriculture makes major economic and social con-
Except in the central Great Plains, much of U.S. tributions to both urban and rural areas. Some con-
agriculture occurs in counties defined as “urban in- tributions are direct, as in the case of production and
fluenced” (within statistical metropolitan counties or marketing of products and services. Other contribu-
adjacent counties). These areas contain much of the tions, such as farmers’ markets, community support-
nation’s most productive agriculture and grow most ed agriculture, landscape design, construction, and
of the food: 79% of U.S. fruit, 68% of vegetables, and nursery services are indirect, and therefore more dif-
52% of dairy products are produced in urban-influ- ficult to document. Less tangible benefits come from
enced counties. Between 1978 and 1997, metropoli- improved individual mental and physical health and
tan counties’ share of the total value of crop sales rose community vitality. Landscape design and subse-
from 38.9% to 42.2%. This gain in metropolitan crop quent plant installations are both a service and a ben-
sales is attributed partially to assigning metropolitan efit. Community food systems and community gar-
status in 1993 to counties that may not have been dens benefit the local economy as well as individual
metropolitan in 1978 or in the years that followed. and community health. This report highlights urban
Nevertheless, metropolitan counties led other coun- agriculture’s business and economic contributions and
ties in total crop sales for fruits/nuts/berries, nursery/ its benefits to individual and community health and
greenhouse, and vegetables/sweet corn/melons in each well-being.
of the past five censuses. The metropolitan counties
led in sales for hay/silage/field seeds in all census
years except 1978 and for cotton/cottonseed in all cen-
sus years except 1997.
Recreation and Leisure
Large segments of the recreation and leisure indus-
try are related directly to products and services of tra-
Agriculture’s Service Role ditional and urban agriculture activities. Agricultural
services today support a variety of educational, rec-
Understanding agroecosystem functions and main- reational, and leisure pursuits including gardening,
taining biodiversity within the system are important golfing, hiking, equestrian activities, wildlife viewing,
for getting the most benefit from the system. Many
agricultural activities can alter a highly interdepen-
dent agroecosystem. Consequently, agriculture can
help to replenish and sustain agroecosystems and the
subsequent agroecosystem services that benefit urban
populations. When well planned and properly inte-
grated into the urban environment, open space or
natural areas (as opposed to built-up areas) provide
valuable agroecosystem services to the community.
Selected examples of agroecosystem services for
which agricultural sciences can contribute knowledge
and expertise include storm water management,
wastewater remediation, waste recycling, phytoreme-
diation, carbon sequestration, soil retention and fer-
tility, appropriate pesticide and fertilizer use (Figure
S.4), and remediation of brownfields. These services Figure S.4. Researchers in Arizona spray a mix of common liq-
are a valuable part of the rural-urban agricultural uid dishwashing detergent and cooking oil that kills
sweet potato whiteflies, as well as several common
system. Some of these services require further re- home garden pests. Photo by Jack Dykinga, Agri-
search to perfect their application to issues of urban- cultural Research Service, U.S. Department of Agri-
ization. culture, Beltsville, Maryland.
Executive Summary 9

bird watching, and visits to tourist attractions and communities, observe and experience the impacts of
scenic areas such as zoos, public parks, and botani- population growth on a daily basis.
cal gardens (Figure S.5). Many of these activities con- According to American Farmland Trust, between
tribute significantly to local economies. In addition, 1982 and 1992 every state in the United States lost
an increasing number of traditional farm businesses valuable farmland to development; during that peri-
are diversifying their operations to attract visitors for od, 29% of the agricultural land converted to urban
educational, recreational, and leisure activities. The use was prime agricultural land. The revised 1997
report illustrates agriculture’s contributions to recre- National Resources Inventory (NRI), using a more
ation, leisure, and tourism industries. It identifies expansive definition of land used for urban and built-
new chances for economic diversification of traditional up purposes, indicated that land conversion acceler-
farm production businesses; highlights the interde- ated dramatically in the early 1990s. Between 1982
pendency between urban and nonurban populations and 1997 the annual conversion rate was 1.2 million
with regard to tourism, recreation, and leisure activ- acres (a.) per year. During the period from 1992 to
ities; and reinforces the value of partnerships between 1997, however, the conversion rate had increased to
nonurban and urban areas to foster mutually benefi- 2.2 million a. per year. The addition of roads and other
cial educational, recreational, and tourism opportu- transportation methods further expands the number
nities. of acres. The NRI-developed area increased from 73.2
million a. in 1982 to 87 million a. in 1992 and to 98.2
million a. in 1997.
Policy and Institutional Public authority to intervene in land markets and
Dimensions of Urban Agriculture decisions on the private use and ownership of land
largely resides with state and local government units.
Population growth and a desire for urban-fringe or Farmland falls in the center of the often-contested
rural living have fueled public interest in land man- private and common interests in land. Public inter-
agement policy. Community meetings, media fea- est in farmland is not well embraced by most private
tures, and funded research are bringing attention to landowners, including farmers and ranchers. The
issues such as sprawl, smart growth, open space con- current economic environment does little to foster the
servation, and farmland protection. The future of continuation of small farms, to promote sustainable
agriculture, especially on the urban fringe, is often farming practices, or to discourage the sale of farm-
situated squarely in the middle of heated debates on land for uses that are detrimental to the environment
these aforementioned issues Most people who live in or to surrounding communities. This is an ongoing
rapidly growing urban areas, or in attractive rural and frequently debated issue. Congress passed the
Farmland Protection Policy Act in 1981. Unfortunate-
ly, the U.S. Department of Agriculture did not imple-
ment the act for many years, and the legislation did
not provide financial assistance to state or local gov-
ernments for farmland protection programs. The act
did require federal agencies to identify any adverse
effects their programs might have on farmland pro-
tection and minimize the extent to which such pro-
grams induce unnecessary farmland conversions.

Regulatory Programs
A number of tools and techniques, each of which
has strengths and limitations, are in place to protect
farmland. Generally, the best programs combine reg-
Figure S.5. Visitors to the Chicago Botanic Garden enjoy a sum-
mer day in the English Oak Meadow. Photo by
ulatory and incentive-based strategies. This report
Joanne Dahlberg, courtesy of the Chicago Botanic discusses both types. Regulatory programs include
Garden, Glencoe, Illinois. agricultural protection zoning and comprehensive
10 Urban and Agricultural Communities: Opportunities for Common Ground

planning. Incentive programs include agriculture tax knowledge of community food systems and com-
programs, right-to-farm laws, agricultural districts, munities’ cooperation in goal setting; for using
purchase of development rights, transfer of develop- urban agriculture as a tool to improve public
ment rights (sometimes referred to as purchase of knowledge of the issues and to make communi-
agricultural conservation easement programs), and ties more livable; for financial incentives and rev-
private land trusts. enue-generating opportunities in rural and urban
A number of political realities confront U.S. public entrepreneurial agriculture; and for awareness
policy for agricultural land protection. Using only and use of existing research resources.
police power (zoning) has had limited success in pro- 2. Public Policy Initiatives. Relatively little U.S.
tecting and regulating farmland use. Agricultural policy addresses agricultural relationships in
landowners, particularly active farmers, typically both metropolitan and rural areas. Important
voice support for farmland protection; however, they policy-related issues fall into the categories of
most often endorse programs that are voluntary and land use, food systems, and development of hu-
that provide financial incentives for owners who man capital. Land use includes analysis of alter-
choose to participate. Consequently, most state and native policy instruments, documentation of de-
local farmland protection programs have stressed cision-making behavior, spatial land-use models
voluntary and incentive-based programs in their de- for policy design, and role clarification for levels
sign. This report suggests a number of initiatives of government. Food systems policies need to ad-
concerning agricultural and land-use policy to accom- dress food access, public education, and research;
modate more sustainable urban growth patterns; establishment of food policy councils; food system
needed areas of farmland protection research; and the sustainability; diversified systems of production,
roles of various levels of government, higher educa- distribution, and use of links between customers
tion, and stakeholders in agricultural land protection. (eaters) and farmers (producers); and improved
monitoring of consumption patterns of disadvan-
taged populations. Human capital development
New Visions for Urban Agriculture needs policies to ensure a new generation of ag-
riculturists who can interact successfully with the
This report by the Council for Agricultural Science urbanizing society and to assist young agricultur-
and Technology (CAST) presents agriculture in a new ists with access to capital.
light. It identifies agriculture’s current role in an 3. Higher Education Initiatives. Higher educa-
urbanizing society, frames agriculture’s contributions tion has a timely opportunity to respond to urban
to the needs of a growing urban population, and pro- agriculture in several ways: through the devel-
vides insights as to how agricultural thinking must opment of curricula in urban agriculture and the
adapt to meet future societal needs. Opportunities rural-urban agroecosystem; establishment of ru-
are identified for urban leaders and decision makers ral-urban outreach and extension teams; and
who can benefit by partnering with those from non- monitoring, analyzing, and supporting communi-
urban areas to resolve complex environmental, ty food systems. More emphasis probably should
health, safety, nutritional, social, and economic prob- be directed to protection of farmland and open
lems. Recommendations are offered concerning need- space, and in doing so, maintaining stakeholder
ed changes in the agriculture system, higher educa- neutrality and balance. Bridge building between
tion and research, and various levels of government. urban and rural constituents should be a high
The extensive documentation of today’s urban ag- priority; this will require professional develop-
riculture presented in this report suggests five impor- ment for faculty and staff on urban agriculture
tant initiatives within which agriculture can play a issues and the rural-urban agroecosystem. Work
significant role: comprehensive planning, public pol- in this complex area will necessitate careful plan-
icy, higher education, research, and partnerships and ning to share resources, identify funding, and
collaboration. build new partnerships
1. Comprehensive Planning Initiatives. There 4. Research Initiatives. More science-based in-
is need for greater public support and under- formation is needed to assist with the design and
standing of the rural-urban agroecosystem; for in- management of contemporary urban agriculture.
tegration of agriculture into long-term, compre- Some topics of importance include plant adapt-
hensive rural and urban planning; for expanded ability and production systems, urban soils, wa-
Executive Summary 11

ter management, and pest management. Re- tion of the contribution of agriculture are identified
search is needed on entrepreneurial products, farm- in this report: (1) comprehensive planning, (2) public
land preservation, and the social and economic di- policy, (3) higher education, (4) research, and (5) part-
mensions of the rural-urban agroecosystem. nerships and collaboration. For each category, the
5. Partnerships and Collaboration Initiatives. report suggests actions that could enhance problem-
If agriculture is to survive in an urbanizing soci- solving and planning activities.
ety, albeit in a different form, partnerships be- Comprehensive planning for sustainability of ru-
tween traditional agricultural groups and urban ral-urban agroecosystems should include both eco-
interest groups will be imperative. Partnerships nomic and resource (human and natural) availabili-
and coalitions can play a crucial role in solving ty and replenishment. Without integrating the
problems and creating new opportunities, espe- often-competitive needs of both urban and rural ar-
cially given the complexity and multidimension- eas, however, outcomes frequently lack the elements
al issues of urban agriculture. Two of the great- that may contribute to regional competitive advan-
est needs are to broaden the mix of partners and tage and problem-solving capacity.
to bring rural people and urban-oriented groups Only in cooperation with other partners can agri-
together around issues such as community food culture help to resolve the challenges facing a rapid-
systems, community greening, wildlife habitat, ly urbanizing society. Although their sources may
and watershed protection. Universities will be differ, many of the problems facing rural and urban
important participants in these collaborations subsectors of our society have similar impacts. Suc-
and should encourage active involvement of fac- cessful response and cost-effective use of resources
ulty in urban agriculture. Cooperative extension will require joint planning, problem solving, and cost
personnel need to address urban agriculture is- sharing. It is incumbent on all partners to recognize
sues in partnership with urban leaders and plan- that each partner brings valuable contributions and,
ners, to facilitate linkages between rural and ur- simultaneously, derives mutual benefits.
ban interests, and to build coalitions. Higher Agriculture must be redefined in the context of
education and government will need to develop urbanization. The wealth of knowledge associated
creative funding strategies to support the new with the agricultural sciences can be put to valuable
urban agriculture agenda. This development will use in helping to meet the challenges of urbanization.
open new possibilities to cooperate with industry, Together, rural and urban communities have the po-
state and federal agencies, legislators, business tential to create a situation beneficial to both, based
leaders, and nonprofit organizations to stimulate on their unique resources and experiences. This sit-
entrepreneurial profit-sharing models as well as uation will come about only with proactive leadership,
to test new models for distance learning and pro- shared resources, creative policy options, and a will-
fessional development. ingness to work together. Land-grant universities,
industry, traditional agricultural interest groups, and
Conclusions urban partners—such as metropolitan educational in-
stitutions, city leaders, and urban planners—will
Five domains for collaborative urban-rural problem need to work together to embrace change and provide
solving with a broadened perspective and apprecia- a new and exciting future for everyone.
12 Urban and Agricultural Communities: Opportunities for Common Ground

1 Introduction

This report is designed to provide guidance to pol- fish; and the communities in which we live. All of
icymakers, planners, educational leaders, and diverse these components can be important to both rural and
agricultural interest groups as they seek to address urban areas. In addition, many city dwellers have
the needs and interests of rural and urban communi- undertaken food production and community beauti-
ties. It proposes ways in which agriculture can make fication programs of their own, or in groups. Even
significant contributions to tough issues such as ur- traditional rural commodity production has found a
ban growth, environmental protection, and human place in urban and suburban areas. And even this
and community health. It offers suggestions on how description of the activities associated with agricul-
to build positive interfaces between rural and urban ture neglects the many roles that agriculture plays
people to create a better society for everyone. in people’s personal and civic lives: for example, com-
The central goal of this report is to broaden the per- munity gardening, therapeutic riding, companion
ception of agriculture beyond its traditional rural animal rearing, horticultural therapy, and the culture
roots and commodity production focus. Enormous of farmers’ markets.
changes are occurring in and around metropolitan Any attempt to expand the concept of agriculture
areas (MAs), smaller cities, and in rural communities. will be somewhat controversial; it is, therefore, impor-
A crucial need exists to meld the interests of rural and tant to explore the possible sources of disagreement
urban people to create a situation in which rural and and misunderstanding. In part, this is a symbolic
urban areas work cooperatively towards common in- issue. The sharp distinction between urban and ru-
terests and goals. Technology and long-distance com- ral areas is a recurring theme throughout U.S. histo-
muting are merging what once were thought of as ry. Town and country are often thought to represent
contrasting urban and rural values. In addition, mi- contrasting values and lifestyles. In part, it is a mat-
gration and new immigrant populations are chang- ter of the way that definitions of rural, urban, and
ing the face of both rural and urban areas. This is an agriculture are woven into legal and governance
appropriate time to expand the ways in which agri- structures. Power and money are at stake. Power is
culture and its contributions to future societal needs at stake because farmers, farm groups, and politicians
are viewed. representing agricultural districts and special inter-
Urban agriculture is a phrase that seems contrived, ests have established relationships with legislative
almost an oxymoron. Views of agriculture are not the agricultural committees, state and federal depart-
same for everyone. Agriculture is a word often asso- ments of agriculture, and state and federal agencies
ciated with the production of food and fiber commod- regulating farm production. Urban constituents have
ities such as corn, cotton, wheat, soybeans, beef, dairy, done the same. Money is at stake because these terms
poultry, pork, and eggs. Such production takes place are written into laws and court decisions that have
mostly in the countryside, outside urban areas. Yet consequences for property rights, entitlements, and
if one considers activities that are conducted and reg- regulations. For example, agricultural land receives
ulated by federal and state departments of agricul- tax abatements in all states. The redefinition of any
ture, or research and educational activities in agri- key terms could destabilize power relationships or
cultural colleges and research institutes, agriculture financial preferences. People who think that they
can be defined in a much broader way. This broader might lose or gain from such changes are very atten-
definition includes grasses, flowers, and all types of tive to the definitions of farm and nonfarm.
small-scale greenhouse production; horses; aquacul- There are other money matters that may not be as
ture; pest control measures, including those for ro- evident to casual observers. In most states, for ex-
dents and insects; forestry and wildlife management; ample, research and teaching about basic food com-
the food that we eat such as fruits, vegetables, and modity production and turf management for parks

12
Introduction 13

and golf courses are conducted at state agricultural wealth, policies, lifestyles, and goods and services that
universities. Similarly, state agencies overseeing frequently originate in urban centers. Through the
pesticide use divide their time between farmers and sheer power of the urban marketplace and the politi-
structural pest control companies. When funding for cal sector, much of the future of rural areas is tied to
these activities is fixed, doing more to serve urban the urban system. The mutual needs of both rural and
people who enjoy parks or have their homes sprayed urban people frequently overlap (e.g., at farmers’
for insect pests may mean that these organizations markets, shopping centers, restaurants, health care
do less for farmers. When representatives of univer- and various service facilities, schools and universities,
sities or state agencies start talking about urban ag- and recreation and tourism outlets).
riculture, farmers can become nervous. Rarely is at- Today, agriculture is found in both rural and ur-
tention paid to the partnerships that may benefit both ban areas, although in differing forms and intensities,
groups. and often in response to differing demands and oppor-
Historically and culturally, the concepts of farm- tunities. Unlike the agriculture of the past, today’s
ing and agriculture are synonymous. The intensifi- agricultural system and its many diverse components
cation of capital and energy use has meant, however, (food, fiber, technology, remediation, conservation,
that agribusiness steadily has become a more impor- and human recreational and consumption activities)
tant part of U.S. agriculture (Schusky 1989). Thus, are embedded in an interconnected political, econom-
today’s agriculture is defined more broadly than farm- ic, cultural, and ecological system driven largely by
ing. It has at least five major components: urban leaders and urban organizations. Agriculture
is a common denominator connecting both rural and
1. It includes the development and manufacture of urban areas. It contributes to food availability, rec-
biotechnologies, agrichemicals, mechanical equip- reation and tourism, waste recycling, and scenic
ment, and other technologies that enhance pro- amenities. Similarly, it competes with urban areas
duction capabilities, increase product safety, and for resources such as water, land, and energy. Agri-
improve product quality. culture always has altered our relationships with the
2. It includes conservation and preservation enter- environment. When it is carried out in close proxim-
prises aimed at sustaining and remediating nat- ity to other people, it can produce both positive and
ural resources and promoting eco-recreation and negative effects on the community and natural re-
agritourism. sources.
3. It includes creating and effectively managing
functional, attractive landscapes that enhance the
urban environment and make cities more livable. The Rural-Urban Agroecosystem
4. It involves the producing, gathering, processing,
and marketing of food, fiber, ornamental plants, Rural and urban areas are interdependent compo-
and forest products for human and nonhuman nents of the U.S. society, which is becoming increas-
consumers. ingly urban. Considering the changes occurring in
5. It embraces activities of people and organizations both agriculture and MAs, scientists contend that
that produce, disseminate, and/or use agricultur- both rural and metropolitan environments are one
ally related information for decision-making pur- comprehensive agroecosystem in which the compo-
poses and for public education. nent parts are mutually dependent and synergistical-
ly tied to each other. The earth’s ecosystems consist
In the last decade, more attention has been paid of biological and natural processes providing a wide
to the role of the customer or user of products and ser- range of benefits to human society. These benefits
vices because the customer influences demand and include food, fiber, and other products; recreational
public policy, thus affecting community health and opportunities; and services such as clean water,
quality-of-life issues. The urban share or contribu- healthy soil, and erosion control (Clark, Jorling, and
tion to many of these diverse agricultural components Merrell 1999; Wood, Sebastian, and Scherr 2000).
has not been documented well. For the purposes of this report, the rural-urban
Rural and urban lives no longer represent contrast- agroecosystem is a biological and natural resources
ing styles and values. Urban and rural people want system managed jointly by rural and urban people (1)
access to a similar quality of life and to comparable to provide services to the environment and commu-
amenities. Both sectors are connected through nity, (2) to generate direct and indirect business (in-
14 Urban and Agricultural Communities: Opportunities for Common Ground

The Rural – Urban Agroecosystem Business

Entrepreneurship

Environmental
Economic Restoration &
Vitality Remediation
Rural
Agricultural Common Urban Agriculture’s
Core Activities:
Subsystem Ground Agricultural Production
Subsystem Processing
Marketing
Services Distribution
Consumption Community Health
(ecosystem, business) & Well-Being

The Urbanizing Society

Landscape Individual Health &
Beautification Well-Being
Figure 1.1. Understanding the functionality of the rural-urban
agroecosystem within an urbanizing society can be
helpful in establishing how parts interact with each Figure 1.2. Today’s urban agriculture system is a complex sys-
other and areas of common ground to ensure the tem composed of a central core of activities along
health of the whole society, including the total agri- with a wide variety of services and outcomes that
cultural system. support the total population.

cluding food production and marketing) and health economy to our children and children’s children. He
benefits for society as a whole, and (3) to contribute stated, “At stake is ‘intergenerational equity,’ the
recreation and leisure outlets for an urbanizing soci- well-being of the next generations who are depend-
ety (Figure 1.1). ing on us to make the right choices today” (Horne
The concept of the rural-urban agroecosystem may 2001, 249). Any discussion of sustainable agriculture
help us understand the organizational complexity of is inadequate, however, if it does not include an ap-
the total agricultural system and the way in which preciation and understanding of the relation between
all parts interact with each other and with the total agriculture and the nonfarm population, or the rural-
system. Whether problems such as sprawl, loss of urban agroecosystem.
farmland, pollution, or water availability and uses are
considered, the interactions among economic, environ-
mental, and human factors provide useful insights
about influential networks, relations between issues,
Urban Agriculture Defined
and locations of problem-solving resources. Innova- For the purposes of this report, urban agriculture
tive solutions to complex but interrelated problems will be defined as a complex system encompassing a
can be articulated more clearly when viewed as a spectrum of interests, from a traditional core of ac-
whole and have the potential to produce more effec- tivities associated with production, processing, mar-
tive solutions. The synergy associated with the whole keting, distribution, and consumption, to a multiplic-
system can generate more clout, more excitement, ity of other benefits and services that are less widely
more creativity, and more resources. acknowledged and documented. These include rec-
The ultimate goal of the rural-urban agroecosys- reation and leisure activities, economic vitality and
tem is to develop a self-sustaining system for future business entrepreneurship, individual health and
generations. The agricultural system should not be well-being, community health and well-being, land-
viewed by itself. The sustainability of the total eco- scape beautification, and environmental restoration
system is dependent on the relation between agricul- and remediation. The complexity of today’s urban
ture and rural and urban populations, and on under- agriculture system is illustrated in Figure 1.2.
standing the needs and contributions of each in
sustaining the whole ecosystem. James Horne, pres-
ident of the Kerr Center for Sustainable Agriculture,
in a discussion of sustainable agriculture, questioned
Objectives
the ethics of passing on a degraded resource base, an This report has five primary objectives:
agriculture that does not work, and a deteriorating 1. to broaden the understanding of what agriculture
Introduction 15

is in an urbanizing society; ferson and Franklin. It passed the Homestead Act,

2. to identify opportunities for urban and agricultur- encouraging westward migration for people who
al constituencies to work cooperatively toward would domesticate the wilderness by farming. It cre-
common goals; ated the land grant university (LGU) system as a way
3. to document the contributions and/or services to ensure that the farm population and the working
that agriculture provides to both rural and urban classes enjoyed the benefits of education. It later
sectors; added federally funded programs of research and out-
reach to provide technical assistance to farmers.
4. to stimulate broad debate and discussion about Railroads were encouraged to provide farmers with
program and policy directions and priorities per- access to markets, and many midwestern states built
taining to agriculture in an urbanizing society; their economies on meat, milk, and grain.
and Of course, these activities also allowed the United
5. to propose ways in which contemporary agricul- States to develop great cities and industries. Build-
ture, with other partners, can help society meet ing the railroads may have been understood as help-
the challenges associated with urbanization. ing the farmers, but doing so required a steel indus-
try and a huge commitment of labor to the task of
clearing grade and laying track. Once built, the rail-
Historical Context of Agriculture roads meant that food could be delivered cheaply to
workers in the manufacturing centers growing on the
Agriculture traditionally has been thought of as ru- East Coast. Furthermore, the food system itself came
ral in place and occupation. This is so partly because to be much more than farming. To move commodi-
early societies were preoccupied with subsistence food ties, a transportation industry was required, and thus
production. To understand the bases for conflicting large companies to ship and to store grain were de-
opinions about the possible meanings and interpre- veloped, as well as those to build and to service the
tations of the phrase urban agriculture, it will be use- necessary infrastructure. Of course, food had to be
ful to examine the history of attitudes about farms and delivered to consumers by grocers and later by res-
cities, how the social context of agriculture changed taurateurs. Farming itself came to depend on equip-
throughout the twentieth century, and what the re- ment manufacturers and seed and chemical compa-
alities are today. nies. Although U.S. residents thought of theirs as an
City and country have represented contrasting val- agrarian society, all these activities to help the farm-
ues and lifestyles in many human societies, and es- er, farm, and factory actually constituted a symbiotic
pecially in the European tradition. For much of Eu- relation leading to the growth of an overwhelmingly
ropean history, country life has meant isolation. News urban nation. By the end of the twentieth century,
came slowly, if at all, and the circle of associates for few U.S. residents had worked on a farm. Some had
country people was somewhat narrow. In contrast, never seen one.
city life presented more opportunity for commerce and Urban agriculture is an underrecognized but sig-
interaction with a wider circle of people. City people nificant component of agriculture that is multidimen-
were thought to be more sophisticated, better educat- sional in its functions and contributions. One aspect
ed, and wiser to the ways of the world. Cities were of urban agriculture includes the producing, process-
crowded, however; sanitation often was poor; and ing, marketing, and consuming or using of food, fiber,
crime could be pervasive. Country life was healthi- ornamental plants, and services. Many of these ac-
er, especially for the poor, and country folk were tivities occur within urban and urban-fringe areas.
thought to be more virtuous. These realities of the Urban agriculture also includes a myriad of social and
distant past became the basis for stereotypes that economic services and activities associated with rec-
continue to influence ideas of city and country today. reation, leisure, tourism, health care, and mainte-
Agriculture has played an especially significant nance. Agribusinesses and the conservation and pres-
role in U.S. history. Founding fathers such as Tho- ervation sectors are composed of such things as tools
mas Jefferson and Benjamin Franklin thought that and equipment sales and services, irrigation design
the new nation, by emphasizing agriculture, would and installation, input supply, retail sales, product de-
avoid the horrors, pitfalls, and injustices they saw in velopment, remediation, education, and information.
eighteenth-century Europe. Throughout the nine- They are major players in the total urban agricultur-
teenth century, the U.S. Congress undertook a num- al system. Similarly, the equine and aquaculture in-
ber of initiatives to extend the original vision of Jef- dustries, which are both recreational and major agri-
16 Urban and Agricultural Communities: Opportunities for Common Ground

businesses, often are overlooked as contributors to the tensive agriculture, with its farms raising mainly
agricultural sector. This report addresses the social wheat and corn; beyond it the zone of livestock and
and demographic factors contributing to urban agri- lumber production; and beyond it the zone of hunt-
culture, its geographic patterns across the United ers, where fast disappearing game species were
States, and its structural characteristics in urban opening new niches for cattle, to say nothing of
areas. farmers, miners, lumbermen. Each element of this
In his powerful book Nature’s Metropolis, William new market geography had its roots in the origi-
Cronon (1991) wrote of the complex and intricate link- nal ecosystems that had assigned pine trees to the
ages growing between city and country during the north woods and bison to the Great Plains. But
second half of the 1800s. Although his focus was on each was no less affected by its distance from the
Chicago and the Great West, his account of the struc- city and its ability to pay the transport costs of get-
ture of agriculture and urban expansion contained ting there (Cronon 1991, 266).
important vignettes of social and economic change Over the years, much scholarly interest has exist-
applicable to the entire U.S. landscape. He spoke of ed in exploring the transformation and the structure
how technology changed agricultural production, as of agriculture and the natural landscape (Hallberg,
well as the transporting, processing, and marketing Spitze, and Ray 1994). This process, however, has
of food and fiber in regional urban centers. He point- largely ignored the social, economic, and ecological
ed to the eventual transformation of a once predomi- portents of the urban dimension relative to those of
nantly agrarian society to a more urban one with con- the agricultural industry. Cronon’s insights raise
sumer demands for greater and more specialized three questions: What is the historical pattern of
goods and services. change in U.S. agriculture, and its urban relevance?
Cronon (1991) made several key distinctions in Na- What recent demographic changes in U.S. society
ture’s Metropolis. One distinction was between farm- have occurred that characterize the rural-urban in-
ing and agribusiness: farming was at one time almost terface? What are the socioeconomic features of ag-
synonymous with agriculture, but over time agricul- riculture in contemporary rural and urban areas in
ture became more complex, differentiated, and spe- the United States?
cialized. Farming per se became only one component Answers to all three questions require that partic-
of an agricultural industry in which the production ular concepts be defined to provide a clear basis for
and processing of food and fiber became economical- discussion and assimilation of ideas. A specific time
ly and geographically separated in the United States. period must be established to frame the evolution of
Farm produce increasingly was graded for quality and change. Thus, the use of a standard geographical unit
differentiated as commodities for demanding consum- of study and the assumption that a heterogeneous
er and investment markets. Although commodities distribution of urban agriculture characteristics ex-
are grown on farms, they generally are graded at ur- ists in a community are required.
ban centers. As noted elsewhere in this report, a sec- The United States has a history of geographical,
ond distinction for Cronon was simply between rural demographic, and economic expansion. Agriculture
and urban life. The process of rural people’s sending played an important part in sustaining that expan-
grain, lumber, and livestock to urban centers in re- sion. Farming and farms defined rural life and rural
turn for exotic materials and a variety of merchan- communities for decades. Indeed, as the U.S. popu-
dise exemplified the linkage and mutual dependency lation shifted from residing and working in rural ar-
between these two sectors. Finally, Cronon distin- eas to urban areas, the public romanticized rural ar-
guished an ecological and spatial hierarchy between eas and farming by associating them with images of
“cores” and “peripheries.” The growth of urban cen- individual autonomy, nurturing family life, and com-
ters was but one of many expressions of the new mar- munity spirit. In short, it created the “rural myth”
ket system, which involved geographical flows of re- (Goldman and Dickens 1983) that agriculture is sim-
sources, capital, and credit between large urban ply farming and that farming is a rural phenomenon,
metroplexes and small rural communities. Reflect- a myth in which many continue to believe. Although
ing on the ecological hierarchy, Cronin noted the fol- agriculture continues to contribute to U.S. economic
lowing: prominence in the world, agriculture is not simply
Beyond the central city lay the zone of intensive ag- farming. The available statistics document primari-
riculture, filled with orchards, market gardens, ly gross sales of agricultural commodities. This prac-
dairy farms, and feedlots; beyond it the zone of ex- tice clearly overlooks the many other economic and
Introduction 17

social components of agriculture that generate both ral and urban sectors. Agriculture can be a resource
tangible and intangible values for an urbanizing so- for civic leaders and planners challenged by issues of
ciety. Agriculture’s many contributions are not con- sprawl, vacant city lots, public desire for safe and
fined to rural areas. They are an integral part of the healthy local food, and improved quality of life. It is
rural-urban agroecosystem. a continual struggle for urban and urban-edge farm-
Demographic and economic data show that when ers to hold on to fertile land in the face of high land-
compared with rural or nonmetropolitan agriculture, values, inflated taxes, and misunderstandings with
urban—or metropolitan—agriculture (see Back- neighbors. Litigation and miscommunication can di-
ground and Situation section, page 18) is significant vide farmers and their nonfarm neighbors. Yet an
in terms of the landscape it occupies, the jobs it pro- array of possibilities exists for applying current
vides, and the level of gross farm sales it earns. If all knowledge to the resolution of urban environmental
agriculture’s contributions were quantified within and community problems. Examples include low-
MAs, urban agriculture’s contributions would be sub- maintenance landscaping for water conservation, for-
stantially greater. Contemporary agricultural partic- est and horticulture landscape management for de-
ipants (producers, marketers, service providers, con- creasing noise and air pollution and personal stress,
sumers, and others) include both rural and urban habitat restoration for water quality and public rec-
people, who face similar economic, natural, and safe- reation, and community-supported food systems for
ty risks. The economic crisis affecting farming dur- improving community goodwill and business profit-
ing the 1980s, the more recent restructuring of farm ability. The experience of LGUs in strengthening
policy, and the increased global competition certain- community vitality could be applied to local food and
ly have contributed to the increasing decline in the landscape initiatives for enhancing the natural envi-
number of farm operations. But there has never been ronment and stimulating entrepreneurship.
a farm policy, a rural policy, or a metropolitan policy Neither civic nor educational leaders can ignore
that includes the cross-cutting dimensions of urban their responsibilities to help create a livable, sustain-
agriculture. To ensure benefits to all participants, able society for all. Whereas it is impossible to resolve
broad-based planning partnerships and inclusive pol- environmental and community problems alone, much
icies must be encouraged. Agricultural participants can be accomplished together. A holistic approach
in metropolitan counties may have weathered such suggests the value of addressing the total socioeco-
conditions better than producers elsewhere, especially nomic and ecological system rather than limiting at-
those in nonadjacent, nonmetropolitan counties. His- tention to a few components. The agricultural world
tory suggests that because agricultural participants is a crucial part of the whole. It is a subsystem com-
in metropolitan states were closer to larger and more posed of interrelated human, economic, ecological, and
diverse economies, they had the advantage of attain- biological forces (Figure 1.3). In community problem
ing alternative sources of off-farm employment and solving, each part is crucial to the whole. This report
entrepreneurial links to consumers. Much still is attempts to describe further a new agricultural sys-
unknown, however, about their operational character- tem and to identify opportunities for agriculture to
istics, their niches in local and regional economies, contribute to an urbanizing society. This report also
and changing customer demands in metropolitan and encourages civic leaders, planners, and institutions
surrounding areas. Agriculture’s contributions to of higher education to join forces to resolve the many
metropolitan or urban areas are discussed in the chap- challenges facing both rural and urban communities.
ters that follow. Central to this process is the importance of broad
public debate and discussion about potential policies
and programs able to contribute to a beneficial situa-
Agriculture Represents an tion for everyone, regardless of where they live.
This report is directed to (1) policymakers and plan-
Opportunity ners at all levels of government, (2) administrators
Urban agriculture represents an opportunity for and staff at educational institutions, and (3) diverse
greater social integration across differing experienc- agricultural interest groups (commodity, value-add-
es, perspectives, and demands, with the ultimate goal ed, alternative, consumer, environmental, etc.). Pol-
of a better society for everyone. Urban leaders, poli- icymakers and planners in metropolitan, suburban,
cymakers, and educational leaders can play an espe- and/or rural areas are central to this discussion in that
cially important role in building bridges between ru- issues of sprawl, environmental protection, business
18 Urban and Agricultural Communities: Opportunities for Common Ground

POTENTIALLY SHARED GOODS AND SERVICES

Restoration & Remediation
Ornamental Horticulture & Landscape Services
Education & Human Capital Development

Potential
Problems

Social/Human Social/Human
Forces Forces
Sprawl
RURAL URBAN
Economic Economic
Forces AGRICULTURAL AGRICULTURAL Forces

Pollution
SUBSYSTEM SUBSYSTEM
Ecological Ecological
Forces Forces

Water

Biological Biological
Forces Forces

Resource
Competition

Whole POTENTIALLY SHARED BENEFITS Whole

Rural-Urban Community & Individual Health Rural-Urban
Agroecosystem Business & Economics Agroecosystem

Figure 1.3. The rural-urban agroecosystem encompasses a series of shared problems, goods and services, and benefits. Although
the problems are not always common to all urban and rural agricultural communities, the examples show ways that goods
and services can be mutually beneficial.

sustainability, natural resource availability and allo- about exactly what and whom we are talking about.
cation, and livable communities are high on their In this report by the Council for Agricultural Science
agendas. As mentioned earlier, agricultural policies and Technology (CAST), the background of the terms
have treated economic development and community urban and metropolitan will be discussed, and sub-
development as synonymous, and urban areas as dis- sequently the terms will be used synonymously. Oc-
tinct from rural areas. This treatment has, at times, casionally, the terms urban edge and suburban will
pitted one group against the other. The challenge is be used. These terms are intended to have a similar
to shift the emphasis from fiscally oriented policies meaning.
to those accentuating community capacity building. The first U.S. agricultural census was taken in
Local people must generate their own changes in ways 1850, during a period of vast territorial expansion and
that mobilize local resources, entrepreneurship, inno- technological improvements in U.S. agriculture (Al-
vation, and social cohesion. brecht and Murdock 1990). In subsequent censuses,
the definition of farm changed several times yet con-
tinued to emphasize production operations involving
Background and Situation livestock, poultry, animal specialties, and their prod-
ucts, as well as crops, including fruits, and greenhouse
Over the years, many terms have been used to de- and nursery products.1 Land did not need to be a sin-
scribe rural and urban sectors and their locations: gle contiguous tract to comprise a farm but did have
these terms include metropolitan, urban, urban to be operated as a single economic enterprise, al-
fringe, suburban, city, rural, countryside, and periur- though some exceptions were allowed in the 1950s
ban. This array of terms has led to some confusion (USDC 1996). The definition for the 1974 and later
Introduction 19

censuses of agriculture referred to a farm as any place has competed often, however, with that between met-
from which $1,000 or more of agricultural products ropolitan area and nonmetropolitan area, terms de-
were sold, or normally would have been sold, during veloped by the Office of Management and Budget
the census year. This more recent definition stan- (OMB) in 1949.2 The difficulty with using these con-
dardizes the use of the term and provides a rationale cepts is that the empirical measure of urban-rural
for limiting a discussion of agriculture and demographic areas cuts across metropolitan and nonmetropolitan
changes to the last quarter of the twentieth century. areas, and the data for these areas generally do not
Thus far, the liberal use of the term urban misrep- correspond, as other government data do, to county
resents the conceptual and analytical variation that lines (Ricketts, Johnson-Webb, and Taylor 1998).3
exists with its application. Social scientists have long Moreover, social scientists have made refinements
debated the distinction between rural and urban and and provided special definitions such as rural fron-
its relevance for community life (Goodall, Kafadar, tiers to accommodate specific governmental policy and
and Tukey 1998; Wilkinson 1991). This distinction program objectives (Zelarney and Ciarlo 1999).4

1
The definition of a farm has included several criteria since the generally of territory contiguous to a central place and of at least
1850 census. From 1785 to 1860, no acreage requirement existed, 1,000 people/mile. Territory, population, and housing units not
but a minimum of $100 in sales of agricultural products was re- classified as urban are deemed rural, being places of fewer than
quired. From 1870 to 1890, the definition included any place of 2,500 inhabitants. A metropolitan area (MA) is a large-population
three or more acres involved in agricultural production. Places with nucleus of 50,000 or more people in addition to adjacent communi-
fewer than three acres were considered farms if they had a mini- ties with a high degree of economic and social integration with that
mum annual value of $500 in agricultural sales. In 1900, there nucleus. An MA also can be an urbanized area with a total popu-
were no acreage or minimum sales criteria. Cranberry marshes, lation of at least 100,000 (75,000 in New England). Residual ter-
greenhouses, and city dairies were included for the first time in the ritories, populations, and housing units located outside an MA are
definition if they required the full-time services of at least one per- referred to as nonmetropolitan. The Census and Office of Manage-
son. The definition from 1910 to 1920 became a minimum of three ment and Budget (OMB) distinguish other, larger units (e.g., con-
acres, with $250 or more in total value of sales, unless the individ- solidated and primary metropolitan statistical areas [MSAs]) based
ual operation required the full-time services of at least one person. on populations of one million or more.
The definition was unchanged, except for the deletion of the require- 3
The World Resources Institute (WRI) stated in a 1996 report
ment of a full-time person, from 1925 to 1945. In 1950 and 1954, a
that around the world the term urban area is synonymous with city
farm included any place of fewer than three acres if it had, or nor-
although the two terms are not the same. Urban is a statistical
mally would have had, sales of $150 or more in agricultural prod-
concept that differs in meaning from one country to the next, ac-
ucts during the census year. Places that began operating as farms
cording to a combination of criteria such as population density,
for the first time in 1954 also were included. Parcels operated by
political function, or predominant activity of the region. All cities
sharecroppers and tenant farms counted as separate farms even
are urban areas, but the converse is not always true. A city is a
though the landlord managed the whole holding as a single unit.
complex political, economic, and social center symbolizing, in some
Moreover, land retained and operated by the landlord was count-
sense, its nation’s identity. The WRI advises that comparisons of
ed as a separate farm unit. In censuses conducted from 1959 to
urban and city data can be misleading and that the available data
1969, the farm definition raised the acreage requirement to 10 acres
be treated as best estimates.
or more, with at least $50 or more in agricultural sales. A place of
4
fewer than 10 acres qualified as a farm if it had sales of $250 or The Economic Research Service (ERS) produced three other
more during the census year (USDC 1996). The current farm def- classification schemes. Similar to the Rural-Urban Continuum
inition for the 50 states differs in areal and sales criteria used in Codes, the Urban Influence Codes classify a county by size of the
censuses conducted in U.S. protectorates. Also, the United Nation’s cities within it and its proximity to larger metropolitan economies
Food and Agricultural Organization, which collects farm produc- and urban populations (Ghelfi and Parker 1995). This index has
tion data internationally, cautions that its indices may differ from two metropolitan and seven nonmetropolitan subclassifications.
those produced by the countries themselves because of differences The ERS also produced a rural county typology in 1979 (with a
in definitions of production, coverage, weights, and in concepts of revision in 1994) that identifies groups of nonmetropolitan coun-
time reference of data and methods of calculation (FAO 1999b). ties having similar economical and policy characteristics. Six over-
Such differences constrain comparisons of domestic and foreign lapping classifications are farming-dependent, mining-dependent,
farm production and other economic indicators. manufacturing-dependent, government-dependent, services-depen-
2 dent, and nonspecialized. Its five overlapping policy types are re-
The U.S. Census Bureau defines urban as comprising all ter-
tirement-destination, federal lands, commuting, persistent poverty,
ritory, population, and housing units in urbanized areas and in (1)
and transfer-dependent (Bender et al. 1985; Cook and Mizer 1994).
places of 2,500 or more persons incorporated as cities, villages,
Finally, the Goldsmith Rural Modification scheme improves the
boroughs, and towns (with exclusions in some states); (2) Census
definition of rural areas in metropolitan counties. It identifies ar-
Designated Places of 2,500 or more people; and (3) other incorpo-
eas in large MAs that are small town or open-country with no easy
rated or unincorporated territory in urbanized areas. An urban-
access to central areas (Goldsmith, Puskin, and Stiles 1993). Farm-
ized area has one or more central places and an adjacent densely
er (1997) summarizes some of the literature behind alternative
settled surrounding territory, or urban fringe, that contains a min-
measures of rural and rurality.
imum of 50,000 people (USDC 1991). The urban fringe consists
20 Urban and Agricultural Communities: Opportunities for Common Ground

Table 1.1. Metropolitan status of U.S. counties, 1970 to 1990, by size of population (000s)

1970 to 1980a 1980 to 1987b 1980 to 1990c

Status Counties Population Counties Population Counties Population

Metropolitan 651 148,433 739 171,573 834 176,028

All nonmetropolitan 2,458 53,769 2,369 53,560 2,277 49,148

Adjacent 974 27,896 1,081 30,956 1,002 26,901
Nonadjacent 1,484 25,872 1,288 22,602 1,275 22,247

Total 3,109 202,201 3,108 225,133 3,111 225,176

Missing Counties 3 4 0

aBased on 1975 metropolitan definition (Johnson 1989).

bBased on 1985 metropolitan definition (Johnson 1989).
cBased on 1993 metropolitan definition (Johnson and Beale 1994).

The U.S. Department of Agriculture’s (USDA) counties from the nonmetropolitan to the metropoli-
National Resources Inventory definition of urban and tan category as a result of using the most recent def-
built-up areas includes those measured by the Bureau inition of metropolitan instead of a former definition.
of the Census, as well as developed tracts of 10 acres Table 1.1 shows changes in the distribution of counties
or more (residential, industrial, commercial, and in- according to the definition of metropolitan from 1970
stitutional land), and tracts of 0.25 to 10 acres (con- to 1990, and according to the size of the population.
struction sites, public administration sites, railroad The Rural-Urban Continuum Codes are used in
yards, cemeteries, airports, etc.) that do not meet the this chapter. The codes, their descriptions, and the
definition of urban but are surrounded by urban and number of counties in each category appear in Table
built-up land. Compared with the Census Bureau’s 1.2, which shows U.S. counties based on the 1993 met-
definition of urban, the NRI includes more large-lot ropolitan definition. To facilitate comparisons of de-
development and developed land. The NRI’s devel- mographic and agricultural data, the authors of the
oped land includes urban and built-up areas and land current study took the nine-category scale and sim-
devoted to rural transportation (USDA-NRCS 1997c.) plified it into three categories: metropolitan (codes 0
Even the definition of metropolitan changed after to 3; n [number of counties] = 813), adjacent nonmet-
the introduction of the concept. The ERS placed coun- ropolitan (codes 4, 6, and 8; n = 989), and nonadja-
ties on a rural-to-urban continuum and subdivided cent metropolitan (codes 5, 7, and 9; n = 1,299).
OMB’s broad metropolitan and nonmetropolitan cat- Use of these codes has at least two identifiable
egories into four metropolitan and six nonmetropoli- weaknesses. First, the codes do not reveal rural and
tan subcategories in 1975. The scheme, officially urban population areas (as defined by the Census Bu-
known as the Rural-Urban Continuum Codes, was reau) that overlap metropolitan and nonmetropolitan
updated in 1983 and revised slightly in 1988 and counties. In the 1990s, there were 813 metropolitan
again in 1993. The latest revision applied the 1990 counties, 989 nonmetropolitan counties adjacent to
census count and defined a nonmetropolitan county metropolitan counties, and 1,299 nonadjacent, non-
as a county adjacent to a metropolitan statistical area metropolitan counties. Almost 14% of the metropoli-
(MSA) if it had 2% or more of its employed labor force tan counties also could be classified as having a mostly
commuting to central metropolitan counties (Butler rural population, and 37% of the nonmetropolitan
and Beale 1994). Each change resulted in a reclassi- counties had a mostly urban population (Ricketts,
fication due either to the number of counties catego-
rized as nonmetropolitan being absorbed by growing 5
MAs, or to former nonmetropolitan counties forming Standard definitions of MAs were first used in 1949 by the
Bureau of the Budget (the predecessor of the current Office of
entirely new MAs (Johnson 1989). Johnson and Beale Management and Budget). These areas were designated standard
(1994) pointed out that the choice of any of the met- metropolitan areas (SMAs). The term was changed during the early
ropolitan definitions for classifying counties is not 1980s to standard metropolitan statistical area (SMSA). Since
trivial. For example, they calculated a net shift of 92 1990, the OMB has used the collective term metropolitan area (MA).
Introduction 21

Table 1.2. Rural-Urban Continuum Codes, 1993 (Butler and Beale 1994)

Number
Codes Description of counties

Metropolitan 813
0 Central counties of metropolitan areas of 1 million population or more 167
1 Fringe counties of metropolitan areas of 1 million population or more 132
2 Counties in metropolitan areas of 250,000 to 1,000,000 population 315
3 Counties in metropolitan areas of less than 250,000 population 199

Nonmetropolitan 2,288
4 Urban population of 20,000 or more adjacent to a metropolitan area 133
5 Urban population of 20,000 or more not adjacent to a metropolitan area 113
6 Urban population of 2,500 to19,999 adjacent to a metropolitan area 608
7 Urban population of 2,500 to 19,999 not adjacent to a metropolitan area 654
8 Completely rural (no places with a population of 2,500 or more) adjacent to a metropolitan area 248
9 Completely rural (no places with a population of 2,500 or more) not adjacent to a metropolitan area 532
Total number of counties 3,101

Johnson-Webb, and Taylor 1998). These seemingly competition and costs increased. In 1991, the farm
inconsistent definitions of counties are part of the population was 4.6 million, or about 1.8% of the total
vagaries of the current Metropolitan Statistical Area U.S. population.
definition system.5 The second weakness is that the Corresponding changes are shown in Appendix A,
nonmetropolitan status of a county might have Table A.2 for number of farms, acres of farmland,
changed from classifications in previous years to met- percentage of land in farms, and average size of farms
ropolitan status in 1993 with the growth of metropol- from 1850 to 1997. The 1850 Census of Agriculture
itan centers and the urban fringe. For instance, a revealed that nearly 1.5 million farms existed in the
nonmetropolitan county in 1978 might have changed United States and accounted for 294 million acres (a.),
to be a metropolitan county by 1993 but, with a con- or 15.6% of the national landmass at that time. The
stant 1993 MSA definition, it would seem to have been average farm size was 203 a. in 1850. From the late
“metropolitan” all along. Consequently, use of clas- 1880s to 1950s, acreage in production and percentage
sification status in 1993 with past agricultural data of land in farms gradually increased with farm popu-
may overstate the importance of metropolitan coun- lation size. The average size farm declined to 134 a.
ties and understate the influence of nonmetropolitan in 1880, but subsequently has increased. Beginning
counties to agricultural production in the United in 1950, the number of farms declined as both farm
States. acreage and size increased. Farm acreage, which had
Improvements in farming techniques and an ex- reached a high of 1.2 billion in 1950, began to decline
panding railroad network helped the farm population afterwards with the percentage of land in farms.
and the agriculture industry expand greatly during Much of this decline occurred as a result of the farm
the nineteenth century and into the twentieth centu- crises during the 1980s (Murdock and Leistritz 1988);
ry (Albrecht and Murdock 1990). When the farm pop- changes in U.S. farm policy (Flora 1990; Spitze and
ulation first was enumerated apart from the general Flinchbaugh 1994); urban development; and in-
population in 1880, it included 21.9 million people, creased concentration among large corporate farms,
about 44% of the total U.S. population (Appendix A, whose economies of scale, ability to benefit from farm
Table A.1). At the turn of the century, the number policy, and productivity rates exceeded those of small-
had increased to 29.8 million but was a smaller per- er farms (Guither, Baumes, and Meyers 1994; Paarl-
centage (41.9%) of an increasingly urban and indus- berg 1980). Changes in the farm definition notwith-
trializing population. Although stable from 1910 to standing, the average farm size of 487 a. in 1997 was
1940, the size of the farm population continued to more than triple that in 1900 and more than double
become a proportionately smaller part of society. By that in 1950. According to USDA’s revised National
1959, it had decreased to 16.6 million and to less than Resources Inventory (USDA-NRCS 2000b Table 8) the
10% of the total U.S. population. Both the farm pop- total amount of agricultural land (crop, pasture,
ulation and its proportion of the total population de- range, and conservation reserve program) converted
clined during subsequent decades, as agricultural to developed uses between 1992 and 1997 totaled ap-
proximately 6 million a., which translates to an av-
22 Urban and Agricultural Communities: Opportunities for Common Ground

erage annual rate of 1.2 million acres. The average tion; counties adjacent to metropolitan counties av-
annual rate of conversion is 2.3 million acres. eraged a slight increase (3.8%), as nonadjacent, non-
metropolitan counties averaged a 1.6% loss in popu-
lation. Although all categories of counties had natural
Recent U.S. Demographic increases (by birth) in terms of size of population, both
adjacent and nonadjacent, nonmetropolitan counties
Changes suffered out-migration of residents. This loss pattern
Near the end of the twentieth century, the U.S. pop- reversed itself during the 1990s, however. Population
ulation of 272 million was approximately 3.5 times increases occurred for metropolitan and nonmetropol-
larger than it was one hundred years before (USBC itan counties as a result of both natural increases and
1998). According to Johnson (1993), most of the past net migration gains.
century was dominated by two demographic trends. Researchers have studied these recent changes in
First, the natural increase of the U.S. population ac- the U.S. population intensively, with special empha-
counted for nearly all growth in the nonmetropolitan sis on the growth of minority populations (Murdock
population. Second, the number of people leaving 1995). A brief examination of the ethnic and racial
nonmetropolitan areas greatly exceeded the number composition of population changes and the average
entering those areas. Although the magnitude of in- percentages of change over the past two decades are
and out-migration depended upon decade and region, presented for metropolitan and nonmetropolitan
flow of migration was generally from nonmetropoli- counties in Appendix A, Tables A.3 and A.4, respec-
tan to metropolitan counties. Metropolitan areas in tively. The ethnic and racial groups are Anglo-Amer-
the United States continued to grow in spite of the icans (nonHispanic whites), nonHispanic blacks, oth-
more recent movement of population from metropol- er nonHispanic groups, and Hispanics. Ethnic group
itan to nonmetropolitan areas in the 1970s to 1990s data from the 2000 census are not reported in the ta-
(Johnson 1989). bles because changes in how these groups are defined
The recent percentage change in population among in 2000 affect comparisons with the data from previ-
metropolitan and nonmetropolitan counties is shown ous census periods. Slight increases in population
in Table 1.3. These are averages of all counties with- occurred from 1980 to 1990 in all groups, except for
in each category. Individual counties differ widely. Anglo-Americans residing in nonadjacent, nonmetro-
In 1980, U.S. resident population was 226 million. politan counties. Regardless of county of residence,
During the 1980s, metropolitan counties experienced all four ethnic/racial groups increased in size during
the greatest percentage increase (14.5%) in popula- the 1990s. The greatest proportional increases oc-

Table 1.3. Components of county population change, 1980 to 1998, by metropolitan proximity in 1993a

1980 to 1990 1990 to 1998

Percentage, Percentage, Percentage, Percentage, Percentage, Percentage,

County metro population natural net population natural net
proximity, 1993 change increaseb migration change increaseb migration

Metro Mean 14.5 7.7 6.8 12.8 5.4 7.4

Median 9.4 7.2 2.0 9.6 5.0 4.2
Number 836 836 836 836 836 836

Adjacent Mean 3.8 4.8 –1.0 8.3 2.3 6.0

to metro Median 1.4 4.2 –3.4 5.9 2.2 3.9
Number 1,001 1,001 1,000 1,000 1,000 1,000

Not adjacent Mean –1.6 5.2 –6.8 4.0 1.8 2.2

to metro Median –3.8 4.1 –8.1 2.6 1.3 0.6
Number 1,302 1,302 1,301 1,301 1,301 1,301

Total Mean 4.4 5.7 –1.3 7.7 2.9 4.8

Median 1.4 5.0 –4.1 5.5 2.6 2.5
Number 3,139 3,139 3,137 3,137 3,137 3,137

aSource: U.S. Bureau of the Census and authors’ computations.

bNatural increase is the result of the number of births minus the number of deaths.
Introduction 23

curred among Hispanics, nonHispanic blacks, and teristics indicates the spatial arrangement of U.S.
other ethnic and racial groups. Hispanics nearly tri- farming (Heaton 1980). Mean and median numbers
pled their sizes of population in metropolitan coun- of farms appear in Appendix A, Table A.7. Metropol-
ties from 1980 to 1999 and evidenced the greatest itan counties have had the greatest average and me-
percentage change during the 1980s and 1990s (Ap- dian numbers of farms since 1978. Nonadjacent, non-
pendix A, Table A.3). Although the largest segment metropolitan counties have had the fewest number of
of the U.S. population, Anglo-Americans evidenced by farms over the 20-year (yr) period. Metropolitan coun-
far the smallest percentage of change in each decade. ties averaged 889 farms in 1978; adjacent and non-
adjacent counties averaged 787 and 608 farms, respec-
tively. By the end of the 1990s, the average number
Today’s Rural-Urban Agriculture of farms had declined to 772 in metropolitan counties,
650 farms in adjacent counties, and 507 in nonadja-
As has been mentioned, the general public per- cent counties.
ceives agriculture as a rural enterprise in which work, The proportion of acres in farmland compared with
residence, and family life are intertwined and under- the total county land area (Appendix A, Table A.8) and
pinned by traditional agrarian beliefs (Molnar and Wu average farm size (Appendix A, Table A.9) indicate the
1989). Looking at agriculture through metropolitan degree to which farming dominates county landscapes
and nonmetropolitan county lenses indicates that the (USBC, various years 1978-1992; USDA-NASS
public belief about where farming occurs may be a 1997a). Two patterns exist. The average share of
misconception. Employment in the broader agricul- farmland compared with the total land area has de-
ture, forestry, horticulture, and fisheries industry clined, and nonmetropolitan counties consistently
(called the agriculture industry hereafter) is report- have had the largest proportions of their acreage in
ed by county category in Appendix A, Table A.5 for farms. Metropolitan counties have averaged nearly
the period 1980 to 1997. In 1980, 3.9 million people 4 of every 10 a. in farmland during the 1980s and
were working in the agricultural industry. Metropol- 1990s.
itan counties accounted for 47% of the agriculture The mean farm size increased slightly from 449 to
industry’s total employment, compared with 25 and 487 a. nationally (Appendix A, Table A.9). Nonadja-
28% by adjacent and nonadjacent, nonmetropolitan cent, nonmetropolitan counties had the largest farms
counties, respectively. The agricultural industry’s on average, and metropolitan counties had the small-
proportion of employed persons to total industrial est farms. Changes in average farm size parallel the
employment in metropolitan counties was 2.4% and pattern of overall increase in farm acreage. Median
1.9% for the United States in 1980. By comparison, acreage for average farm size/county increased from
the agriculture industry’s proportion of employed 266 a. in 1978 to 285 a. in 1997. These increases oc-
persons to total employment in adjacent and nonad- curred in nonmetropolitan counties, especially in non-
jacent, nonmetropolitan counties was 9.2 and 12.8%, adjacent counties.
respectively. Nationally, the industry was responsi- Economic production similarities and differences
ble for 1.0 and 1.1% of all U.S. industrial employment in the spatial location of farms are indicated by com-
in adjacent and nonadjacent, nonmetropolitan coun- parisons of gross farm sales (Appendix A, Tables A.10
ties, respectively. By 1997, metropolitan counties to A.12). Average gross farm sales/county increased
accounted for more than half (54%) of all agricultur- overall from $47 million in 1978 to $103 million in
al employment relative to nonmetropolitan counties. 1997, and the change in median value of average gross
In 1980, approximately 2.8 million people were em- sales/county doubled from $36 million to $72 million.
ployed in agricultural occupations (Appendix A, Ta- Metropolitan and nonadjacent,6 nonmetropolitan
ble A.6). This number was estimated to have in- counties averaged the most gross farm sales for each
creased to about 3 million by 1997. Metropolitan
counties provided the largest proportion of agricultur- 6
For Appendix A, Tables A.11 and A.12, county-level data were
al jobs, accounting for 46% in 1980, 53% in 1990, and used. These data have suppressed values for some counties (and
54% in 1997. The number of people employed in ag- two states). In sums across counties within each proximity group
ricultural occupations declined slightly since 1980 in (i.e., metropolitan, adjoining nonmetropolitan, and nonadjoining
nonmetropolitan counties and was divided almost nonmetropolitan), these suppressed values were not included. In
the national aggregated gross sales data reported by commodity
evenly between counties adjacent and those nonad- these values are included by the U.S. Census and/or the USDA
jacent to metropolitan counties. statistics, thus producing larger gross sales figures than the CAST
Examination of several selected economic charac- task force authors obtained.
24 Urban and Agricultural Communities: Opportunities for Common Ground

agricultural census period when compared with ad- hogs/pigs (from $7.6 billion to $12.9 billion), and oth-
jacent, nonmetropolitan counties. In 1997, metropol- er livestock products (from $0.7 billion to $2 billion).
itan and nonadjacent, nonmetropolitan counties av- Gross sales of sheep/lambs/wool were well under a
eraged $108 million and $112 million in gross farm billion dollars during the same period.
sales, respectively, compared with $89 million by ad- Metropolitan counties accounted for 28.7% of the
jacent, nonmetropolitan counties (Appendix A, Table total value of livestock and poultry sales in 1978, while
A.10). adjacent and nonadjacent, nonmetropolitan counties
Total crop sales (unadjusted dollars) between 1978 accounted for 31.3 and 40%, respectively. By 1997,
and 1997 more than doubled from $47.3 billion in 1978 metropolitan counties’ share had declined slightly to
to $96 billion. Grain sales increased from $26.7 bil- 26% of total livestock and poultry sales, compared
lion (1978) to $46.5 billion (1997), followed by gains with slight increases to 32.2% by adjacent, nonmet-
for fruits/nuts/berries (from $4.5 billion to $12.5 bil- ropolitan counties and 41.8% by nonadjacent, nonmet-
lion), nursery/greenhouse products (from $2.5 billion ropolitan counties. Metropolitan counties led other
to $10.1 billion), and vegetables/sweet corn/melons counties in total sales for dairy products and other
(from $3.2 billion to $8.2 billion). Increases also oc- livestock in the past five censuses. They also led in
curred for cotton/cotton seed (from $3.1 billion to $5.9 poultry product sales from 1987 to 1997 whereas ad-
billion), other crops (from $2.9 billion to $5.5 billion), jacent, nonmetropolitan counties led in these sales
hay/silage/field seeds (from $2.2 billion to $4.4 billion), prior to 1987. Nonadjacent counties led in the gross
and tobacco (from $2.3 billion to $2.9 billion) (Appen- sales of cattle/calves, hogs/pigs, and sheep/lambs/wool
dix A, Table A.11). from 1978 to 1997.
In 1978, metropolitan counties accounted for 38.9%
of the total value of crop sales while adjacent and
nonadjacent, nonmetropolitan counties accounted for
28.7 and 24.1%, respectively. By 1997, the share of
Myths, Stereotypes, and Realities
metropolitan counties had increased to 42.2% of to- Rural and urban cultures tend to be separate in the
tal crop sales compared with the 26.6% share of adja- minds of U.S. residents. Treatment of the needs of
cent, nonmetropolitan counties and the 31.2% share cities and of farming communities must be reassessed.
of nonadjacent, nonmetropolitan counties. This gain Myths and stereotypes hinder the envisioning of fu-
in metropolitan crop sales could be attributed to as- ture possibilities for agriculture’s role in addressing
signing 1993 metropolitan status to include counties the needs of rural and urban areas.
that may not have been metropolitan in 1978 or in the The belief that city life, centered on manufactur-
following year. Nevertheless, metropolitan counties ing and commerce, and rural life, centered on farm-
led other counties in total crop sales for fruits/nuts/ ing, produce radically different kinds of life experience
berries, nursery/greenhouse, and vegetables/sweet (and corresponding moral character) is ingrained
corn/melons in the past five censuses. They led in deeply in U.S. political culture. The belief dates back
sales for hay/silage/field seeds in all census years ex- to Jefferson, who wrote, “Those who labour in the
cept 1978, and for cotton/cottonseed in all census years earth are the chosen people of God, if ever he had a
except 1997. Adjacent nonmetropolitan counties led chosen people, in whose breasts he has made his pe-
in tobacco sales, and nonadjacent counties consistent- culiar deposit for substantial and genuine virtue”
ly led in grain and other crop sales and in cotton/cot- (1984, 290). Such praise of farming often is repeated
tonseed sales in 1997. in U.S. politics. According to Lincoln, “No other hu-
Between 1978 and 1997, total livestock/poultry man occupation opens so wide a field for the profit-
sales (unadjusted dollars) increased from $57.2 billion able and agreeable combination of labor with thought,
to $94.4 billion (Appendix A, Table A.12).7 Sales of as agriculture” (Ayres 1992, 4). More than a century
livestock/poultry were greater than gross crop sales after Jefferson, Theodore Roosevelt wrote that “the
in every census year, except in 1997. Cattle/calf sales permanent greatness of any State must ultimately
increased from $29.4 billion to $40 billion. Poultry depend more upon the character of its country popu-
product sales increased the most, 155% (from $7.9 to lation than anything else” (McGovern 1967, 28). In
$20.3 billion). They were followed by sales growth in the 1950s, Ezra Taft Benson, an official of the Eisen-
dairy products (from $10.9 billion to $18.6 billion), hower administration, repeated the theme: “Rural
people are a bulwark against all that is aimed at
7
weakening and destroying our American way of life”
For Appendix A, Tables A.11 and A.12, county-level data were
used. See comments in previous footnote.
(McGovern 1967, 428).
Introduction 25

Perhaps some of these quotes praising the moral ban centers, various parks, gardens, and recreation-
character of rural U.S. citizens reflect the cynicism of al areas such as golf courses have brought a bit of the
politicians pandering for votes; nonetheless, concepts countryside into the urban core. As agriculture be-
are rooted in a political reality that framed key polit- comes more industrialized, demand for manufactured
ical decisions for several hundred years. Jefferson’s inputs, which are produced primarily in urban areas,
praise of farming reflected a key difference between increases. Scientific and governmental services sup-
him and his main political rival, Alexander Hamilton. porting farming now are needed to support the rural
Hamilton represented advocates of the urban way of enclave within the urban landscape. These changes
life. He advocated a federal program to promote de- encourage urban and rural cooperation.
velopment of a manufacturing center that would be-
come the central engine of economic growth for the
new republic. Jefferson advocated policies such as the
Louisiana Purchase and the Lewis and Clark Expe-
The Scope of Urban Agriculture
dition, which would open new lands for farming and Except in the central Great Plains, a great deal of
orient the economic development of the young nation U.S. agriculture occurs in counties defined as urban
towards agriculture. influenced (within statistical metropolitan counties or
Hamilton and Jefferson also espoused contrasting adjacent counties). These areas contain much of the
philosophies of government that coincided with their nation’s most productive agriculture and grow most
visions of economic growth. Both feared the influence of the food eaten. In fact, 79% of U.S. fruit, 68% of
of the urban working class, which they believed lacked vegetables, and 52% of dairy products are produced
the discipline and the loyalty necessary to undertake in urban-influenced counties (Sorenson, Greene, and
the sacrifices needed for long-term economic growth Russ 1997). The public perception of agriculture is
and development of stable political institutions. crucial because it drives the policies crafted around
Hamilton thought that the power of the federal gov- urbanism and the role that food and agriculture play
ernment should be limited sharply and controlled in urban settings. If much of U.S. agriculture is, in
narrowly by elite families, including industrialists. fact, occurring in urban and suburban areas, then it
Jefferson believed the owners of industrial capital is imperative to foster a relationship between urban
were as likely to abandon the new republic as were and rural policymakers. Yet many people living in
their workers. He believed that power could be shared rural and urban areas do not recognize the value of
broadly in an agricultural nation because farmers agriculture to their daily lives.
were dependent on responsible and stable govern- Beyond food production, well-managed agriculture
ments to protect their primary asset, that is, land. provides a host of nonmarket benefits such as attrac-
Unlike laborers and manufacturers, farmers’ long- tive landscapes, scenic views, and cultural continu-
term economic interests coincided with the develop- ity, as well as ecological services such as composting,
ment of stable democratic institutions of governance carbon sequestration, remediation, wildlife habitat,
(Thompson 2000). and clean water. These benefits lead to recreational
Contemporary reality is far more complex than opportunities that help sustain a rural way of life even
myths and stereotypes associating either urban or in an urban context.
rural environments and people with certain lifestyles, All people benefit from agriculture, which is in the
values, and moral characteristics. It is difficult to fabric of the urban community. Although it is not the
document the accuracy or origins of myths handed only component, agriculture can be a valuable contrib-
down from generation to generation and to identify utor to the solution of current and future problems oc-
their usefulness today. Positive stereotypes, on the curring in urbanizing communities. Some applica-
one hand, may be empowering, although not always; tions of agriculture are more direct, such as
negative stereotypes can be quite the opposite, of improvement of water and soil quality, production and
course. The demarcation between urban and rural marketing of food, and control of undesirable insects.
agriculture now may exist more profoundly in the Likewise, applications exist whereby agriculture’s
mind than on the land. In many parts of the United benefits are more indirect, such as the conservation
States, urban centers blend into suburbs, which in and management of open space, which, if done sus-
turn blend seamlessly into a countryside where farms tainably, affords the population the opportunity to
and bedroom communities exist side by side. These enjoy recreational pursuits, biodiverse plant life, and
quasisuburban, quasifarming neighborhoods contrib- other quality-of-life amenities. Agriculture is a tool
ute greatly to urban quality of life. Even within ur- with many valuable parts that can be harnessed or
26 Urban and Agricultural Communities: Opportunities for Common Ground

combined with other human or scientific resources, such as livestock and exotic species, insect rearing
to serve societal needs. These direct and indirect con- (e.g., beneficial insects) and management, tradition-
tributions have unique applications in urban settings, al food production, and food and plant gathering.
where population and land use is more concentrated Other components include processing, landscape and
and public debate over how to resolve urban problems other services, agribusiness and value-added activi-
is more heated. ties, recreation and leisure, conservation and revital-
Urban agriculture means different things to differ- ization of natural resources, and community health.
ent people. In the broadest sense, it covers a sphere Urban agriculture is intertwined with the larger ag-
of social, ecological, and economic influences through- ricultural system, much of which is found in nonmet-
out a total metropolitan population and land area, in- ropolitan areas. These connections are fostered by
cluding surrounding communities closely connected infrastructure such as transportation systems (high-
to the system. Depending on the location, it can in- ways, airlines), computer technology, social networks,
clude horticulture, aquaculture, forestry, animals and currency exchange and investments.
Agriculture's Service Role in the Urbanizing Society 27

2 Agriculture's Service Role in the Urbanizing Society

retention and fertility, proper pesticide and fertilizer

Introduction use, and remediation of brownfields. While recogniz-
Understanding the agroecosystem functions and ing that some services require further research if their
maintaining biodiversity within the system are essen- applicability to urbanization is to be perfected, the
tial to maximizing system benefits. Many agricultural authors of this CAST report contend that such servic-
activities (e.g., animal and plant production and pres- es are a valuable part of the rural-urban agricultural
ervation, creation of urban planted landscapes, refor- system.
estation of open spaces) can affect a highly interde- A host of agricultural services, including water con-
pendent agroecosystem. Consequently, agricultural servation, pollution control, and environmental risk
activities can help to replenish and to sustain agro- mitigation, are funded wholly or in part through fed-
ecosystems and, in turn, subsequent agroecosystem eral agency budgets and supported by research and
services benefiting urban populations. educational programs at agricultural and other uni-
When well planned and properly integrated into versities. Although these services may not be per-
the urban environment, open space or natural areas ceived as a form of urban agriculture, each represents
(as opposed to built-up areas) provide valuable agro- a benefit provided to urban and rural residents un-
ecosystem services to the surrounding community. der an organizational and budgetary rubric of agri-
Critical agroecosystem processes emanating from culture. Neglect of agriculture could mean, therefore,
nature are fundamental to the life support system on neglect of the infrastructure supporting these vital
earth. Open spaces afford alternatives for water man- agroecosystem services. Both rural and urban resi-
agement by serving as receptacles for storm water, re- dents and their legislative representatives will bene-
charge areas for aquifers, filtration systems for sur- fit from becoming better informed about how they can
face waters, and storage sites for irrigation water. draw on agriculture to ensure the availability of such
Water reuse (reclamation, or “gray water”) from waste vital services and functions. The increased need for
treatment facilities is used to sustain recreational agricultural services in MAs, coupled with the con-
areas and to irrigate nonfood crops. Composting ac- tinuing demands from traditional agricultural constit-
tivities result in decreasing solid wastes from popu- uents, taxes current institutional systems. This
lated areas and are a source of nutrients and organic makes it even more important for urban leaders to
matter for urban landscapes and for rehabilitation of interact with agricultural leaders and scientists to
disturbed lands (e.g., mine sites, highway right-of- share knowledge, resources, and innovative ideas for
ways, vacant lots). Properly managed, urban green addressing crucial urban insect and wildlife issues.
areas can serve as wildlife habitats. Appropriate land
management and design practices rooted in the agri-
cultural sciences are essential in applications of land- Agroecosystem Services for
use planning, pollution abatement, site remediation,
and carbon sequestration processes. When exploited
Restoration and Remediation
properly through careful planning, ecosystem servic- Storm Water Management
es have measurable economic value (Costanza et al.
1997); their positive effects on quality of life are diffi- Agricultural engineering and land management
cult to quantify, however. practices offer scientifically proven methods by which
Selected examples of agroecosystem services for to prevent the destruction of environmentally sensi-
which the agricultural sciences can contribute knowl- tive areas as a result of storm water runoff. Removal
edge and expertise include storm water management, of vegetation and placement of impervious surfaces
waste-water remediation, waste recycling (e.g., com- and structures often change surface and subsurface
posting), phytoremediation, carbon sequestration, soil water flow and groundwater recharge. Accelerated

27
28 Urban and Agricultural Communities: Opportunities for Common Ground

water flow can create erosion, pollution, and sediment clearly a common problem faced by agricultural and
management problems. Storm water management by nonagricultural communities. Both face problems
refers to comprehensive strategies for dealing with such as pesticide and nutrient runoff, groundwater
storm water quantity and quality issues. To achieve contamination, waste disposal (farm animal and hu-
management goals, a cost-effective combination of man waste), soil erosion, aquifer reduction, and the
structural and nonstructural techniques must be used growing need for clean water. Technical solutions and
to ensure adequate pollutant (e.g., oil, grease, pesti- water-related legislation with direct applicability to
cides, fertilizers) removal, erosion control, and flood both parties exist currently.
protection. The principle strategy is to ensure that Over the last two decades, there has been a steady
the volume, rate, timing, and pollutant load of runoff increase in the use of natural, physical, biological, and
after development is similar to that before. Structural chemical aquatic processes to treat polluted water.
techniques require preservation or simulation of nat- This increase has been precipitated by scientific doc-
ural drainage features to promote infiltration, filter- umentation of the natural treatment functions of
ing, and slowing of runoff (EPA 1999; NRDC 1999). wetlands and aquatic plants (Figure 2.1). The esca-
In a natural setting, vegetation and plant debris lating costs of conventional treatment methods, and
restricts water flow, extends water infiltration time, the value-added benefits of these systems, have
and holds soil in place. Vegetation and its support- heightened interest in their use (NCSU 2001b).
ing soil microflora also absorb pollutants and/or mit-
igate toxicity (Wood 2000). Plants with large root-
systems create storage passageways that can
facilitate water storage in the soil. Trees with high
transpiration rates pump stored water from the soil
into the atmosphere. Thus, barren land yields more
runoff than forested land. Failure to maintain vege-
tative cover can restrict aquifer recharge. Aquifers
often serve as sources of clean water for communities.
Strategically placed vegetation strips can serve as
effective sedimentation/filtration systems (Schultz et
al. 1995). Often, storm water runoff flows directly into
lakes and streams.
Many LGUs work closely with state highway de-
partments to develop effective sedimentation and fil-
tration systems for control of vegetation and water
runoff. Vegetative controls on highway medians can
be as effective as sedimentation/filtration systems for
treating storm water runoff and can be more econom-
ical than manufactured structures. Future planning
of urban roadways and open spaces should include
appropriate storm water management practices draw-
ing on natural or vegetative solutions. Agricultural
scientists can provide recommendations about vari-
etal selection and performance to minimize erosion,
to maintain sight lines, and to add aesthetic appeal.

Water Remediation and Wastewater

Reclamation
The same principles that apply to control of water
runoff from agricultural land apply to urban situa- Figure 2.1. Wetland and streamside vegetation serves as a
tions, and vice versa. Both urban planners and agri- buffer to filter excess nutrients from water running
cultural scientists have expertise that needs to be off agricultural land. Photo by Scott Bauer, Agricul-
shared to facilitate development of a comprehensive tural Research Service, U.S. Department of Agricul-
water remediation and reclamation strategy. This is ture, Beltsville, Maryland.
Agriculture's Service Role in the Urbanizing Society 29

Aquatic treatments include natural wetlands, con- There are numerous examples of county and mu-
structed wetlands, and aquatic plant systems (EPA nicipal legislations that encourage reclamation and
1988). Constructed wetlands are created wetlands reuse of wastewater. A specific example comes from
designed and developed for water treatment (Fields the Sanitation Districts of Los Angeles County, which
1993). They are engineered systems designed to sim- serves all or a portion of 78 of the 88 cities in the Coun-
ulate natural wetlands that function to purify water ty of Los Angeles. The system includes approximate-
for human use and benefit. Constructed wetlands are ly 1,300 miles of trunk sewers that convey to 11 waste-
modified to restrict drainage and to stimulate growth water treatment plants. Seventeen districts work
of flora and fauna to remove contaminants or pollut- together to operate sewers, pumping plants, treat-
ants from wastewaters or runoff (Hammer 1992). ment plants, and other sewerage facilities. For ex-
Strategically located constructed wetlands are not ample, the Pomona water reclamation plant provides
intended to mimic the functions of natural wetlands. treatment for 13 million gallons (gal.) of wastewater/
The advantage of constructed wetlands over natural day, for approximately 130,000 people. Each day,
wetlands is that of control over location, design, and approximately 8 million gal. of purified water is re-
management to optimize remediation effects. Con- used at more than 90 different sites. These sites in-
structed wetlands can be positioned to minimize en- clude irrigated parks, schools, golf courses, land-
try into streams, natural wetlands, and other receiv- scapes, and greenbelts; the Spadra Landfill, which is
ing waterways. Wetlands created for habitat, water irrigated and controlled for dust; and local paper
quantity, or aesthetic and other functions typically manufacturers. The remainder of the water is put
require different design considerations than those back into the San Jose Creek channel, where it makes
used solely for water quality improvement. its way to the unlined portion of the San Gabriel Riv-
Constructed wetlands are becoming an increasing- er. Nearly 100% of water is reused because most riv-
ly common method for treatment of all forms of wa- er water percolates into the groundwater (Sanitation
ter pollution, including confined-animal wastewater, Districts 2001).
cropland runoff, urban storm water, septic tank efflu- The farm also can be a secondary waste treatment
ent, municipal wastewater effluent, acid mine drain- system for municipal wastewater. A large number of
age, industrial process waters, and landfill leachate such systems exist in Ohio, Michigan, and other states
(Bastian and Hammer 1993; Kadlec 1995; Kadlec and in the Midwest, where farmland is relatively plenti-
Knight 1996). Besides primary wastewater uses, the ful. Forty-two such systems, dating back to 1970, are
range of potential applications for constructed wet- operating in Ohio, with most constructed in the 1990s.
lands is great, and the record of actual applications Some are municipal systems, several others treat the
is growing. Urban planners and engineers need to waste from a restaurant/club house by irrigating the
give consideration to the development of wetlands golf course. In municipal or township systems, a farm-
during their comprehensive planning process, which er will contract with the city to receive a certain vol-
provides an ideal opportunity for agricultural scien- ume of wastewater on a certain schedule. New waste
tists to make their information and research findings treatment “package systems” rely on farmland and
available for use by urban planners. other open lands as the primary treatment technolo-
Reclaimed and reused wastewater can be a valu- gy, thus enabling new residential and commercial
able resource in lieu of the diminishing supply of po- development in areas inaccessible to central treat-
table water. Research is needed, however, to deter- ment systems. Although reasonable questions must
mine how to control accumulation of salts in soil. High be addressed about whether to permit such new de-
salt content in soil can decrease production capacity. velopment in rural areas away from urban centers,
Likewise, acquisition of potable water requires an ex- farmland is performing an important service for ur-
penditure of energy in resources. Use of reclaimed wa- ban people.
ter offers cost savings and preserves the diminishing Living Machines have been under development
potable water supply. Reclaimed water can be used since the mid-1980s (Figure 2.2). This technology
in nonfood crop irrigation, recreation, and sustaining claims to convert high-strength industrial wastewa-
of vegetation in greenbelt areas. Collaboration among ter into a water supply suitable for most home needs.
planners, policymakers, and agricultural scientists is A diverse constructed ecosystem of plants, bacteria,
essential for the future of water remediation and re- snails, fish, and other organisms go about the usual
use, which constitute a relatively holistic approach to business of living and growing, cleaning water at the
meeting common needs in an efficient and practical same time. Users of these systems may save money
manner. by bypassing sewer surcharges and the capital costs
30 Urban and Agricultural Communities: Opportunities for Common Ground

of conventional systems. Living Machines also con- an important point of contact between farms and ur-
sume the sludge residual of waste treatment (Living ban people.
Machines, Inc. 2001). Natural systems, including Carlyle Consulting in Malibu, California, collects
farms, have enormous potential for helping resolve recyclables from urbanites, processes them slightly,
the waste management problems of urban society. and sells the nutrient source to farmers hoping to im-
prove the quality of their soil. In this instance, the
urban homeowner is employing the composting ser-
Waste Recycling vice of farmland directly (Gray 1998).
Continued research is needed to develop cost-effec- The poultry megafarm Perdue Farms, Inc. of Salis-
tive ways to recycle waste. Recycling can be a way to bury, Maryland, produces 800,000 tons (t) of poultry
replenish diminishing resources such as energy, or- litter annually on 2,800 individual farms in the area.
ganic matter, and nutrients. Certain farmers use The excess nutrient, instead of being allowed to pol-
their land to compost leaves and organic waste from lute Chesapeake Bay, is turned into marketable prod-
municipalities situated in nearby communities. They ucts, such as fertilizer pellets, through a business
combine these external sources with manure and oth- arrangement with Missouri-based AgriRecycle, Inc.
er sources from their farms to create a significant Tyson Foods is exploring the potential for converting
business enterprise while solving a waste manage- poultry litter into an energy source. Farmers are paid
ment problem for nearby cities or towns. Composted for the litter they provide (ENN 2001). Lancaster
products may be packaged for purchase by home gar- County, Pennsylvania, has several manure brokers
deners or turf managers, or for sale in retail outlets who bring producers and users together for mutual
(Figure 2.3). Farmland provides the important agro- support (Glenn 1998).
ecological service of converting organic material into Compost helps reclaim soils damaged by strip min-
nutrients. Organic waste decomposes, providing fer- ing in Ohio and West Virginia. Acid mine soils mixed
tilizer for new plant growth while eliminating un- with manure and drywall waste regain their produc-
wanted waste product. tivity (Munn and Murray 1999). In New York State,
Fresh Aire Farms, a 250-a. farm near Dayton, Ohio, attention has been given to composting food scraps.
produces a variety of agronomic and horticultural Statewide, there are more than 230 composting facil-
crops. Having implemented a composting program to ities that handle everything from lawn waste to food
decrease the amount of chemical inputs it had to buy, scraps from households, prisons, food markets, res-
the farm now sells compost to urban customers for taurants, or hospitals. Assistance is available to farm-
$45/yd3, plus delivery cost. The composting part of ers interested in creating a composting operation
the farm produces 25% of its total revenue (Goldstein (CWMI 1999). The economic viability of municipal
1999). A composting enterprise such as this can be waste recycling remains in question. Because of the

Figure 2.2. A view into the South Burlington Living Machine Figure 2.3. A Suwanee County, Florida, poultry farmer adds
Wastewater Treatment System in Vermont. Many water to compost to keep the bacteria working that
economically viable plants can be produced in these ultimately turn chicken waste into usable topsoil.
systems including cut flowers, landscape plants, Photo by Larry Rana, U.S. Department of Agricul-
and even food for humans and animals. Photo cour- ture.
tesy of Living Machines Inc., Taos, New Mexico.
Agriculture's Service Role in the Urbanizing Society 31

cost of separate collection services and the difficulty CO2) mitigates global temperature change and im-
of establishing reliable market outlets, many munic- proves soil quality. Conservation and vegetation
ipalities must struggle to make composting programs management practices that preserve rural and urban
viable. forests and green spaces not only aid in the seques-
tration process but also enhance water quality by
decreasing water runoff and nonpoint source pollution
Carbon Sequestration and providing wildlife habitat.
A new entrepreneurial opportunity exists for agri- Measuring carbon storage is difficult. Research is
culture to work with industries and communities that needed to clarify the working of the carbon cycle and
generate significant carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions. to determine how soil and plants contribute to it. For
Sequestering carbon can be a beneficial strategy for example, how much biomass is needed to sustain a
agriculture, MAs, and the environment. Municipali- CO2 balance? What cropping systems and plant va-
ties generate significant CO2 emissions through en- rieties offer the greatest potential to fix carbon? What
ergy generation and burning of fossil fuels. Carbon role do soils play in the carbon cycling process (e.g.,
farming offers an opportunity for farmers to work what are the roles of soil respiration and structure,
closely with municipalities to help mitigate CO2 at- contributions from roots and microorganisms, and the
mospheric concentrations through planned carbon rates of carbon transfer between active and resistant
sequestration practices. Estimates indicate that the fractions of stored carbon [Lal, Kimble, and Follett
potential for a carbon market for U.S. agriculture 1997])? Although debate continues as to whether
could reach $5 billion/yr for the next 30 to 40 yr (Con- urban environments can affect global carbon recy-
sortium 2001). cling, research has yet to demonstrate whether there
The carbon cycle, one of the central processes in the is a potential for this if a collective carbon recycling
ecosystem, transfers carbon between organisms, soils, process was adopted by many urban centers. Farm-
and the atmosphere. Most living matter is water; ers can benefit by selling crops that sequester carbon
what remains is composed mainly of carbon-based or other crop byproducts (e.g., ethanol, methane) to
molecules, especially compounds used in energy utility companies as a source of fuel. Through appro-
transfer and storage. Stored energy is released when priate agricultural research, an opportunity exists to
carbon compounds are oxidized to CO2 by means of achieve a more harmonious balance between use of
metabolic reactions. Carbon dioxide from the atmo- and sequestration of carbon.
sphere is recycled into more complex carbon com-
pounds by plants and other autotrophic (self-feeding)
life forms. Some carbon is recycled immediately; some Remediation of Brownfields
is stored in ocean sediments, soils, and plant biom- Agriculture is well positioned to provide assistance
ass. Plants, for example, store significant amounts in remediation of brownfields. Brownfields are aban-
of carbon. Subsequently, planting a range of crops doned, idled, or under-used industrial or commercial
(e.g., forest, horticulture, agronomic) absorbs and sites in which real or perceived environmental con-
stores atmospheric carbon. tamination occurs. The EPA (2000) estimated that
As a result of population growth and associated hu- there are as many as 500,000 brownfield sites across
man activities, atmospheric CO2 has increased great- the country.
ly, from 260 parts per million (ppm) to > 370 ppm since Current or former industrial sites, or brownfields,
the 1800s (Lal, Kimble, and Follett 1997). As a re- can be polluted with a range of environmentally harm-
sult of power generation and fossil fuel emissions, ful substances, including heavy metals. A great need
nearly six billion t/yr of carbon is released into the for inexpensive and efficient cleanup (remediation)
world’s atmosphere. Approximately 100 billion t/yr technologies exists to restore these sites for produc-
is released naturally (FAO 2001). Continued disrup- tive use. There are two main biological methods of
tion of natural carbon sinks (e.g., forests and other remediation: (1) bioremediation, which uses microbes
vegetated areas) will decrease the ability of CO2 to be to break down or immobilize toxic compounds, and (2)
recycled and fixed as biomass (sequestered) from the phytoremediation, which uses plants to accumulate
atmosphere. Atmospheric carbon dioxide is a green- contaminates and/or to break down waste into less
house gas crucial to maintaining a heat balance on harmful products (Irvine 1999). Although remedia-
earth. As concentrations increase, planet tempera- tion technologies still are in their infancy, they offer
tures can increase. Carbon sequestration (removal of much promise in dealing with environmentally toxic
32 Urban and Agricultural Communities: Opportunities for Common Ground

situations. In addition to this obvious advantage, by 2005 (Black 1999).

increasing vegetation in urban environments contrib- Remediation of brownfields and subsequent reuse
utes positively to air quality and to open space avail- can provide economic and environmental benefits to
ability. communities. Reusing brownfields discourages urban
Further research is needed to determine bioreme- sprawl while retaining or creating new jobs for com-
diation efficiency and its effect on the food chain, air munities. Redeveloped properties serve as a tax-gen-
quality, and economic feasibility. The phytoremedi- erating revenue, but the need of municipalities to
ation market in the United States was expected to generate short-term revenue has discouraged adop-
expand from $16.5 million to $29.5 million in 1998 and tion of remediation processes. Research is needed to
from $55 million to $103 million in 2000, and is ex- develop ways in which to accelerate the remediation
pected to expand from $214 million to $370 million process to ensure enhanced cost-effectiveness.
Agriculture's Service Role in Planning and Revitalization 33

3 Agriculture's Service Role in Planning and

Revitalization

generated by tax revenues, whereas farmland or open

Introduction space costs only $0.38 for each tax dollar paid. Some-
Community planning processes are the focal point times consumers, businesses, and communities fail to
for efforts to address some of the major challenges plan for future development because of lack of infor-
associated with urbanization: (1) managing growth; mation or because it is difficult to imagine the long-
(2) landscape and energy modifications; (3) insect, term consequences. The accumulation of many small
disease, and wildlife management; (4) conserving and decisions can result in unanticipated outcomes. Al-
revitalizing land areas; and (5) merging the interests though probably not a threat to national food and fi-
of stakeholders in the planning process. By bringing ber production, urban growth may decrease the pro-
rural and urban interests together, planners stand to duction of certain high-value crops (Heimlich and
benefit from the integration of the diverse resources Anderson 2001).
that each interest brings to the discussion. If the plan- There is a critical need to plan for agriculture as
ning process is innovative and timely, mutually ben- part of the land management process (Figure 3.1).
eficial solutions may be reached. As urban popula- Such planning would ensure agriculture’s viability
tions expand, one of the greatest challenges is to while simultaneously balancing the needs of the non-
recognize the value of the rural-urban partnership agricultural public, the natural environment, and the
and the enormous future value associated with each industrial sector. Incorporating agriculture into plan-
of these components. Together, they create a syner- ning processes can benefit community and individu-
gy. The most common characteristics of sprawl in- al health and well-being. It also helps a community
clude large-lot housing developments that overflow to take full advantage of potential agroecosystems
into the countryside; the separation of home from services as well as other contributions derived from
work, shopping, and schools; and residential depen- agriculture, as discussed in several of the follow-
dence on automobiles for transportation. ing chapters.
Metropolitan farming is on the increase, with U.S.
metropolitan farms constituting 33% of all farms and
16% of all cropland and contributing one-third of the
value of all agricultural output. Although agriculture
adapts to urban growth, it does so by changing the
nature of its products and services. This change may
result in more high-value products, more intensive
production, or a switch to enterprises better suited to
the urban environment and the proximity of custom-
ers. It is difficult to estimate the benefits of conserv-
ing rural land; studies suggest, however, that house-
holds may be willing to pay $1.4 billion to $26.6 billion
annually to conserve rural lands. These amounts are
equivalent to $13.5 billion to $255.8 billion in present
value (Heimlich and Anderson 2001).
Growth and development are expensive conse- Figure 3.1. Mahantango Creek watershed near Klingerstown,
Pennsylvania. The combination of land use, soil
quences for receiving communities. Evidence sug- properties, and hydrogeology largely determines
gests that the cost of unplanned, less dense develop- vulnerability to surface and groundwater contami-
ment is higher than that of planned, denser nation by agricultural activities. Photo by Scott
development. For example, public services for resi- Bauer, Agricultural Research Service, U.S. Depart-
dential development require $1.24 for every dollar ment of Agriculture, Beltsville, Maryland.

33
34 Urban and Agricultural Communities: Opportunities for Common Ground

to more decentralized models such as smart growth

Managing Growth strategies, which provide incentives to influence the
Both metropolitan and rural areas are experienc- pattern and density of development. Smart growth
ing the effects of uncontrolled growth. This phenom- principles that encourage appropriate land-use man-
enon, often referred to as sprawl, is found most often agement include mixed-use development and conser-
on the edges of cities and in rapidly expanding rural vation of open space, protection of rural amenities,
communities. Controlling sprawl can protect produc- mass transit and pedestrian-friendly community de-
tive farmland and valuable ecosystem services. Dur- sign, inner city investment, and environmentally
ing the period from 1982 to 1992, 29% of U.S. agri- friendly development.
cultural land converted to urban uses was identified Maryland, for example, has implemented a state
as prime agricultural land. The USDA’s data from farmland preservation program and a smart growth
the 1980s indicated that 46% of land converted to initiative through which the state partners with lo-
urban and built-up use came from crop and pasture- cal governments, land trusts, and residents to protect
land, 38% from forest land, and 14% from rangeland farm and forest lands. Oregon has designated urban
(USDA 2001b). Between 1960 and 1990, the five- growth boundaries to separate rural and urban areas.
county area surrounding Cleveland, Ohio, lost 40% of Utah has a strategy that involves various stakehold-
its farmland. The seven counties of the Columbus, er partnerships in the planning process. A number
Ohio, metropolis lost the greatest amount of farmland of monetary incentives have been used to protect
in the state: more than 425,000 a., or more than 1,000 farmlands, forests, and natural areas, e.g., preferen-
a./month, representing a 23% decrease. Although not tial property tax assessment and purchase of devel-
all of Ohio farmland loss was due to sprawl, most de- opment rights (PDRs)8 and transfer of development
velopment occurred on prime or unique soils (Chad- rights (TDRs)9. Preferential property tax assessment
bourne and Chadbourne 2000). has not proved very satisfactory as a long-term solu-
The opportunities for redirecting this growth must tion for slowing the loss of rural land, and PDRs have
be seized quickly. If planning fails, the social, econom- turned out to be especially expensive. In addition,
ic, and environmental costs will be enormous (Daniels they are not always attractive to farmers. Further dis-
1999). Sprawling cities and suburbs consume produc- cussion on farmland protection tools is presented in
tive farmland and forests, degrade watersheds, spawn Chapter 7.
automobile traffic, and create “bitter battle-grounds” According to the proceedings of the 2001 conference
(Daniels 1999). Sprawl leads to noise and air pollu- on “Protecting Farmland at the Fringe,” (Northeast
tion and to the consumption of enormous amounts of Regional Center 2002), a blended approach for the
fuel. In some people’s minds, the loss of farmland and preservation of farmland in the context of growth
other natural areas is seen as a threat to quality of management is needed greatly. This approach should
life (e.g., to clean water, wildlife habitat, scenic amen- involve enhanced integration of policy goals, analyti-
ities), to local food access, and to agriculture’s ability cal modes, public policy tools, and jurisdictional
to contribute to the local economy. As land disap- boundaries. The goals and intentions of farmland and
pears, valuable agroecosystem services such as nat- open-space protection often are either unclear or un-
ural areas that filter water pollutants and storm wa- acknowledged. Improved understanding of these
ter, prevent flooding, and recharge aquifers are being
lost. In many situations, loss of farmland may lead 8
Purchase of development rights (PDRs), a strategy for protect-
to decreased economic contributions by agriculture to
ing farmland and/or community growth management, provides
the community. Loss of farmland also limits oppor- increased protection for farmland, forest, and natural areas. Pur-
tunities for urban consumers to connect with the chases of development rights remove development potential from
source of their food and to enjoy the benefits of fresh, land areas by placing them in a protected status. This is a volun-
high-quality, locally produced food. tary growth management strategy under which landowners are
compensated for not allowing development of the property.
Local, county, and state governments can do a more
9
effective job of planning for agriculture and manag- Transfer of development rights (TDRs), a strategy for protect-
ing growth. States such as Maryland, New Jersey, ing farmland and/or community growth management, is used by
local governments to shift farmland or other rural land resources
Oregon, Rhode Island, Tennessee, and Washington to designated growth areas. The goal of a TDR is to enable a pri-
have made important efforts to accommodate growth vate developer to purchase TDRs and to use them in growth ar-
management and some of the needs of agriculture eas, or to restrict use for conservation. Some governments,
through policy initiatives. The trend has been to move however, have set up TDR banks to buy or sell TDRs to keep land
away from state planning and zoning requirements preservation and development active.
Agriculture's Service Role in Planning and Revitalization 35

goals is needed to allow for the design of policies to poses is for construction (i.e., built structures), as well
achieve goals congruent with real issues and stake- as for screening undesirable sight lines and provid-
holder preferences. In practice, different policy ap- ing noise abatement. Plant spacing and canopy man-
proaches often are used together, to avoid conflicting agement and positioning can camouflage or mask
applications. Finally, evaluation of blended policies undesirable visual features and conserve energy.
must be monitored carefully to determine their effects. Other engineering functions performed by plants in-
Consideration should be given to the design of region- clude runoff and erosion control (Figure 3.2), glare
al approaches that cross political and other bound- reduction, filtering of particulate pollutants (e.g.,
aries. dust), and CO2 reduction. Plants can be considered
Environmentalists, consumer advocacy groups, a “living technology” that aid in maintaining a healthy
and other social activists recognize the benefits of di- environment (Coder 1996).
verse farming systems as a mechanism by which to Properly positioned trees and shrubs can decrease
manage and to protect landscape, wildlife, and other summer air conditioning costs by as great as 40%
natural resources. Although a diverse, organically (DOE 1993). Computer simulations indicate that 100
managed farm may not provide the same crop yield million properly placed trees in U.S. cities (three trees
as a nonorganic farm, its overall contribution in terms for every other single-family home) could decrease
of environmental protection and services to the com-
munity may be greater. Evidence is increasing that
agricultural and urban land-use practices can have a
negative effect on the community and surrounding
environment. Findings from a study by the U.S. Geo-
logical Survey’s National Water Quality Assessment
Program (2001) indicate that water quality conditions
and aquatic health are influenced by land and chem-
ical use, land-management practices, population den-
sity, watershed development, and natural features
such as soils, geology, hydrology, and climate. The
negative effects of farming practices on water and the
environment have been well documented by previous
CAST reports (1992a,b; 1996; 1999).
If planning was able to accommodate a better bal-
ance between diversified types of farming and other
urban land uses, a number of valuable services could
result. For example, if there was encouragement for
the production and/or processing of local food for the
surrounding community, transportation and market-
ing costs (which add to community infrastructure
costs such as energy, roads, and packaging) could be
decreased. Appropriate planning also could allow
well-planned farms to provide service to growing com-
munities on issues affecting the ecosystem, such as
waste utilization, pollution remediation, habitat pro-
tection, and scenic amenities.

Landscape and Energy

Modifications
Plants perform many architectural functions (Rob- Figure 3.2. In a wind tunnel, a technician prepares to measure
inette 1972). These functions include definition and how live plants and straw residue slow windblown
completion of spaces, control of privacy, screening of soil erosion. Photo by Scott Bauer, Agricultural
undesirable views, and framing of pleasant views. Research Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture,
The most common use of plants for utilitarian pur- Beltsville, Maryland.
36 Urban and Agricultural Communities: Opportunities for Common Ground

annual energy use by 30 billion kilowatt hours (kWh), mended for human health. Lohr and Pearson-Mims
leading to savings of approximately $2 million in en- (1996) studied the influence of interior plants on dust,
ergy costs (Huang et al. 1987). Further, simulations showing that adding plants to the periphery of a room
by McPherson and Rowntree (1993) indicate that a decreased particulate matter deposition by as much
single properly placed 25-ft tall tree can decrease as 20%. Other contributions include cleansing of air
annual heating and cooling costs of a typical residence by slowing particulate materials (e.g., pollens, pollut-
by 8 to 12%. Extrapolating nationwide, this practice ants), absorption of carbon monoxide, and generation
would result in savings of approximately $1 billion. of oxygen. In one urban park (524 a.), tree cover was
In addition to influencing energy use by shading, found to remove 48 pounds (lb) of particulates, 9 lb
plantings also can affect heating and cooling by alter- nitrogen dioxide, 6 lb sulphur dioxide, and 1 lb car-
ing air movement around buildings. Furthermore, bon monoxide daily (Coder 1996).
plants can contribute multiple benefits such as de-
creasing glare and influencing temperature by tran-
spirational cooling (evaporation of moisture at the leaf Insect, Disease, and Wildlife
surface). For example, a green bermudagrass turf
canopy decreases glare and can have a maximum
Management
daily temperature that is 39˚C cooler than a synthetic Humans have altered environments through phys-
surface (Beard and Green 1994). Computer simula- ical disruption or importation of new insect and ani-
tions for cities across the United States indicate that
transpirational cooling decreases annual cooling en-
ergy demand by 2 to 8% (McPherson and Simpson
1995). The most significant savings are in the west-
ern United States, where low relative humidity im-
proves transpirational cooling. For example, in Sac-
ramento County, California, the urban forest is
responsible for an annual air conditioning savings of
approximately $18.5 million (Simpson 1998).

Indoor-Outdoor Air Quality

Filtering capacity of plants can improve both indoor
and outdoor air quality; for example, a tree canopy can
ameliorate parking lot temperatures. The canopy
density has been included in models to predict motor
vehicle emissions (Scott, Simpson, and McPherson
1999).
Studies on indoor air quality show that plants may
contribute to reduction in “sick building” syndrome.
The National Aeronautics and Space Administration
funded early studies on the use of plants to clean the
air in space stations. Common interior plants were
highly effective in removing formaldehyde from sealed
chambers (Wolverton, McDonald, and Watkins 1984).
Further work documented similar effects with addi-
tional pollutants, including carbon monoxide (Wolver-
ton, McDonald, and Mesick 1985), and began to doc-
ument the mechanisms involved (Wolverton, Johnson,
and Bounds 1989). One researcher looked at the abil-
ity of interior plants to affect indoor relative humidi-
ty (Figure 3.3) (Lohr 1992a,b). Plants in these stud- Figure 3.3. Technicians at the base of a 3-story rainfall simula-
ies did not contribute excessive humidity to interiors, tor study rainfall interception by foliage. Photo by
which might damage building materials, but did raise Scott Bauer, Agricultural Research Service, U.S.
relative humidity to levels within the range recom- Department of Agriculture, Beltsville, Maryland.
Agriculture's Service Role in Planning and Revitalization 37

mal species. Thus the ecological balance has been awareness through education; (4) integrated pest
disrupted, sometimes leading to the creation of habi- management; (5) water conservation directed toward
tats that either establish new insect or wildlife popu- irrigation, recapture, reuse, variety selection, and
lations or stimulate existing population growth or maintenance; and (6) water quality management
decline. These alterations can have direct or indirect strategies.
social and economic consequences. Maintaining hu- The economic effects of urban wildlife and insects
man health and safety and protection of the landscape are explored most frequently in terms of the damage
necessitates broad knowledge of the entire agroeco- costs incurred by their presence. For example, accord-
logical system. ing to a report by Curtis (2001), deer in suburban
Urban entomology, plant pathology, and wildlife landscapes cause significant economic losses to resi-
management—three of the agricultural sciences— dential landowners, present safety hazards, and are
involve the management of insects, spiders, diseas- agents for transmission of Lyme disease. Curtis
es, and animal populations (domestic and natural) liv- (2001) estimates that deer numbers in local parks and
ing in association with humans and domesticated suburban landscapes may continue to double every
pets. Knowledge from this field becomes more impor- two to three years, as long as forage is available, un-
tant as the population shifts to urban centers. Insects, less some form of control is implemented. If people
diseases, and animals associated with structures and choose not to take action, much greater expense will
with domestic and landscape environments can have be incurred later. Based on homeowner surveys, wild-
a direct effect on the quality and safety of life. There life damage has been estimated at $3.8 billion annu-
are both tangible and intangible benefits, as well as ally, with 4% of respondents reporting problems with
real costs, associated with creating a balanced wild- deer (2.4 million households). These data indicate
life, disease, and insect management strategy, wheth- that deer damage alone may cost homeowners approx-
er in an urban or rural situation. imately $251 million/yr. A conservative estimate of
The quantified economic benefits of wildlife in the the total number of deer-related vehicle accidents
urban environment are not readily available. In their nationwide is 1.5 million annually, with vehicle repair
continued pursuit of food, however, wild animals act (in 1993 dollars) averaging $1,577. The 726,000 ac-
as scavengers by cleaning up animal road kills and cidents actually reported represent approximately
by eating copious amounts of insects. For example, $1.1 billion annually, less than half the estimated
although bats are among the most feared and least cost. The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention
regarded mammals, they are one of the major preda- indicated that between 12,000 and 14,000 cases of
tors of night-flying insects such as mosquitoes, gypsy Lyme disease have been reported annually in the
moths, and Japanese beetles (BCI 2001). One bat can United States since 1994 (Curtis 2001).
eat 600 to 1,000 mosquito-sized insects in one hour The creation of new environments changes the na-
(hr). Besides eating insects, bats pollinate plants such ture and existence of pests over time. For example,
as the saguaro cactus. Without bats to pollinate it, more diverse landscape plantings provide a greater
the desert ecosystem can be at risk (NCSU 2001a). diversity of pests. Urban gardening creates food for
One bat can easily eat 20 female corn earworm moths rabbits and insects and habitat for other pests. De-
in a night, and each moth can lay as many as 500 eggs, velopment of recreational areas encourages new or dif-
potentially producing 10,000 crop-damaging caterpil- ferent insects and other urban wildlife. Increased
lars. As few as 8 caterpillars/100 plants can force a numbers of food-related establishments (e.g., ware-
farmer to apply pesticides. houses, vendors, containers, processing plants, gro-
A cooperative effort between the U.S. Golf Associ- ceries, restaurants, cafeterias) in urban areas expand
ation and Audubon International promotes ecological- pest habitat. Building heating and cooling systems
ly sound land management, as well as the conserva- allows tropical and semitropical pests to flourish at
tion of natural resources. The positive effect of this northern and southern extreme latitudes (Keith
effort extends beyond the boundaries of the golf course 1997).
and benefits the surrounding community. Audubon Waste and water management and artificial im-
International (2001) provides each golf course with poundment for water runoff create habitat for aquat-
one-on-one assistance for development of an environ- ic insects such as midges and mosquitoes. Problems
mental plan. Golf courses must fulfill the following with waste disposal include inadequate sewers, gar-
requirements: (1) a written environmental plan; (2) bage facilities, and landfills, leading to selectivity of
a wildlife and habitat management plan to provide garbage collection. Lawn clippings no longer accept-
habitat for wildlife; (3) public involvement to create ed by many cities can produce stable-fly problems
38 Urban and Agricultural Communities: Opportunities for Common Ground

caused by improper composting. Examples of insects with scenic or recreational value, or has been viewed
and animals creating health and economic problems as having high economic development potential. The
in urban areas include houseflies, stable flies, horn benefits of conserving rural land are often difficult to
flies, ants, mosquitoes, moths, fleas, ticks, cockroach- estimate because they differ depending upon the cir-
es, termites, turf and ornamental pests, opossums, cumstances. Land conservation also has become a
rats, mice, rabbits, deer, and raccoons. Also, wildlife potentially divisive issue because of differing stake-
feces can cause bacterial water pollution, especially holder values.
when it rains. Disagreement over land and natural resource pro-
Agricultural science is positioned to address the tection has made it especially important to create
aforementioned issues. Areas of entomology, horti- opportunities for broad stakeholder participation in
culture, plant pathology, veterinary medicine, animal planning processes. American Farmland Trust rec-
and range sciences, and rural sociology can assist in ommends a strategic approach that analyzes the land
the mitigation and management of undesirable in- characteristics and the desired objectives and purpos-
sects, diseases, and wildlife that affect the health and es. Some of the questions to be asked include: What
well-being of natural habitats, humans, and domes- are the ideal qualities of the farmland that is to be
ticated animals. For example, agricultural scientists protected? How much of the land needs to be protect-
are developing vaccines for Lyme disease. Addition- ed? What public interests will be served? Farmland
al agricultural research is needed to address the grow- protection is an expensive goal and one that few states
ing insect, disease, and wildlife problems in urban and localities will be able to manage on their own; it
areas. Research topics could include the following: is an endeavor in which other levels of government
• isolation and identification of natural products partnership are important (Thompson 1996).
(e.g., plant extracts, animal derivatives, and Agricultural knowledge and practices can aid in
waste products) for pest control; land remediation and revitalization. As mentioned
in the discussion of remediation, management of soils,
• chemical and behavioral ecology of insect, disease, soil microflora, and planting of specific types of plants
and animal pests and their parasites for biologi- can restore land to a more desirable state.
cal control programs; Vacant lands, neglected sites, and toxic dumps are
• computer-aided decision making and problem crucial problems facing urban communities. If an
solving in urban pest management; area is dilapidated or vandalized, contains trash-filled
• integrated pest management (IPM) programs for vacant lots, or consists mainly of sterile steel and con-
structural, ornamental, and nuisance pests; crete, the message is sent that those in charge (the
• forecasting and management schemes for mosqui- city government, the owner, or the employers) place
to and other insect, disease, and animal popula- little value on the area or the people living there.
tions; Under these circumstances it would seem that peo-
• insect and animal growth and reproductive reg- ple have no intrinsic worth and no control over their
ulators and other reproductive control technolo- environment, that this is not an appropriate place in
gies; which to reside or to invest. A study in Atlanta (Bro-
gan and Douglas 1980) examined the association
• health and environmental impact analyses of pes- among psychosocial health of the community, physi-
ticide application; and cal environment (e.g., landscaping and nearby land
• social, cultural, and economic impact analyses of use, and sociocultural environment (e.g., population
pests that adversely affect animal and human density and income). Data indicated that both phys-
populations. ical and sociocultural environments were equally
important in explaining variations in the psychoso-
cial health of the community.
Conserving and Revitalizing Land In Baltimore, Maryland, a Community Greening
Grants Revitalization Program provides small grants
Areas to create community-managed open space. Baltimore
In the last twenty to thirty years there has been has an estimated 40,000 vacant lots covering 11% of
increasing public interest in the conservation of ru- the city’s land area. About 12,000 lots owned by the
ral areas. Sometimes this interest has meant conser- city represent a burden to the city, in that they are
vation of farmland for the production of food. In oth- no one’s responsibility. As a result, they have become
er instances, farmland has been seen as an amenity a social blight on the neighborhood instead of a bene-
Agriculture's Service Role in Planning and Revitalization 39

fit to the community. Community Greening programs that community gardens were 20 times cheaper to
can address this issue by turning abandoned proper- create and 27 times cheaper to maintain than city
ty into community-owned property through the adop- parks were. The Sacramento study compared the
tion of vacant lands by local residents for use as com- development and maintenance costs of a park contain-
munity gardens, parks, or tree nurseries. Cost ing 140,000 sq. ft. with the same costs in a communi-
estimates for a city to clean up a problem lot range ty garden containing 121,300 sq. ft. The researchers
from $2,000 to $4,000 annually (Community Resourc- found that the park cost $46,000 to develop and
es 1996). For an investment of as little as $200 to $15,000/yr to maintain whereas the garden cost
$1,000, open spaces can be rehabilitated effectively. $2,200 to develop and $550/yr to maintain (Francis
Each year, this Community Greening program takes 1987). Although there are regional cost differences
approximately 20 lots out of the solid-waste lot clean- based on climate, labor costs, and so on, the evidence
up system, providing a potential saving of $40,000 suggests that community gardens are less expensive
annually to the city, and many benefits to local to build and to maintain than parks are.
residents. Agriculture in all of its variety can be an integral
Community gardens are a fairly new and increas- part of urban revitalization. Kaufman and Bailkey
ingly popular urban activity (Figure 3.4). Financial (2000) address the obstacles and possibilities for ap-
feasibility is only one of their challenges. Because plying entrepreneurial agriculture to revitalize vacant
such gardens are so new, city agencies often do not or neglected urban land areas. After completing a
know how to handle them. For example, in Philadel- study of 27 cities, they concluded that there were four
phia, more than 15 agencies address land-disposition major obstacles to the growth of urban agriculture as
(Hope Wohl Associates 2000). Furthermore, certain an economic development or land revitalization
public agencies have little experience with issues such strategy.
as soil remediation or agricultural regulatory activi- • Site-related obstacles. Vacant urban sites of-
ties. Currently, the predominant sources of funding ten are contaminated from previous industrial
for community gardens are local governments, fol- use or post-demolition activities, and efficient,
lowed by the federal government, nonprofits, and uni- widespread cleanup often is scarce. Another site-
versities (especially cooperative extension). State gov- related problem is lack of secure tenure or prob-
ernment, special fund-raising activities, neighborhood lems acquiring land for farming. Monroe-Santos
associations, and local banks form the second tier of (1998) found that of 6,018 recently surveyed gar-
support (Feenstra, McGrew, and Campbell 1999). dens (entrepreneurial and nonentrepreneurial),
These projects may generate relatively little income only 1.5% were permanently secured in a land
but contribute in other ways to the community. trust or other form of permanent ownership.
In a study of community gardens and city-managed
parks in Sacramento, California, researchers found • Government-related obstacles. Property dis-
position by cities often involves an arduous pro-
cess that impedes the transfer of land to organi-
zations seeking to farm there. Additional
obstacles are approval of agricultural land uses,
licensing and health regulations, and lack of fund-
ing to assist agricultural enterprises involved in
economic development activities. Perhaps the
greatest obstacle is planners’ widespread percep-
tion of gardens and urban farming as a temporary
or conditional use—a way to use the land while
waiting for “higher and better uses” that might
yield higher property taxes.
• Procedural obstacles. Urban gardens and
farms face inadequate capital and operating fi-
nancing; difficulties in recruiting and keeping
qualified and committed staff in a labor-intensive
Figure 3.4. A local resident works in a community garden in operation; and challenges associated with small
Chicago, Illinois. Photo by Ken Hammond, U.S. economies of scale, inadequate business plans,
Department of Agriculture.
40 Urban and Agricultural Communities: Opportunities for Common Ground

and ineffective public relations. that “rural requires a symbiotic relationship with
• Perception-related obstacles. Urban activi- place.” There is every indication, however, that ur-
ties in food production are most challenged by per- ban people also crave a relationship with nature and
ceptions among policymakers, urban opinion- all those elements that are associated with what may
shapers, and the general public that farming is a have once been an agriculture heritage—animals,
rural, not an urban, pursuit; that farming is not green spaces or parks, forests or wilderness areas,
the best use of urban land; and that farming is fresh locally produced food, relationships with local
an ineffective economic development strategy farmers, and so on.
when compared with, for instance, a strategy that Comprehensive planning processes can document
attracts large industry. These perceptions are economic and other benefits of local agriculture and
coming under attack from a number of directions. identify important support activities, e.g., products for
Communities slowly are recognizing the potential marketing, housing for farm workers, waste dispos-
of urban agriculture for comprehensive commu- al, and roads. Local and regional planning, coordi-
nity betterment, and not only from an economic nation, and negotiation of commonly valued resourc-
development or a land-use strategy standpoint es across regions and levels of government are equally
(Kaufman and Bailkey 2000). important. As noted by Pezzini and Wojan (2001),
there is a need for shared commitment and dialogue
Agroecosystem services can assist planners with regarding the preservation and use of appreciated
issues associated with growth. Because agriculture resources. This suggests it is important to develop
has not been viewed typically as a service to the en- zoning ordinances and other incentive programs to
vironment (farms have been viewed as producers of protect rural, urban, and urban-edge agriculture and
food), many of today’s farms would find this role a natural areas from development that could otherwise
challenging opportunity. Designing farms to fulfill destroy them.
ecological service needs would require agencies, pub- Sokolow (2000) outlines a number of policy strat-
lic decision makers, and farmers to rethink farming egies, many of which are implicit in smart growth
systems and incentives for change. This may be an trends, which communities can use to divert growth
opportunity for institutions of higher education and away from productive farmland and fertile agricultur-
the media to educate the public about expanding ag- al soils. The challenges, however, are to minimize
riculture’s service roles. Such a change in thinking potentially negative interactions between state- and
would require additional research, as noted previous- local-level administrators and to create conditions for
ly, and close working relationships among agricultur- a long-term and mutually beneficial coexistence be-
al resource people (farmer/ranchers, scientists, and tween farmers and nonfarmers. If agricultural inter-
extension personnel) and urban leaders, planners, ests are included in this planning process, they can
and citizens’ groups. play a useful role in these and other rural-urban plan-
ning activities. Communities that are experiencing an
influx of new residents must balance the demands of
Merging the Interests of agricultural interests with the often-different inter-
Stakeholders in the Planning ests of nonfarming residents. The leaders of these
urbanizing communities must facilitate meaningful
Process dialogues and participatory planning processes that
Stauber (2001, 11) claimed that one’s relationship involve both newcomers and oldtimers.
to nature is a key determinant of what is rural, and
Agriculture's Business Contributions to the Urbanizing Society 41

4 Agriculture's Business Contributions to the

Urbanizing Society

across the nation provide the primary research and

Introduction educational base for the green industry. Further-
This chapter discusses certain major business and more, in terms of total economic output, the green
economic contributions of agriculture in urban areas. industry ranks as the second most important sector
Although the agroecosystem provides society with a in U.S. agriculture, behind only the beef industry
number of direct and indirect services that are diffi- (USDA-ERS 2000a). According to grower receipts, the
cult to quantify (as discussed in Chapter 2), agricul- green industry ranks sixth in U.S. agricultural com-
ture has other important benefits. Some are more modities (behind cattle, dairy products, corn, hogs,
direct, as in the case of production and marketing of and soybean). The green industry sector ranks in the
products and services. Many of these benefits are well top five agricultural commodities in 27 states, most
documented through statistical or other economic of which are urbanized. The leading states in terms
reporting agencies. of grower receipts are California and Florida, two of
The particular agricultural business benefits se- the most populated states in the nation.
lected for attention in this chapter include (1) envi- When viewed as farms, green industry production
ronmental horticulture and the green industry; (2) the units have an average net farm income approximate-
companion animal industry; (3) the equine industry; ly four times greater than the U.S. average net farm
and (4) aquaculture. income (Johnson and Christensen 1995). According-
ly, the green industry often is described as producing
high-value crops. In 1990, the green industry ranked
Environmental Horticulture and as the second leading employer in U.S. production
agriculture (Turner and Kriesel 1995). The green
the Green Industry industry is considered the fastest growing agricultural
Environmental horticulture, sometimes referred to sector (USDA-ERS 2000a) and clearly is an important
as ornamental horticulture, is defined broadly as the economic component in U.S. agriculture.
cultivation of indoor and outdoor landscape plants for Environmental horticulture and the green indus-
use in populated environments (Pittenger, Gibeault,
and Cockerham 1991; Templeton et al. 2000). Enter-
prises that engage in the commerce of environmen-
tal horticulture (e.g., nurseries, greenhouses, sod
farms, landscape maintenance firms) are referred to
collectively as the green industry. This industry has
expanded considerably in recent years and is larger
than most people realize. Further, it generally is cen-
tered in and around MAs. In 1993, the total econom-
ic activity generated by the U.S. green industry was
more than $44 billion, and the industry provided near-
ly 440,000 jobs (ANLA 2001). In 1999, the total val-
ue of retail sales for green industry products climbed
to around $57 billion (USDA-ERS 1999), and employ-
ment was around 600,000 during peak seasons (ANLA
2001). Figure 4.1. A homeowner and his daughter weed a flower gar-
Most people equate agriculture with farming and den in front of their home in Placerville, California.
do not typically think of green industry activities as Photo by Ken Hammond, U.S. Department of Agri-
farming. Nonetheless, agricultural colleges in LGUs culture.

41
42 Urban and Agricultural Communities: Opportunities for Common Ground

try affect a large segment of the U.S. population, es- greenhouse production are listed in Table 4.1. With
pecially homeowners who spend considerable time the exception of Oregon, the states are highly urban-
and/or money maintaining their landscapes (Figure ized. With regard to Oregon, much of the state's nurs-
4.1). But even apartment dwellers value (and indi- ery and greenhouse production is located in the Wil-
rectly pay for) green spaces in or near their complex- lamette Valley between Portland and Eugene.
es. As income and population increase, demand for Total grower receipts for green industry crops have
recreational activities dependent on the products of risen steadily during the past decade, and in 1998
environmental horticulture (e.g., athletic fields, bo- were approximately $12 billion (USDA-ERS 1999).
tanical gardens, parks, golf courses) also increases The major components of this production are summa-
(Templeton et al. 2000). Without a doubt, environ- rized in Table 4.2. In terms of both the total number
mental horticulture and the green industry have tre- of farms and total sales, nursery crops (e.g., trees,
mendous potential for improving communities. shrubs, groundcovers, vines) and bedding plants (e.g.,

Table 4.1. Nursery and greenhouse crop production data for the
top five states in terms of total sales for the year 1997.
Data from 1992 also included for comparative
purposes (USDA 1999)

1997 1992

Sales Number Sales Number

State ($ million) of farms ($ million) of farms

California 2,222 4,988 1,662 3,824

Florida 1,450 5,121 1,024 5,180
Oregon 676 4,195 364 2,309
Pennsylvania 640 3,877 532 2,260

Nursery and Greenhouse Crop Production Figure 4.2. Poinsettia is the number-one flowering potted plant
in the United States, even though its traditional sales
The United States leads the world in the produc- period is just six weeks. Photo by Scott Bauer, Ag-
tion of nursery and greenhouse crops (USDA-ERS ricultural Research Service, U.S. Department of Ag-
1997b; 2000a). Much of this production is located near riculture, Beltsville, Maryland.
urban population centers. For example, the list of top
floricultural growers in the United States reveals that plants grown for use in flower beds, often referred to
all are headquartered in or near urban areas and that as color within the industry) are the two largest com-
most of their production facilities are located near ponents of green-industry crop production. Potted
urban areas (Appendix A, Table A.13). This colloca- flowering plants (e.g., chrysanthemums, poinsettias
tion is due primarily to the fact that most large grow- [Figure 4.2]), foliage plants (e.g., house plants), and
ers began their operations by serving regional super- cut flowers also are major components of the indus-
markets, discount centers, and home improvement try and often produced in protected spaces (e.g., plas-
chains (Onofrey 2000). The top states for nursery and tic or glass greenhouses).

Table 4.2. Production area and wholesale sales data for major components of the U.S. nursery and greenhouse crop production in 1997
(USDA 1999)

Protected production Field production Total number Total salesa

Component area (square ft) area (acres) of farms ($ million)
Bedding plants 307,696,181 20,085 18, 393 2,392
Bulbs 3,749,931 8,837 1,104 74
Cut flowers and greens 149,650,921 36,394 5,381 718
Flower and vegetable seed 3,004,025 74,526 1,785 124
Nursery crops 135,803,501 349,420 18,860 3,382
Potted flowering plants 155,298,507 4,385 7,390 1,068
Potted foliage plants 159,262,590 9,677 4,349 703

aTotal dollar sales expressed in the table correspond to the figures represented in the table.
Agriculture's Business Contributions to the Urbanizing Society 43

Although the United States is the largest produc- provement centers (e.g., Home Depot, Lowe's) are the
er in the world, it is a net importer of nursery and largest lawn and garden retailers (Figure 4.4) (Mo-
greenhouse crops (USDA-ERS 1997b, 1999, 2000a). rey, Morey, and Morey 2000). Other major retail out-
In 1998, total value of imported nursery and green- lets for green industry products are discount depart-
house crops was approximately $1.1 billion compared ment stores (e.g., K-Mart, Wal-Mart); garden centers,
with an export value of $264 million. The majority of which tend to be owned and operated regionally (e.g.,
import value (about $650 million) is attributed to cut Armstrong Garden Centers in California, Calloway's
flowers (e.g., roses, carnations), which are produced Nurseries in Texas); and supermarkets (e.g., Albert-
in large quantities in countries such as Colombia, son's). The top lawn and garden retail businesses in
Costa Rica, and The Netherlands. Nursery and green- the United States (in terms of total sales) are shown
house crop exports go primarily to Canada and Europe. in Appendix A, Table A.14. All these retailers have
major urban/suburban presences.
10
10
10
Lawn and Garden 9
9 retail sales
Store numbers 8
8

Store numbers (000s)

7
7

Sales ($ billion)
5938
6
6
5
5
4070
4
4
3.3 3
3 2400
2
2
1.4 656 580 1
1 0.4 0.2
0
0
Home Discount Garden Supermarkets Farm
Improvement Dept. Centers Stores
Figure 4.3. Greenhouse production of bedding plants. Photo Centers Stores
courtesy of Tim Davis, Texas Agricultural Experi-
Figure 4.4. Lawn and garden retail sales and store numbers for
ment Station, Dallas.
various types of retail outlets represented in the top
100 U.S. retailers.

Retail Garden Centers and Nurseries Landscape Design, Installation, and

Maintenance
In 1998, retail sales for nursery and greenhouse
products were nearly $55 billion (USDA-ERS 1999). The landscape portion of the green industry is di-
Per capita expenditures for indoor (e.g., cut flowers, vided into three segments: design, installation/con-
potted plants) and outdoor products (e.g., bedding struction, and maintenance. Design of outdoor spac-
plants [Figure 4.3], nursery stock) were approximate- es in urban areas is done by licensed landscape
ly $60 and $141, respectively. Compared with other architects (for relatively large, complex projects),
countries, the United States ranks twelfth in the
world for per capita expenditures for indoor flowers Table 4.3. Top ten states in terms of lawn and garden retail sales
and plants. In contrast, U.S. consumers spend two- in 1997 (Nursery Retailer 1998)
to threefold more per capita on outdoor plants than
State Sales ($ billion) % of total U.S. sales
consumers in other developed countries do. Accord-
ing to Butterfield (1998) almost three-quarters of U.S. California 7.9 10.3
households participated in some sort of lawn and gar- New York 6.1 8.0
Texas 4.6 6.1
den activities. The average amount spent per house-
Pennsylvania 4.1 5.3
hold was about $385 in 1997 (Butterfield 1998). Illinois 3.9 5.1
Not surprisingly, a major portion of green indus- Ohio 3.7 4.9
try products are sold where people live, that is, in Michigan 3.2 4.2
urban/suburban areas. The leading states in retail Florida 3.1 4.0
New Jersey 2.5 3.3
lawn and garden sales all have large urban popula-
Massachussets 2.0 2.6
tions (Table 4.3). In terms of total sales, home im-
44 Urban and Agricultural Communities: Opportunities for Common Ground

landscape designers, landscape contractors, nursery (USDA-NASS 1997a). Total grower receipts for sod
employees, or do-it-yourself homeowners. In 1999, sales in 1997 were slightly more than $800 million.
approximately $2 billion was spent for landscape de- Turfgrass management is a large enterprise in the
sign in the United States (ANLA 2001). Installation United States. The total amount spent on turfgrass
and construction of landscapes generally are accom- maintenance is difficult to determine accurately be-
plished by landscape contractors or homeowners. cause of the variety of turf areas (ranging from home
Total expenditure for landscape installation and con- landscapes to golf courses to athletic fields) and
struction in the United States was approximately $6.1 groups that maintain them. Total do-it-yourself ex-
billion in 1999 (ANLA 2001). Maintenance of land- penditures for residential lawn care in 1997 were es-
scapes is accomplished by a variety of groups such as timated at $6.4 billion at the retail level, with an av-
landscape contractors, specialized maintenance firms, erage household expenditure of $146 (Butterfield
public agencies, and homeowners. The total amount 1998). Approximately 45% of all U.S. households (46
spent on maintaining U.S. landscapes is difficult to million households) were involved in do-it-yourself lawn
determine because of the wide variety of businesses care. Texas, one of the larger turf maintenance states,
and types of landscapes maintained. Nonetheless, maintains approximately 3.5 million a. of turf (Lard and
total annual expenditures for residential tree care in Hall 1996), with total maintenance expenditures of
the United States in the mid-1990s was estimated at $4.13 billion, averaging $1,200/a. More than 60% of
approximately $1.5 billion (American Nurseryman total expenditures were for single-family residences.
1997). Similarly, residential shrub and lawn care ex-
penditures were approximately $1.4 billion and $6.4
billion, respectively, in 1997 (Butterfield 1998). Foliage Plants and Interiorscapes
A large urban state, California maintains 1.4 mil- Production of foliage plants is centered in large ur-
lion a. of landscape area, about half of which is resi- ban states. Indoor plant use increased dramatically
dential landscapes. Average annual expenditure in- during the environmental movement of the 1960s and
tensity (dollars spent/unit land area) for California 1970s. Accordingly, a specialized segment known as
landscapes was about $5260/a. (Templeton et al. the foliage plant industry emerged within the green
2000). industry. More recently, the importance of having
There are other indirect economic benefits of the plants in or near working, living, and recuperative
green industry. These benefits include worker em- environments has been documented more clearly by
ployment (estimated at 600,000 during peak seasons) scientific research (Fjeld 2000; Lohr and Pearson-
and expenditures for “hard goods,” which include fer- Mims 2000; Lohr, Pearson-Mims, and Goodwin 1996;
tilizers, pesticides, soil amendments, irrigation sys- Shoemaker et al. 1992; Ulrich 1979, 1981, 1984; Ul-
tems, lawn mowers, and other gardening equipment rich and Parsons 1992). Thus, plants have come to be
used to produce and to maintain plants. Landscapes used widely in building environments such as shopping
also influence real estate values. It is estimated that malls, office buildings, and hotel lobbies. A recent sur-
landscaping adds 7 to 15% value to a U.S. home vey indicated that about half of corporate facility man-
(ANLA 2001). Plants also can serve as a tourist at- agers used interior plants in 75 to 100% of their build-
traction (see Chapter 6). ings (Landicho 2000). Additional details regarding
plant/human interactions can be found in Chapter 5.
Production of foliage plants for interiorscapes is
Turfgrass Production and Management more than a $700 million/yr business (USDA-NASS
The turfgrass industry includes two major compo- 1997a). The top three foliage-producing states are
nents: production and management. Turf is produced Florida ($400 million/yr in grower receipts), Califor-
most commonly by means of either seed or sod. Grass nia ($135 million in grower receipts), and Texas ($30
seed production in the United States is centered in the million in grower receipts).
Pacific Northwest, with Oregon being the leading Approximately 30% of U.S. households use foliage
state nationwide (grass seed production in 1998 val- plants indoors (Butterfield 1998). Retail sales of foli-
ued at $338 million) (ODA 2001). Sod is produced on age plants in 1997 were approximately $1.1 billion,
specialized sod farms typically located near urban and average household expenditure was approximate-
areas. Sod is highly perishable and cannot be econom- ly $40/yr. Design, installation, and maintenance of
ically stored or transported extremely long distanc- interiorscapes in commercial buildings usually is car-
es. Nationwide, there are 1,800 sod farms that col- ried out by specialized interior contractors, some of
lectively have more than 300,000 a. of production whom also service the outdoor landscape market
Agriculture's Business Contributions to the Urbanizing Society 45

(West and Ott 1997). Services provided include plant York City, and the remainder distributed in the north-
rotations, pesticide applications, fertilization, prun- eastern United States.
ing, and holiday decorating. Little information is United States consumers spent approximately $8.2
available with which to quantify the economic contri- billion (or about $31/capita) on floral products in 1996
butions of the aforementioned activities. (USDA-ERS 1997b). Carnations (1.4 billion stems or
5.3 stems/capita, 90% of which are imported), roses
(1.2 billion stems or 4.4 stems/capita, 71% of which
Cut Flowers are imported), and chrysanthemums (746 million
The floral industry in the United States is large and stems or 2.8 stems/capita, 89% of which are import-
somewhat more complex than other segments of the ed) are sold in the largest quantities (USDA-ERS
green industry. Cut flowers (e.g., roses, carnations) 2000a). Overall, less than half the cut flowers pur-
are produced by growers, many of which are located chased by consumers are produced domestically.
outside of the United States. Growers sell floral prod- Nationwide, slightly more than half of all floral prod-
ucts to wholesalers, which, in turn, sell to retail out- ucts are sold by 42,000 retail florists. The remainder
lets such as florist shops and supermarkets. Because of the floral products are sold by 24,000 nonflorist
many floral products can be shipped long distance by businesses such as supermarkets, discount stores, and
air freight, retail sales are not necessarily proximal street vendors (Figure 4.5).
to production. Nonetheless, most cut flower produc- Another specialized spin-off of the floral industry
tion, whether or not in the United States, is located is wire service delivery (e.g., Telflora, 1-800- Flowers,
near urban areas because of the need for airports to Florafax International). Approximately $1.2 billion/
facilitate shipping. Not surprisingly, wholesalers and yr in cut flower sales are processed through these ser-
retailers of floral products are located primarily in vices (Flora-Stats 1998). This business is accom-
urban areas. plished by 29 million deliveries, most in urban areas,
In 1997, cut flower production occurred on approx- with an average value per delivery of $41. Floral prod-
imately 5,300 farms and generated $717 million in
grower receipts (USDA-NASS 1997a). The three lead-
ing states in cut flower production were California
($368 million in grower receipts), Florida ($175 mil-
lion), and Hawaii ($30 million). The domestic produc-
tion of major cut flowers such as roses and carnations
has been decreasing in recent years due to strong for-
eign competition. In contrast, domestic production of
specialty cut flowers such as snapdragons, sunflow-
ers, baby's breath, and statice has been increasing. A
specialized segment of the floral industry is the pro-
duction of cut green material that is used typically as
filler in floral arrangements.
The import value of cut flowers in the United States
has risen substantially during the 1990s, and more
than 3 billion stems now are imported annually
(USDA-ERS 1997b). Approximately 75% of foreign-
produced cut flowers (approximately 11 million box-
es/yr) are processed through Miami International
Airport (MIA). Cut flowers are the largest single cargo
product handled at MIA. This influx has created a
specialized cut flower processing industry in Miami
that employs approximately 5,400 individuals
(USDA-APHIS 1996). Most flowers arrive at MIA
from Central and South America and are inspected,
processed, and then distributed primarily by truck.
John F. Kennedy International Airport in New York
also receives large numbers of cut flowers, most com-
ing from The Netherlands. About half are sold in New Figure 4.5. Street vendor selling cut flowers.
46 Urban and Agricultural Communities: Opportunities for Common Ground

uct wholesalers, which link producers with retailers, to generate 1.4 million full time equivalent (FTE) jobs
are located primarily in urban areas. The typical throughout the United States and involves 7.1 mil-
wholesale firm has annual sales of $3.7 million, a pre- lion U.S. residents as owners, service providers, em-
tax profit of 2%, and a pretax return on assets (profit ployees, and volunteers. The industry pays $1.9 mil-
before taxes as expressed as a percentage of total as- lion in taxes to federal, state, and local governments
sets) of 7.6%. annually. In urban areas, it has a direct economic
effect of $2.8 billion, and in rural areas it has a direct
economic effect of $22.5 billion (AHCF 1996)
Companion Animal Industry Increased animal populations are common to ur-
Companion animals (e.g., horses, dogs, cats, ferrets, ban-fringe areas or in the rural-urban confluence.
alpaca, snakes, birds) play a large role in the urban Many kinds of livestock, including horses, are associ-
economy. The companion animal industry includes ated with small acreage ranchettes or hobby farms
the retail sales of animals, food, toys, health care, and (Figure 4.6), which frequently are interspersed with
other supplies for pets, and the jobs created to groom, farm businesses. Case studies of three rural-urban
kennel, and care for animals. Businesses supporting watersheds in the Lower Fraser River Valley (Brit-
pet owners include veterinary clinics and hospitals, ish Columbia) highlighted some of the potential prob-
animal breeders, retail outlets, petting zoos, insur- lems associated with this livestock build up. One case
ance agencies, cemetery and cremation providers, and reported on the Salmon River watershed, which is on
pet farms. Examples of the economic impact of the the rural-urban fringe of the Lower Mainland, west
companion animal industry are the following: (1) in of the city of Abbotsford. This once predominantly
1999, the pet-food industry reported sales of $25 bil- agricultural area is the home of an expanding resi-
lion/yr; (2) in 1998, U.S. households had 56.8 million dential community interspersed with intensive farm
dogs and 71.3 million cats; (3) U.S. residents spend operations. More and more people have moved to this
more annually on cat food than on baby food; and (4) area in search of a pastoral place to live, the result of
U.S. grandparents annually spend an average of which is a growing number of hobby farms. With this
$195.24 on their companion animals, compared with human migration to rural areas, the reported num-
$178.68 on their grandchildren (Bachman 2002). ber of horses has increased by 100%. Excessive ni-
Companion animals are projected to be a signifi- trate loading from animal wastes and fertilizer appli-
cant new market for human pharmaceuticals as cross- cation is affecting water quality in this ecosystem. As
over products, especially in the areas of anti-inflam- numbers of people and animals increase, so does the
matory drugs, cardiovascular and gastrointestinal potential for nitrate-N leaching into the aquifer (Ber-
treatments, behavior-modifying agents, and cancer ka, McCallam, and Wernick 1995).
drugs. According to the Theta Reports (2001), markets Without careful management, a large horse-popu-
for veterinary pharmaceuticals, diagnostics, and ani- lation can have negative environmental effects. For
mal products are expanding rapidly. The veterinary im- example, erosion from poor pasture or trail manage-
munodiagnostics sector is projected to grow 50% by
2005, an increase of $189 million from the 1999 value.

Equine Industry
According to a 1996 study commissioned by the
American Horse Council Foundation, the U.S. horse
industry is a $25.3 billion business. This diverse in-
dustry combines primarily rural activities (e.g., breed-
ing, training, maintaining, riding, and working on
farms and ranches) with more urban activities (e.g.,
racetracks, betting parlors, horse shows, public sta-
bles, police work). The study concluded that there
were more than 6.9 million horses in the United
States, including commercial and recreational hors-
es. The estimated number of people employed directly Figure 4.6. Horses graze next to housing in Montgomery
by the industry is more than 619,400 and 338,500 of County, Maryland. Photo by Tim McCabe, U.S. De-
these people are in full-time jobs. The industry is said partment of Agriculture.
Agriculture's Business Contributions to the Urbanizing Society 47

ment can contaminate waterways; flies and dust can that aquaculture production will have to increase sev-
be a health hazard; and excessive fertilizer and chem- enfold, from 11 million to 77 million metric tons (Mt)
ical use on forage production can lead to contaminat- by the year 2025 (USDA-ERS 1994).
ed water supplies. Tourists attracted to horse-relat- Urban and periurban aquaculture faces major chal-
ed enterprises can litter, vandalize, and destroy lenges in sustainability. This is associated with three
natural areas. On the other hand, horses can make major trends:
positive contributions to recreation, tourism, business 1. Movement toward intensification and use of in-
development, and individual therapy. dustrial technology, high production costs (e.g.,
water, feed, drugs), environmental effects, and
Aquaculture the targeting of high-income customers;
Aquaculture is the rearing of aquatic plants and an- 2. Intensity of urban development in pre- or rapid-
imals under controlled or semicontrolled conditions ly industrializing cities that limits resources and
(Stickney 1994). Practiced for more than 2,000 years the use of traditional practices, and late-indus-
in Asia, aquaculture is one of the fastest growing food- trializing cities that favor environmental policies
producing industries in the world today (NFI 1993). to encourage healthy production systems; and
Although aquaculture has been practiced for more 3. Urban-rural interfaces leading to more intensive
than a century in the United States, most industry practices, higher production costs, and fewer op-
growth has occurred over the past two decades. The portunities for low-income producers, all of which
U.S. aquaculture industry is ranked ninth in the make the sustainability of these practices a deli-
world in terms of the value of its products (nearly cate issue given the potential for pollution in an
$6.86 million) (New 1997); it also accounts for nearly already vulnerable urban environment (Martin-
181,000 jobs (USDA-ERS 1995). Global seafood de- ez-Espinoza 2000).
mand is expected to grow by 70% in the next 35 yr as Future aquaculture opportunities are associated
the global population increases. At the same time, with cultivation of fish for food in a controlled envi-
worldwide wild catches of many fish species are de- ronment, such as a tank or pond, and harvesting them
clining or have leveled off at maximum sustainable at a given size. For instance, FreshMarket Aquafarm
yields. For example, near collapse in the stocks of cod, in Holyoke, Massachusetts, cultivates Tilapia, an
halibut, and a number of other species has caused the easy-to-breed and inexpensive-to-feed species rela-
U.S. and Canadian governments to impose severe tively free from parasites and disease. This type of
harvesting cutbacks in the Georges Bank fishing area aquaculture may represent a more environmentally
of the northern Atlantic. As a result, the United and socially acceptable alternative to other types. In
States and Canada have placed increased priority on an ethnically diverse community such as Holyoke, the
cultivating these species (USDA-ERS 1995). operator of FreshMarket Aquafarm has found an ad-
To meet worldwide seafood demand, it is projected vantage in being able to target new types of custom-
ers and to contribute to the economic development of
the community (Ferguson 2001).
The aquaculture industry in the United States is
dominated by freshwater catfish production (Figure
4.7), which generates more than $1 billion annually.
Growth in other species, such as hard clams and At-
lantic salmon, has been continual, however. Although
the industry provides a number of economic benefits,
it can cause the following environmental problems:
biological pollution (from fish that escape from aquac-
ulture farms into wild fish populations), fish for fish-
feeds (wild-caught fish as feed, which depletes the
natural population), organic pollution and eutrophi-
cation (nutrient loading through fish waste dis-
charge), chemical pollution (potential harm from an-
Figure 4.7. Workers harvest catfish from the Delta Pride Catfish tibiotic and pesticide use), and habitat modification
farm in Mississippi. Photo by Ken Hammond, U.S. (marine predators may be unintentionally harmed)
Department of Agriculture.
(Goldburg, Elliott, and Naylor 2001).
48 Urban and Agricultural Communities: Opportunities for Common Ground

5 Agriculture's Contributions to Community

Health and Well-Being

the maintenance of more user-friendly urban environ-

Introduction ments. Such environments are conducive to relax-
Residents of the United States are increasingly ation, productivity, learning, and psychological
adopting a fast-paced life style. More amounts of per- health. Human–animal relationships are another
sonal time are being devoted to commuting and busi- part of the personal health equation. Careful atten-
ness activities, and less time to personal life. Daily tion should be paid to the role and the effects of ani-
exposure to a harsh and often unnatural environment mals in the urban setting, both as companions and as
heightens awareness of the need for aesthetically part of the natural landscape. Companion animals
pleasing indoor and outdoor environments. Daily traditionally have not been viewed as an agricultur-
contacts with nature that take place within land- al component; for centuries, however, humans and
scapes around homes, on the way to work, and in the livestock have been closely connected. Horses are a
workplace, make important contributions to a healthy primary example, as are other forms of livestock (cat-
personal, family, and work environment. Although tle, sheep, pigs, and goats) that have been included
an arbitrary choice has been made about whether to in 4-H and state fair programs, all of which are well
address these issues as “individual” or “community” accepted in the agricultural community. The authors
health contributors, in several instances the issues contend that the science of human–companion animal
could easily be handled in either category, such as the relationships will increase in importance as society
benefits that landscapes and natural settings provide becomes more urbanized. Although human and ani-
for daily freeway commuters. mal relationships have been shown to decrease stress
For the purposes of this report, community health and to serve as therapeutic mechanisms for improved
refers to the social and economic capacity of a com- personal health, there also are undesirable health
munity to create an environment that sustains the (personal, social) and environmentally related effects
visions, goals, and needs of the residents. This is that accompany their presence in areas of high popu-
achieved primarily through residents’ interactions lation density.
with each other, with people and organizations out- Companion animals offer therapeutic and health
side the community, and with the physical surround- benefits for people of all ages. For example, pet own-
ings. Both rural and urban communities consist of ers have been found to have lower blood pressure and
human, natural, and built environments. The health lower triglyceride and cholesterol levels (Anderson,
of this rural-urban agroecosystem is dependent on the Reid, and Jennings 1992). Pet owners have fewer
quality of plant, animal, and built community rela- minor health problems and better psychological well-
tionships. being and physical health (Serpel 1990). They also
The purpose of this chapter is to draw attention to have a higher survival rate after experiencing coro-
the role that plants and animals play in everyday nary heart disease (Friedmann and Thomas 1995).
human and community health. The following topics Dogs are preventive and therapeutic measures
are discussed: (1) individual health and well-being; (2) against everyday stress (Allen et al. 1991; Baun, Oet-
community quality of life; and (3) community food ting, and Bergstrom 1991; Nagengast et al. 1997;
systems. Raina et al. 1999). Pets positively affect autistic be-
havior in children (Redefer and Goodman 1989). The
elderly who own dogs go to the doctor less frequently
Individual Health and Well-Being than those who do not own dogs. Siegel (1990) found
Agricultural activities in such endeavors as forest- that Medicare patients who own pets had 21% fewer
ry, horticulture, veterinary medicine, animal science, physician contacts than nonpet owners did.
agroecology, sociology, and community development Although it is difficult to carry out scientific stud-
are positioned to contribute to the development and ies about the effects of pets, animals, and plants on

48
Agriculture's Contributions to Community Health and Well-Being 49

residents of treatment and/or care institutions, Tho- Matsuo 1995). Nurturing plants can provide a sense
mas (1994) attempted to create a relatively humane of responsibility and belonging that often is lacking
environment for nursing home residents. He envi- in institutional dementia care programs. McGuire
sioned homelike surroundings with companion ani- (1997) found that contact with living plants can stim-
mals, flower and vegetable gardens, visiting children, ulate wonder and appreciation within the institution-
and on-site day care for younger children. Commit- al environment while contributing a new sense of ex-
ted to the eradication of loneliness, helplessness, and citement. Therapeutic horticultural activities often
boredom, Thomas created the Eden Alternative, in are related to anticipation of the future as the garden-
which birds, dogs, and cats interacted daily with res- er waits for the flower and the ripening fruit (Lewis
idents. Planned landscapes, rabbits, and chickens 1988; Relf 1978). The potential of HT lies largely in
also contributed to the atmosphere. Dramatic reduc- its capacity to meet the needs and abilities of older
tions among the Eden group in the use of psychotro- adults and to rehabilitate and facilitate new skill de-
pic drugs for mind and mood altering, fewer deaths velopment (Sarno and Chambers 1997). Horticultural
than in the control group, and improved mental out- therapy has been applied with positive outcomes in
look among residents were well documented. institutional dementia care programs developed, im-
The understanding of human–animal and human– plemented, and modified to suit participant needs,
plant interactions is crucial to the serving of popula- abilities, and interests; HT also has been found to
tions with special therapeutic needs (e.g., individuals promote higher activity level, to improve mood, and
suffering from physical abuse, autism, depression,
sensory impairments, substance abuse, and social
deviation). Plants and planted landscapes (indoor and
outdoor) are effective healing tools in ameliorating
mental and physical disabilities. Landscape archi-
tects actively explore both healing landscapes and
therapeutic garden design for horticultural therapy
(HT). The uniqueness of landscape design for nurs-
ing homes and other housing facilities for elderly and
disabled persons is recognized internationally. Ul-
rich’s (1984) classic research reported that hospital
rooms with views of trees rather than brick walls
shortened patient stays in hospitals, encouraged de-
creased dosages of pain relievers, and lessened the
amount of patients’ negative feedback to the medical
staff. Cimprich (1993) reported that participating in
restorative nature activities helped women recover
from breast cancer.
The profession of HT is one of several processes
used to treat psychological and physical disorders.
Horticultural therapy programs are found in psychi-
atric hospitals, physical rehabilitation facilities, ed-
ucational centers for individuals with intellectual im-
pairments, and similar treatment facilities (Figure
5.1). Professional horticultural therapists also work
in vocational training programs, sheltered workshops,
and prisons. In addition, arboreta and botanic gar-
dens employ Registered Horticultural Therapists to
conduct educational outreach programs for profes-
sionals and clients in treatment facilities in their com-
munities (AHTA 2001).
Individuals engaged in horticultural activities ben- Figure 5.1. Raised-bed gardens make gardening accessible to
efit not only from associated physical exercise but also all ages and ability levels. Photo courtesy of the
from the sense of pride and accomplishment associ- American Horticultural Therapy Association, Den-
ated with horticultural success (Hill and Relf 1982; ver, Colorado.
50 Urban and Agricultural Communities: Opportunities for Common Ground

to maintain cognitive and functional skills (Bowie and a person can burn as many calories in 45 minutes of
Mountain 1997; Buettner 1995; Palleschi et al. 1996; gardening as in 30 minutes of aerobics. One hour of
Seifert 1998). Additional benefits include sensory weeding burns 300 calories, the same as walking or
stimulation and reminiscence (Namazi and Haynes bicycling at a moderate pace, and push-mowing of a
1994). lawn burns 500 calories/hr, the same rate as playing
Commuting has become one of life’s most stressful tennis. The American Heart Association and other
experiences. Through landscape applications, agri- medical groups recommend gardening and lawn care
culture can help alleviate this type of stress. In- activities as part of a healthy life style.
creased blood pressure is associated with longer or Daily contacts with natural landscapes around
more difficult commutes as are lowered job satisfac- homes create a healthy family atmosphere. The Na-
tion, higher illness rates, absenteeism, and dimin- tional Gardening Survey (Butterfield 2000) reports
ished performance on various cognitive tasks. Al- that 64% of U.S. households, or 67 million, participat-
though the stresses of driving and commuting are ed in one or more types of indoor and outdoor lawn
documented, surprisingly few studies have looked at and garden activities in 1999. People give many rea-
mitigating factors in the driving environment that sons for gardening, including increasing property
might ease stress. A Texas A&M University team of value, completing required yard maintenance, and
social scientists (Parsons et al. 1998) studied the ef- having a hobby. In an earlier study (Relf, McDaniel,
fects of roadside character on stress response. Using and Butterfield 1992), 37% of participants said that
physiological stress indicators such as heart rate, gardening provided a sense of peace and tranquility,
blood pressure, and skin conductance, investigators
discovered several response patterns. Drivers view-
ing built-up, strip-mall style roadside environments
both slowed down and experienced impeded recovery
from stressful situations. Study participants exposed
to roadside nature scenes (forests or golf courses) re-
turned to normal baseline measures faster and had a
greater ability to cope with stress factors than those
who were not so exposed. Researchers hypothesized
an “immunization effect” in which exposure to a nat-
ural roadside setting diminished the magnitude of
response to a later stressful task. This suggested that
an “inoculation” of nature experience may enhance a
driver’s ability to cope with driving stresses.
Documented physiological changes related to recov-
ery from stress include lowered blood pressure and
decreased muscular tension (Ulrich and Simons
1986). Even brief, visual contacts with plants, such
as in urban tree plantings or office parks, may be valu-
able in recovery from mild, daily stress. Ulrich and
Simons (1986) have demonstrated that recovery from
stress is facilitated when nature scenes are viewed.
Honeyman (1987) suggested that even in an urban
environment with buildings, settings with vegetation
may be more restorative than settings without those
natural elements.
The sedentary life style in the United States, as
well as the preference for processed, easy-to-access
foods and the abundance of food consumed, is an un-
derlying factor associated with many major health
problems, from heart disease, stroke, and diabetes to
obesity and depression. Active participation in gar- Figure 5.2. Gardening can be enjoyed by persons of all ages.
dening has been found to be good exercise and, thus, Photo courtesy of the American Horticultural
good for physical health. Taylor (1990) reported that Therapy Association, Denver, Colorado.
Agriculture's Contributions to Community Health and Well-Being 51

and 24% said that it gave them a sense of control over ize on scenic amenities and existing climatic condi-
their immediate environment. Forty percent report- tions. Understanding the effects of the human-altered
ed that being around plants helped them feel calmer environment (e.g., atmospheric and soil pollution,
and more relaxed, and 46% said that nature was es- heat islands, soil compaction, and water availability)
sential to their well-being (Figure 5.2). on urban plant communities is crucial to maintain-
Urban plant communities increase worker produc- ing their longevity. Understanding the contributions
tivity. Small increases in job satisfaction and produc- that natural areas provide to the community (e.g., air
tivity can have significant effects on the net profit of filtering, temperature buffering, wind diversion, and
a business. Several studies of interiors with windows psychological benefits) is equally important. Knowl-
have documented people’s greater preferences for edge of communities’ cultural patterns and social
views with vegetation or nature than for “visually structures also ensures that built, planted, and nat-
impoverished” alternatives (Markus 1967; Verderber ural areas contribute to supportive social relation-
1986). Kaplan and colleagues (1988) reported that ships and overall quality of life.
workers with a view of natural elements, such as trees Gardens built and maintained by community resi-
and flowers, experience less job pressure, are more dents provide opportunities for residents to exert con-
satisfied with their jobs, and have fewer ailments and trol over their neighborhood so that it can be a source
headaches than those who have either no outside view of pride (Figure 5.3). Because people create these
or can see only built elements from their windows. gardens, they serve as a mechanism for both work and
The mere knowledge that a view is available is im- social life (Francis 1987). According to Feenstra and
portant to employees. colleagues (1999), positive effects of community gar-
dens include enhanced neighborhood cohesion and
trust, decreased racial discrimination, increased num-
Community Quality of Life bers and quality of neighborhood associations, and
Appropriate use of natural and landscaped areas enhanced civic participation among gardeners. Gar-
in urban environments can foster a variety of quali- deners also connect with members of different groups
ty-of-life benefits, including enhanced social functions, with which they may not normally come into contact.
community cohesion, pride of ownership, and sense In urban tree-planting programs, sociological fac-
of place. Only with a thorough knowledge of the to- tors may be more important than biological factors in
tal agroecosystem and its history, including an under- tree survival. Public works plantings that have no in-
standing of the people, will it be possible to optimize volvement from the community in planning or instal-
natural, built, planted, and human resources. For lation may lack grassroots support and be open to lo-
example, cities situated along waterways can capital- cal action to subvert efforts. For example, as part of
one model city’s program, officials planted 2,000 trees,
few of which were standing two years later. With com-
munity involvement, tree survival increased and
many human benefits resulted, such as enhancement
of the sense of community, a positive social identity
for participants, increased personal identification
with the neighborhood, and personal control over the
neighborhood (Ames 1980).
Planted landscapes in public housing neighbor-
hoods foster warmer human relationships, less ver-
bal and physical aggression, less violence, and im-
proved parenting and child development. Among
older adults, spending time in planted outdoor spac-
es also is related to stronger social integration and
sense of community (Kuo and Sullivan 1996). Evi-
dence suggests that the public prefers the undevel-
oped character of natural areas on the urban fringe.
Figure 5.3. Residents enjoy their community garden at the At the same time, it is important that these places
Northpoint Apartments in Mt. Olive, North Carolina. look maintained. There is support for lower cost, and
Photo by Ken Hammond, U.S. Department of Agri- often for more sustainable maintenance practices, and
culture. users are often willing to help maintain landscapes.
52 Urban and Agricultural Communities: Opportunities for Common Ground

In fact, user involvement yields many benefits. Eco- into their daily routine. As a result, public health pro-
logical restoration generates satisfaction, and neigh- fessionals are emphasizing the need to build commu-
borhood greening strengthens communities (Kuo and nities that encourage people to exercise and to gar-
Sullivan 2001). Landscapes and gardens may help in- den. Researchers report benefits such as increased
dividuals to overcome social isolation, as exemplified self-esteem, pride, confidence, personal satisfaction
by plant societies and shows, which provide opportu- and efficacy, and a sense of stability among garden-
nity for people to share interests. ers (Blair, Giesecke, and Sherman 1991; Feenstra,
Community gardens can decrease crime. Feenstra McGrew, and Campbell 1999; Pothukuchi and Bick-
and colleagues (1999) and Littman (1996) reported es 2001). Several studies also have attested to the
that community gardens decreased crime and vandal- increased satisfaction with the quality of gardeners’
ism in Philadelphia. In one Philadelphia neighbor- lives (Waliczek et al. 1996) and community spirit
hood where residents participated in a community (Littman 1996).
greening program, a 90% decrease in neighborhood These projects also offer youth and other members
crime occurred (Macpherson 1993). In the Mission of marginalized groups opportunities to develop lead-
District of San Francisco, residents documented a 28% ership abilities. In Boston, Massachusetts, for exam-
drop in crime after the first year of their garden ple, youth who participate in The Food Project “learn
project (Malakoff 1995). In parts of Los Angeles, com- what a season is, what a cycle is, that it takes time to
munity gardens were one of the few things to survive go through a season and your own inner development”
the 1992 riots. Kuo and Sullivan (1996) found that
green space areas play an important role in commu-
nity safety by decreasing the incidence of vandalism,
litter, and graffiti, and that people living adjacent to
densely planted areas feel an enhanced sense of safe-
ty (Kuo and Sullivan 2001).
Appropriate planning and landscape design can
moderate and manage traffic, improve pedestrian
safety, and facilitate decreases in crime and violence.
Traffic calming is accepted widely as a technique by
which landscaped circles and speed control mecha-
nisms slow traffic and reclaim streets for pedestrians
and neighborhoods. In Seattle, the city’s traffic calm-
ing program has decreased pedestrian accidents by
more than 75% (Lockwood and Stillings 2001).
Streetscaping techniques in conjunction with traffic
calming manage traffic effectively by decreasing
speeds of cars, collision frequency and severity, cut-
through traffic, and need for police monitoring. In
addition, they can promote quality of life, pollution
reduction, water infiltration, and improved visual
aesthetics of street environments (Lockwood and Still-
ings 2001).
The design and maintenance of outdoor spaces in-
fluence public health, social interactions, daily stress,
and quality of life. The Local Government Commis-
sion (2001) reports that, in recent years, public health
professionals are recognizing that well planned and
built communities have an effect on the health and
well-being of U.S. residents. In fact, the Centers for
Disease Control and Prevention attribute a sedentary
life style, in part, to current land-use and transpor- Figure 5.4. Assisted by staff from the Chicago Botanic Garden,
tation patterns. Studies have found that individuals Chicago public school students work in a teaching
are more likely to engage in the required amount of garden. Photo courtesy of Chicago Botanic Garden,
moderate physical activity if they can incorporate it Glencoe, Illinois.
Agriculture's Contributions to Community Health and Well-Being 53

(Lazarus 2000). Gardens provide experiences that closer together);

help children develop a better self-image, respect for • self-reliance (the community’s attempt to meet its
property, patience, analytical thinking, trust in cycles, own food needs); and
remorse, pragmatic acceptance of failure, and oppor- • sustainability of the system (e.g., when farming
tunities for improvement (Figure 5.4). practices are less reliant on chemicals and fertil-
The character of a place affects both residents and izer, when residents take an active role in food
visitors and is important to business communities system planning, and when a strong market ex-
because it influences consumer choices. In a study of ists nearby to ensure a reasonable return for
revitalizing districts in eight U.S. cities, both business those involved [Wilkins 2000]).
people and residents gave higher ratings to scenes
with trees. An orderly and well-maintained planting The United States is experiencing increased pub-
scheme of both trees and accessory vegetation pro- lic interest in local and regional food systems (Clan-
duced the highest visual quality ratings. Consumers cy 2000; Integrity Systems 1997). This public inter-
who rated three hypothetical business districts indi- est is driven by a number of factors including farmers’
cated significantly higher scores for districts with desires to capture a greater share of the profit by
street trees and other landscape improvements. marketing direct to the customer, customers’ de-
Amenity and comfort ratings were approximately 80% mands for more knowledge about the source of their
higher for a tree-lined sidewalk than for a nonshad- food and its production methods, and growing public
ed street. Quality of products purchased was rated interest in establishing a relationship with the farm-
30% higher in districts having trees than in districts ers who produce their food. This interest also may
with barren sidewalks (Wolf 1998). The following coincide with people’s need to re-establish a sense of
factors have been documented as positive outcomes community and a connection with their rural heritage.
of planted urban landscapes: customer patronage and Nonprofit organizations and the media are express-
higher commercial land values, occupancy rates, and ing concern about the state of the family farm, the
property values (Bradley 1995; Dwyer et al. 1992; effect of corporate farming on physical and spiritual
Orland and Ebreo 1992). health and on the health of local communities, global
Access to nature is important to life satisfaction and domestic food security, and the need for a closer
(Fried 1982) and to neighborhood satisfaction (Frey connection between rural and urban communities and
1981). Detroit residents reported that parks and policies. The food system may be a mechanism for
street trees were second only to education in the per- bringing certain diverse interests together to achieve
ceived value of municipal services (Getz, Karow, and a more sustainable future.
Kielbasco 1982), and retirement community selection There are other reasons for the growing interest in
is associated with well-landscaped grounds (Brown a more localized food system. Urban food systems are
1992). more adaptable and mobile than industrialized sys-
tems. As cities expand physically, the boundaries
between what is urban, periurban (urban edge), and
Community Food Systems rural are blurring, thus creating new opportunities.
A food system consists of all of the steps involved Consumers are placing greater value on freshness and
in putting food on the table (e.g., growing, harvesting, flavor and on personal health and safety. Diets tend
processing, packaging, transporting, marketing, con- to improve when family members or children are in-
suming, and disposing). A community food system, volved in producing and preparing their own food.
often promoted as an ideal, aims to integrate all the When farmers have access to consumers, as in or near
processes or steps enhancing environmental, econom- MAs, high-value products also can add significantly
ic, social, and individual health. A food system may to income.
be simple, complex, local, global, or regional. There This fact is substantiated by gross returns at farm-
are four qualities, however, that distinguish a com- ers’ markets, which typically are 200 to 250% great-
munity (sometimes referred to as “local” or “region- er than those at wholesale fresh markets (Integrity
al”) food system from the global food system, the lat- Systems 1997). Another stimulus for change in the
ter being the source of most U.S. food. They are U.S. food system can be traced to fears of terrorism
and the perceived threat of global food contamination.
• concern for food security; Only time will tell whether the terrorist events of 2001
• proximity or distance between system compo- will have a significant effect on consumers’ desires to
nents (the producer and consumer are usually access foods originating close to home.
54 Urban and Agricultural Communities: Opportunities for Common Ground

Urban food systems, a global phenomenon, are ture (see section on Aquaculture in Chapter 4) and
sources of products valued in the tens of millions of land availability and security.
U.S. dollars (USD) annually in less developed coun- Based on 1993 estimates, 800 million people in the
tries. Despite the difficulty of characterizing the lo- world are engaged actively in urban agriculture. In
cation (urban, suburban, periurban) of these activi- 1995, urban areas produced between 15 and 20% of
ties, there is general agreement regarding the the world’s food. By the time half the world’s popula-
important role that agriculture plays in adding to the tion is urban, half of the food consumed in cities will
food security of poor households within and around have urban sources (Smit 1996).
cities. Urban food systems enhance household and Community food systems, which may be found in
community income, contribute to environmental pro- rural and urban areas, provide an alternative to the
tection and conservation, serve as educational tools, more industrialized, high-volume food systems. They
and improve the nutritional status of children. Ur- involve a direct connection between the producer and
ban agriculture also includes, in addition to food, or- the customer through such activities as entrepreneur-
namental and agroindustrial plants, silk worms, to- ial gardens, farmers’ markets (Figure 5.5), community
bacco, aquaculture, and other noteworthy economic supported agriculture (CSA), farm-to-table programs,
activities (Mougeot 2000). u-pick and roadside stand operations, and neighbor-
In Cairo (Egypt), almost 30% of low-income house- hood food buying clubs. The next sections will discuss
holds were found to keep livestock estimated to be CSAs, entrepreneurial gardens, farmers’ markets,
worth nearly one month’s income. In Sofia (Bulgar- and farm-to-table programs.
ia) in the late 1980s, private urban farms supplied the
city with 48% of its milk and eggs, 53% of its pota-
toes, and 50% of its vegetables. In West African cit-
ies such as Dakar (Senegal), Kumasi (Ghana), Lome
(Togo), and Bissau (Guinea-Bissau), food production
systems have been growing, as has the amount of land
used for this purpose, with correspondingly higher
yields. In Havana (Cuba) and Cagayan del Oro (Phil-
ippines), small livestock systems are growing faster
than plant-based systems. Several studies of urban
agriculture in Kenya have been conducted, one of
which calculates the value of Nairobi farmers’ 1987
annual (two-season) off-plot crop production at 4 mil-
lion USD. Few studies have documented the direct
economic contributions of urban agriculture to the city
systematically, or to the rest of the urban economy Figure 5.5. An abundance of fresh vegetables is offered for sale
at a weekly farmers’ market. Photo by Bill
(e.g., through inputs and human resources associat- Tarpenning, U.S. Department of Agriculture.
ed with fencing, storage, transportation, and process-
ing [Mougeot 2000]).
According to the Food and Agriculture Organiza- Community Supported Agriculture
tion (FAO) (1999a), commercial periurban livestock
production represents 34% of world meat production Community Supported Agriculture, a relatively
and almost 70% of worldwide egg production. The ef- new production and marketing system, is a way for
ficiency of horticultural crop production is attractive suburban, urban, and rural residents to support a
when land and water resources are limited. Using farm operation directly. Consumers buy shares in a
vacant land, recycled water and waste, and family farm at the beginning of the season in exchange for
labor, as well as preserving self-produced food also are farm products throughout the season. Producers pro-
attractive practices. Almost 90% of households that vide a weekly food supply consisting typically of or-
engage in urban agriculture are estimated to preserve ganic produce and sometimes including milk, cheese,
and store some of the food produced. Use of recycled eggs, meat, honey, plants, and other farm products.
wastewater that is not treated for food production Products may come from the farm with which there
carries some risk; when properly managed, however, is a contract or through a cooperative arrangement
the risk is minimal. Additional challenges include with neighboring farms that have different products.
water quality issues associated with urban aquacul- Because the CSA consumers share the overall risks
Agriculture's Contributions to Community Health and Well-Being 55

of the operation in exchange for a share of the har- clubs. Inner-city youth teams have helped plant,
vest, they often are called sharers, or shareholders. weed, and harvest crops at Holcomb Farm (Hender-
Sometimes sharers work on the farm during the grow- son and Van En 1999)
ing season. The CSAs depend on the active interest The CSAs are both a social and a nutritional out-
of consumers. Customers become shareholders be- let. Because their supporters are very committed and
cause CSAs are a source of fresh produce (often or- their numbers are increasing rapidly, they often con-
ganic); because of the value they place on a healthy sider themselves part of a social movement. In the
growing environment; and because they want to sup- United States, the movement began on Robyn Van
port local farmers. Customers also appreciate know- En’s Massachusetts farm in 1985, when a friend re-
ing how and where their food is grown and the oppor- turned from Switzerland and told her about his ex-
tunities to participate in a food community, to connect perience working with a group of Swiss farmers. Van
to the land, and to teach their children about the land. En was so taken with his account that she launched
The CSAs often provide other benefits to further her own CSA and announced the idea of “share the
the connection between urban and rural life. Some costs to share the harvest” (Henderson and Van En
decrease the price of a share in exchange for labor or 1999).
offer farm tours, special events, and seasonal celebra- A CSA-equivalent operation first was developed by
tions to involve sharers and their families in farm life. a group of women in Japan in 1965 who were con-
Some CSAs have broader human services agendas cerned about “pesticides, the increase in processed
and donate excess food to low-income or nutrition and imported foods, and the corresponding decrease
programs. For example, in Hadley, Massachusetts, in the local farm population” (Henderson and Van En
a Food Bank started its own CSA. Every year the 1999, xvi). They approached a local farmer and cre-
farm donates tens of thousands of pounds of fresh food ated a cooperative agreement to support the farm
to programs feeding hungry and homeless people operation in exchange for a share of the harvest.
(Butler and Carkner 2001). Thus, the distant origin of the U.S. CSA is the teikei
Certain CSAs go even further, combining low-in- movement in Japan. Currently, Japan has more than
come food assistance with training programs. Since 600 producer-consumer groups, which supply food to
1978, the Hartford Food System (HFS) has offered so- more than 11 million people (University of Wiscon-
lutions for the city of Hartford, Connecticut’s food sin–Madison 2001).
problems. They organized a farmers’ market, the first Introduced into the United States in 1986, commu-
of 48 across the state. Along with the Women, Infants, nity supported farms now are estimated to number
and Children (WIC) program, the Connecticut Depart- approximately 1,000 in the United States. The fact
ment of Agriculture, and other agencies, the HFS that in 1996, the 65 CSAs in Wisconsin produced food
helped launch the Connecticut Farmers’ Market Nu- for an estimated 3,000 households exemplifies their
trition program, which now provides more than effect on urban and suburban households. But CSAs
50,000 WIC recipients with nearly $400,000 of cou- are such a recent development in the U.S. food and
pons that they can redeem at farmers’ markets to buy agricultural system that little formal documentation
fresh produce. They also helped expand this program about their effect exists. Given their rapid acceptance,
to senior citizens. however, it is possible that they will follow the farm-
And, in 1993, after many years of creating links be- ers’ markets movement, filling a niche for urban con-
tween farmers and low-income consumers, the HFS sumers hungry for a closer connection with farming
joined the Friends of Holcomb Farm Estate to create and the land.
a CSA. Their goal was to create a CSA from which
half of their 16 a. of fruits and vegetables would go to
low-income Hartford residents and community orga- Entrepreneurial Food Gardens and Farms
nizations. For every 5 a. cultivated, Holcomb Farm Agriculture in the United States is taking on a new
provides two shares to local social services. As a re- look. The change is driven by such factors as farm-
sult, the YMCA Youth Shelter became involved with ers’ needs to retain more profit, public concern about
the farm and started a farm stand. Teenage girls that potentially negative effects of farming on the environ-
are served by the shelter sell vegetables and home- ment, and family efforts to engage in more satisfying
made products such as salsa. They gain retail expe- life styles. As a result, farmers (and gardeners) are
rience and earn money for other activities. Another becoming increasingly entrepreneurial. For example,
nonprofit group devoted to rebuilding Hartford’s they are adding value to their products by marketing
North End gives out CSA shares through 17 block processed products or by selling a special product
56 Urban and Agricultural Communities: Opportunities for Common Ground

identity with more customer appeal. Some entrepre- velopment. For example, the gardens of New York
neurs are using innovative direct marketing strate- City (there are more than 700 sites) are seen by city
gies or forming alliances with other farmers or mem- government as a potential source of tax revenue,
bers of the value chain (processors, distributors, whereas neighborhoods view them as valuable open
retailers). They are cutting costs, decreasing their spaces (Gowda 2002).
dependency on off-farm inputs (purchased fertilizer, Through the sale of locally grown product and val-
pest control, seed, or labor), or growing organic prod- ue-added products, community gardens help circulate
ucts. Some are finding that farming or gardening can money locally and strengthen networks among and
be more economical and more satisfying when done between neighborhood groups, local businesses, local
in harmony with the natural ecosystem (USDA governments, and nonprofit organizations. Feenstra
2001c). and colleagues (1999) found that local businesses were
As stated earlier (Chapter 2), vacant urban land hiring community garden project participants for new
can be a resource for urban gardens and farms. Ur- jobs or contributing financial resources in exchange
ban farms and garden enterprises employ a variety for goods and services provided by these projects (e.g.,
of marketing models including neighborhood farm- fresh produce, landscaping, and nursery work). When
stands, CSAs, cooperatives, direct sales to grocery urban gardeners/farmers sell directly to consumers,
outlets and to institutions, value-added processing they earn more than they do when selling to an in-
and sales, and sales at farmers’ markets (Feenstra, termediary or a redistribution center.
McGrew, and Campbell 1999). Urban farms seem As urban populations expand, opportunities for
frequently to require heavy infusions of funding to nearby farmers to grow new types of crops and to
support startup activities, and they may achieve only market them in more creative ways (e.g., to restau-
marginal profitability. Feenstra and colleagues rants, grocery outlets, roadside stands, and u-pick
(1999) found that of the 23 projects providing enough operations) also expand. Heimlich and Anderson
information to allow calculation of a self-sufficiency (2001) and Heimlich and Barnard (1997) categorize
index (the percentage of total program expenses cov- metropolitan farms as one of three types:
ered by sales), 19 (83%) projects had a self-sufficien- • Recreational farms, which sell less than $10,000
cy index of less than 50%. Only four (17%) of the annually, consist of fewer than 100 a., and require
projects were at least moderately self-sufficient. little daily management;
Gross sales of gardens in one study differed widely;
70% of gardens, however, sold less than $25,000/yr. • Adaptive farms, which sell $10,000 or more an-
For the gardens that currently exist, market sales nually of high-value products making up one-
tend not to be a high priority, a fact that may be ex- third of sales with more than $500 in sales/a., ne-
plained by the difficulties gardens face. A 1999 study cessitate intensive labor and input management
of members by the American Community Gardening on 100- to 200 a., and operate as a business ex-
Association (ACGA) found that they ranked “entre- clusively or with other enterprises;
preneurial enterprises” ninth out of ten important • Traditional farms, which sell $10,000 annually of
garden characteristics (Feenstra, McGrew, and high-value products making up one-third or less
Campbell 1999). Gardens, however, provide multiple of sales with $500 or less sales/a., or convention-
benefits for individuals, households, and communities al livestock and/or crops that make up more than
in ways that are measured less easily. one-third of sales, consist of more than 200 a. (the
Although many urban gardens are owned private- largest of the three types of farms), and necessi-
ly, most are found on unused public land and in com- tate extensive management rather than intensive
munities where there is a shortage of public parks and management, and little off-farm employment.
safe gathering places. Urban community gardens fre- In 1997, recreational farms were estimated to ac-
quently are developed on unwanted land that has count for 16 to 18% of U.S. farms, yet they contribut-
been a dumping area for waste of all kinds. In com- ed only 1% to aggregate U.S. sales of agricultural
munities such as New York City, Philadelphia, and products. They accounted for 51 to 54% of farms in
San Francisco, community gardens are viewed as a MAs and controlled 29 to 30% of farm sector assets
civic resource in the sense that they contribute beau- and equity and 14 to 17% of land in operation. Rec-
ty, security, and neighborliness, but they also contrib- reational farms tended to survive less frequently than
ute economic and physical sustenance and a range of adaptive farms. Adaptive farms, which seem the best
social services. One of the dilemmas facing commu- survivors of the three types, accounted for 13 to 14%
nity gardens is how to protect these areas from de- of metropolitan farms and 9 to 12% of metropolitan
Agriculture's Contributions to Community Health and Well-Being 57

farm acreages in operation. Traditional farms, mak- an important part of the marketing chain, permitting
ing up one-third of metro farms, operated 71 to 77% both producer and consumer to express a product pref-
of metro farm acreage and controlled more than 40% erence.
of assets, sales, and net cash income. Like recreation- Increasingly, farmers are using labels to identify
al farms, however, they had a lower survival rate than particular product attributes that appeal to custom-
adaptive farms (Heimlich and Anderson 2001). ers. Labels convey information to a buyer, enabling
Entrepreneurial gardens and farms provide amen- the customer to exercise discretion in purchase. In this
ities that are not always measured in economics way, the buyer is able to purchase the bundle of prod-
terms. As communities become more built up and con- uct qualities that she/he wants, such as organically
gested, farmland often is valued for scenery and rec- grown strawberries, free-range chickens, naturally
reational opportunities such as hiking and bird watch- raised pork, or environmentally friendly lumber pro-
ing and for the satisfaction that comes from knowing duced with sustainable practices. Labels broaden
land is protected. Studies have indicated that people opportunities for farmers and consumers alike, cre-
are sometimes willing to pay about $150 each to pre- ating additional points of contact and greater under-
serve an acre of farmland when its potential replace- standing between the two groups. Labels help farm-
ment is high-density development, but only $50 if low- ers separate their products from the homogeneous
density development is the potential replacement generic varieties found in supermarkets or mass dis-
(Heimlich and Anderson 2001). count markets. Labels can help consumers buy from
If the farm or garden is a u-pick operation where local farmers, expressing direct support for what their
customers procure home-grown fruit or vegetables, neighbors are doing. Labeling often is employed as
the customer may find the produce a bargain but the an official instrument of policy, enabling customers
farmer may only break even. According to the USDA to purchase a greater level of food safety or quality if
study conducted by Integrated Systems Cooperative they prefer but permitting other buyers to purchase
Co. (1997), u-pick prices average about half those in at the lowest price without those unique product at-
retail stores. If a farmer pays the cost of strawberry tributes. Customers are willing to pay for certain food
picking labor, for instance, there may be little advan- quality characteristics or special-process attributes
tage in selling direct to the customer. The same study (Caswell 1998).
noted, however, that sustainable community food dis- An example that combines several of these meth-
tribution systems have a clear advantage over indus- ods is used by Stahlbush Island Farms, Inc. in west-
trial food systems because costs for the former typi- ern Oregon. The company has built its market by as-
cally are lower for such things as transportation, suring buyers that vegetables produced on its farms
promotion, broker/distribution fees, warehousing, fi- are raised according to sustainable, “green” farming
nancing, and packaging. Community food system practices, which means certified organic for many
distribution costs usually are higher for start-up mar- products and minimal pesticide use, rotational prac-
keting and distribution, and for labor. tices, nutrient management, and ground-water pro-
On December 20, 1999, the USDA adopted rules by tection measures for the others. Persons buying sweet
which certain foods may be certified as organic. Con- corn or broccoli from Stahlbush know that the farm-
sumers who want to buy organic foods can do so now er is making a special effort to protect the environ-
with reasonable assurance that the product is organ- ment and their families’ health. Stahlbush farming
ic. Farmers or gardeners who want to produce for this practices are communicated to buyers. In fact, buyer
specialized market can do so knowing that all others preferences completely drive production decisions.
will be held to the same standard. Sales of organic Buyers generally sign a contract with Stahlbush be-
foods have grown at least 20%/yr in the 1990s and now fore the crop is planted. The farmer team invests
amount to nearly $8 billion/yr (Brasher 2000). These heavily in the latest information and technology con-
new USDA rules implement the Organic Foods Pro- sistent with members’ production philosophies.
duction Act of 1990, improving earlier language that Theirs is not a small farm, but an industrial one with
did not identify genetically altered or irradiated foods a different approach to production and customer re-
adequately and bringing a degree of consistency to the lations, which is based on labeling (Chambers and
national organic marketplace. A producer wishing to Eisgruber 1997).
be certified must have periodic inspections and main- Agriculture has been associated, typically, with tra-
tain extensive records. Organic production systems ditional food and fiber production practices. With
emphasize use of compost; thus a waste stream be- continued increases in available resources, in aware-
comes a valued nutrient source. The organic label is ness of conservation and resource preservation, in
58 Urban and Agricultural Communities: Opportunities for Common Ground

internationalization of the population, in use of waste II, after which they declined when refrigeration, im-
recycling, in leisure time, in concern for quality of life, proved transportation, and supermarkets changed the
and in demand for companion animals, more oppor- face of food retailing in the United States. Farmers’
tunities for marketing innovative products exist than markets enhance peoples’ direct contact with agricul-
ever before. Among the areas with potential are spe- ture in their own cities and towns. For inner city res-
cialized ornamental or green industry crops, seed pro- idents living in neighborhoods too poor to support a
duction (e.g., wild flower and native plants), potting supermarket, farmers’ markets can be one of the few
media ingredients, forest products (wild crafting), pets places that residents buy fresh fruit and vegetables
(e.g., rabbits, snakes), specially trained dogs, compost (Abel, Thomson, and Maretzki 1999).
and soil microorganisms, worms, bugs, and other gar- In the past 20 years, the number of farmers’ mar-
dening or fishing aids. With the interest in restora- kets has increased dramatically in the United States.
tion and amelioration of the natural environment, In 1980, the USDA reported fewer than 100 farmers’
more opportunities for plants for highway revegeta- markets in operation. By the 1990s, they had grown
tion, wetlands, native sites, riparian restoration, and in such great popularity that the Agricultural Mar-
meadows exist. keting Service (AMS) of the USDA began collecting
Also of interest are products derived from nontim- data on them in 1994. According to the USDA (2001a),
ber urban forestry and horticultural products (NTUF- there has been a 63% increase in the number of farm-
HP). Products generated for cash and barter include
lumber, pulpwood, hobbyist woods, fruits, nuts,
mulch, composting materials, firewood, and nursery
plants. Through interviews and observations, 163
urban forest products were documented in Baltimore,
with at least 103 products from 78 species (Commu-
nity Resources 2000). Additionally, phone interviews
documented 57 products collected in Philadelphia and
26 fruit and nut products collected in Boston. These
103 NTUFHPs included edible (43%), medicinal (8%),
horticultural or nursery (31%), and decorative and
craft (18%) products. In addition to the direct econom-
ic value of NTUFHPs for personal use, NTUFHPs and
the NTUFHP collection process provided recreation-
al, nutritional, educational, and cultural benefits to
collectors. The estimated annual economic value from Figure 5.6. The Crescent City Farmers’ Market meets in New
product-producing trees ranged from $4/yr for an av- Orleans, Louisiana, every Saturday morning. Photo
erage mulberry tree to more than $100/yr for average by Bill Tarpenning, U.S. Department of Agriculture.
apricot, Chinese chestnut, and peach trees. The av-
erage annual value for product-producing trees quan-
tified in this study was $50/tree/yr. ers’ markets during a six-year period (1994 to 2000),
from 1,755 in 1994, to 2,410 in 1996, and to 2,866 in
2000. The 2000 National Farmers Market Directory
Farmers’ Markets documented more than 2,800 farmers’ markets in the
A farmers’ market is a gathering place where two United States. Consumer acceptance of this market-
or more farmers come together to sell their products ing mechanism is a clear indication of the integration
directly to consumers, often from the back of trucks of farmers’ markets into the rural-urban continuum.
or in specially constructed stands. Many markets are Farmers markets’ are important revenue sources. In
seasonal “open air” markets, operated outdoors and 2000, 19,000 farmers sold their produce only at farm-
often in public spaces (Figure 5.6). Farmers’ markets ers’ markets. Eighty-two percent of farmers’ markets
offer a regular outlet where vendors sell a variety of are self-sustaining; 58% of markets participate in WIC
local agricultural products ranging from fresh fruits, coupon programs or local and/or state nutrition pro-
vegetables, and flowers to honey, plants, meat, chees- grams; and 25% of markets take part in gleaning pro-
es, eggs, Christmas trees, and value-added products grams that distribute food and food products to needy
such as pickles, jams, candles, or dried fruits. Farm- families (USDA 2001a). Their renaissance is strik-
ers’ markets were a common venue before World War ing testament to the value of farmers’ markets to the
Agriculture's Contributions to Community Health and Well-Being 59

contemporary public. • They promote a desire for “home grown” food.

People like to shop at farmers’ markets for many
reasons. The findings from farmers’ markets studies Farmers’ markets benefit the local economy by
carried out in Canada, the United States, and the • enhancing economic development through safe-
United Kingdom clearly identified the benefits of guarding local jobs, diversifying the economy,
farmers’ markets for farmers, the local economy, con- and facilitating business expansion;
sumers, and the environment. For example, accord- • retaining money in the community;
ing to Bullock et al. (2000), farmers’ markets gener-
• strengthening links between local business, and
ate the following consumer benefits:
bringing in additional trade dollars to other stores
• Their prices can be equal to and sometimes be- in the same area (knock-on trade); and
low those in grocery stores. • serving as a magnet for tourism.
• They facilitate consumer-farmer connections and
therefore represent a valuable aspect of commu- Farmers’ markets benefit farmers by
nity culture. • helping them survive economically by earning
• Their food offerings are of higher quality. higher prices and profits;
• Their food offerings are more diverse (Figure 5.7). • serving as major sources of revenue;
• helping farmers gain new skills; and
• expanding marketing networks (e.g., schools, hos-
pitals, senior citizens centers, and others).
Farmers’ markets benefit cities and towns by gen-
erating additional local economic activity and help-
ing keep food dollars at home (Abel, Thomson, and
Maretzki 1999; Lev and Stephenson 1998). The Ore-
gon farmers’ market study found that the vast major-
ity of consumers came because of the market and
would not otherwise have been downtown. But once
the farmers’ market drew them there, they did addi-
tional shopping or eating. According to Lev and
Stephenson (1998), the hypothesis that farmers’ mar-
kets bring additional dollars downtown is strongly
supported by the data. The data also are supported
by other studies in other regions. For example, one-
third of shoppers at Wisconsin farmers’ markets in-
dicated they combined other activities such as shop-
ping and dining with visits to the market (Cottingham
et al. 1994). The New York City Greenmarkets pro-
gram is said to be responsible for $20 billion in new
investment in and around Union Square (Farmers’
Market Trust 1999). The historic Pikes Place Mar-
ket in Seattle, Washington has developed an interna-
tional reputation as a major tourist attraction.
In a 1999 survey of Maine farmers’ markets, cus-
tomers indicated that the second major reason (after
product quality) that people shopped at farmers’ mar-
kets was to support local farmers (Lockeretz 1986).
A survey of three English farmers’ markets found sim-
ilar results: 79% of respondents indicated they
Figure 5.7. A soil conservationist and a graduate student at
shopped at farmers’ markets to support small farm-
Fresno State University check on the growth of
Asian vegetables that will be sold at local farmers’ ers; 68% were motivated because the farmers’ mar-
markets. Photo by Bob Nichols, U.S. Department of ket was different; 62% because of the freshly harvest-
Agriculture. ed/made products; 57% because of the availability of
60 Urban and Agricultural Communities: Opportunities for Common Ground

organic produce; and 45% because of the good quali- Thomson, and Maretzki 1999).
ty of the products (Wilson, J., reported in Bullock et Consumers were willing to pay more for local prod-
al. 2000). Farmers’ market customers also cite the ucts than for similar products at a supermarket. In
farmers’ market atmosphere as a primary attraction. a 1998 Oregon study, approximately half the respon-
Customers appreciate the opportunity to get ac- dents to a mail survey said they were willing to pay
quainted with the person who produces their food, some premium for a locally produced product, where-
to learn about new foods and food preparation, and as 80% of consumers shopping at farmers’ markets
to become involved in the entire farmers’ market ex- indicated they would pay a premium over similar
perience (Abel, Thomson, and Maretzki 1999; Lev and products at a supermarket. In the same study, 30%
Stephenson 1998; Lockeretz 1986). of customers indicated that they buy local products
The Ithaca, New York, farmers’ market is a good because of “the enjoyment of the buying experience,”
example of this type of business. The market opened and 44% rated “supporting the local economy” and
first for business in 1973 as a venue in which local “keeping farmers in the local area” as highly as “lo-
growers and craftspeople could sell their goods. It cal products are better” (Lev and Stephenson 1998).
expanded rapidly and moved five times before mar- Farmers’ markets give people, through direct con-
ket volunteers transformed a site of former debris into nections to farms, a contact with rural life and with
a thriving community-gathering place called Steam- their food system. These markets foster relationships
boat Landing. Now the farmers’ market is located between consumers and the people who grow their
permanently on the waterfront where steamboats food and promote understanding about food produc-
from Cayuga Lake used to dock. Visitors shop for tion.
fresh, local produce and handcrafted gifts. Custom- In an effort to make locally grown food in Massa-
ers sit at tables along the waterfront listening to chusetts farmers’ markets more available and afford-
music while savoring a wide variety of international able to low-income consumers and to increase the con-
foods. Recently a dock was built to accommodate lo- sumption of fruits and vegetables by nutritionally
cal fishermen, people arriving by boat, and those at-risk women and children, the Massachusetts De-
wanting to picnic in a picturesque spot. In the sum- partment of Food and Agriculture initiated a program
mer, 125 vendors sell at the Ithaca farmers’ market with the Federation of Massachusetts Farmers’ Mar-
on one or all of three market days. The market often kets in 1986. It quickly gained in popularity, and in
draws more than 5,000 people a day and sales in 1999 1992 the USDA established the WIC Farmers’ Mar-
neared $4 million. What originally was an innova- ket Nutrition Program to provide fresh, nutritious,
tive way to sell local produce, crafts, and baked goods unprepared foods from farmers’ markets to WIC par-
now is an Ithaca tradition. ticipants and to expand the awareness and use of
Health conscious consumers have spurred the re- farmers’ markets by consumers. Federal funding in
vival of farmers’ markets, demonstrating a desire to 2000 doubled to $12 million.
purchase the freshest produce. The tremendous Seventy-five to one-hundred million dollars in food
growth in farmers’ market attendance may be partly stamps are estimated to be spent at farmers’ markets
due to consumers who have become increasingly in- annually; farmers’ markets also support gleaning
terested in nutrition, food and environmental safety, programs, donations to food banks and shelters, and
and the use of agricultural practices that contribute sales to school meal programs.
to improved public health.
In numerous surveys, shoppers ranked freshness
as their main selection factor when buying produce Farm-to-Table Programs
and their primary reason for choosing farmers’ mar- Farm-to-table programs connect farms directly
kets (Abel, Thomson, and Maretzke 1999; Lockeretz with restaurants, schools, or other institutions that
1986). An Ohio study found that consumers want feed large numbers of individuals. These programs,
freshness, quality, convenience, selection, and value often initiated through a small grant, have evolved
when selecting fresh produce, and roadside stands or in an effort to return a greater share of the food dol-
farmers’ markets are perceived as the best source of lar to the producer. For example, the Practical Farm-
produce with these features (Rhodus, Schwartz, and ers of Iowa collaborate with several local organiza-
Hoskins 1994). In taste test studies, beyond fresh- tions through the Community Food Systems Project,
ness, the appearance, nutritional value, and the fact through which they broker purchases of local and
the products were locally produced were listed as rea- sustainably produced foods for hotel and restaurant
sons people shopped at farmers’ markets (Abel, customers, conference caterers, and institutional
Agriculture's Contributions to Community Health and Well-Being 61

markets. The program, which initiated an Iowa offered additional choices in healthy foods and im-
Choice menu, offers its services to university confer- proved nutrition, and the program decreases the com-
ences and catered meals. The major challenges asso- mercial influence on school food choices. Additional-
ciated with this type of program are keeping retail ly, this mechanism offers new markets and better
prices sufficiently low to encourage continuing cus- prices for local farmers (Azuma and Fisher 2001). All
tomer demand, and ensuring continued patronage students, especially those relying on free or low-priced
from institutional buyers who are asked to pay a fee meals, can benefit from improved nutritional quality
for “brokering” services offered by nonprofit organi- as well as from educational programs on local agri-
zations. One of the future challenges for farm-to-ta- culture, nutrition, and food systems. A seven-case
ble programs is to find ways to encourage state, lo- study by Azuma and Fisher (2001) found there were
cal, and federal institutions (e.g., prisons, agencies, substantial barriers associated with farm-to-school
hospitals, and schools) to purchase directly from farm- programs (e.g., additional costs for labor and food, and
ers, thereby supporting their own state, local, and administrative and logistical challenges). Federal,
regional farming systems. state, and local policies need to be designed to sup-
Farm-to-school programs link schools’ food pur- port local food purchases by schools and other
chasing and planning in a “healthy farm, healthy institutions.
kids” approach. Young people benefit through being
62 Urban and Agricultural Communities: Opportunities for Common Ground

6 Recreation and Leisure

attractions, such as “the Amazing Maize Maze,” is

Introduction appealing to some farmers.
Large segments of the recreation and leisure indus- In other instances, people experience the tradition-
try are related directly to products and services of tra- al farm by just being there. A visiting family may buy
ditional and urban agriculture activities. Agricultural gift packs of fruit or homemade jam, select a pump-
services today support a variety of indoor and outdoor kin for Halloween, enjoy a hayride, or view animals
educational, recreational, and leisure pursuits includ- or ornamental trees and flowers in production. Agri-
ing, but not limited to, gardening, golf, hiking, eques- cultural educational events include school tours, sem-
trian activities, wildlife viewing, bird watching, and inars, classes, gardening schools, and other offerings
visits to tourist attractions and scenic areas, such as
public parks and botanical gardens (Figure 6.1).
Many activities are of significant economic impor-
tance to local communities. Moreover, traditional
farm businesses are diversifying their operations to
attract visitors for educational, recreational, and lei-
sure activities. This chapter has four goals: (1) to il-
lustrate the contributions that traditional and non-
traditional agricultural services and products make
to recreational, leisure, and tourism industries; (2) to
identify new opportunities for economic diversifica-
tion of traditional farm production businesses; (3) to
highlight the interdependency between urban and
farm populations as it relates to tourism, recreation,
and leisure activities; and (4) to reinforce the need for
farmers to develop mutually beneficial educational,
recreational, and tourism partnerships with urban
communities.

On-Farm Recreation and

Entertainment Farming
Farms provide many opportunities for outdoor rec-
reation and rural renewal. Farmers can create reve-
nue by charging fees for on-farm visits and activities.
Fee charges can be collected for hunting, hiking, bird
watching, mushroom gathering, and other direct con-
sumer services of the farm itself that do not involve
the primary food or fiber product. Some farm fami-
lies carry this concept further by becoming a bed and
breakfast or contracting with special groups for ex- Figure 6.1. Visitors to the Chicago Botanic Garden enjoy a stroll
periences, such as painting/music on the farm, events through Sansho-En, the Japanese Garden. Photo
(e.g., maple sugar making), or even “dinner in the herb by Bill Biderbost, courtesy of the Chicago Botanic
garden” or “bar-b-que in the barn.” Building tourist Garden, Glencoe, Illinois.

62
Recreation and Leisure 63

through which the group is expected to take away new Back Roads Adventures attracts urban tourists
knowledge and skills regarding agriculture. All these from Pittsburgh, Cleveland, Philadelphia, Washing-
farm experiences or services can compete with other ton, D.C., and other cities to the quiet of Preston Coun-
forms of recreation and bring urban people closer to ty, West Virginia. The company arranges tours for
farms and to farmers. families or individuals through the small towns and
There are economic benefits of wildlife habitat on farms of the region. It is essentially a tour company,
the farm. The Conservation Fund cites significant a specialized travel agent for those wishing to expe-
findings regarding the economic value of several out- rience country landscapes, farm crops, animals, and
door activities that could be well managed on farms activities, as well as the crafts, folklore, foods, and
(Conservation Fund 2002). The fund reports that U.S. inns of backcountry West Virginia. Tour packages
residents spend $18 billion/yr to watch wildlife, tri- range from day to multiple-day trips and are priced
ple what they spend on movies or sporting events. accordingly.
Birdwatchers spend $5.2 billion/yr according to stud- The Wal-Mech Farm Bed and Breakfast in Thorn-
ies by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. A study of ville, Ohio, is a working grain and hay farm that has
the Santa Ana National Wildlife Refuge in Hildago guest rooms for visitors. The owners will help those
County, Texas, found that birdwatchers visiting the who want to, to travel in the surrounding area. But
refuge added $14.4 million to the local economy. A they expect most guests to stay on the farm, enjoying
similar study found that birders spent $9.7 million on the fresh air and general activities. This is primarily
their hobby while visiting Virginia’s Chincoteague a farm with a bed and breakfast opportunity on the
National Wildlife Refuge. According to a 1994 Roper side (Mechling 1990).
Survey on Outdoor Recreation, fishing is the favorite Graf Growers in northeastern Ohio offers a year-
recreational activity among men (19%). In 1991, an- round collage of farm experiences including fee-based
glers spent $24 billion, or an average of $674 each on seminars in winter months on topics such as container
their hobby. In 1986, 30 million U.S. anglers spent gardening, herb gardening, perennials, and firewood.
$301 million on licenses; U.S. hunters spent $322 In October, they charge for hayrides, a cornstalk
million, and according to the California Office of Eco- maze, apple-cider making, and pumpkins supplied to
nomic Research, campers spent more than $2 billion schools. Also, there are Christmas trees and poinset-
in California in 1990. This spending especially bene- tias as well as a fully stocked farmers’ market all sum-
fits rural areas. mer. All of this is well advertised with a web page
M and M Hunting Lodge on the eastern shore of and reinforced with brochures and fact sheets (Graf
Delaware provides goose, dove, and duck hunting on Growers 2001).
what used to be a dairy farm. The owners eventually Every state seems to have similar opportunities for
rented additional farmland for the hunting and de- generating revenue from on-farm recreational activ-
veloped a conference center on site for get-away work- ities. The food production part of the operation, the
shops. They provide a guide service and other amen- grain, and cover it provides, facilitate the recreation-
ities to make an outdoor weekend more comfortable. al experience. People will pay to visit farms and view
Fee hunting and overnight accommodations have re- areas containing wild and domestic animals in a nat-
placed milk as the primary income source on these ural environment such as grain fields, adjacent wood-
farms. lots, streams, or ponds.
The rough uplands of Illinois farms near the Mis-
sissippi River provide cover for deer and game birds
valued highly by nearby urbanites. The same man-
Consumer Horticulture
agement and marketing skills necessary for growing Gardening is one of the most popular recreational/
and selling grain can be applied to the deer and oth- leisure activities in the United States today. Accord-
er wildlife on the farm (Miller 1999). Hunters will pay ing to a National Gardening Association survey, an
as much as $600/acre for access to prime deer territo- estimated 67 million U.S. households spent more than
ry during hunting season. Leased hunting rights are $33 billion on lawn and garden activities in 1999
an alternative, and even hunter outfitters who pro- (Reedy 2001). This was an 11% increase over total
vide all the necessary equipment can find lucrative dollars spent in 1998. Gardening supplies and ser-
opportunities on Illinois farms. Estimates are that vices constitute the fifth-largest household cash out-
432,000 hunters spend 15 days each in Illinois, a to- lay in 1997 according to the Consumer Expenditure
tal of 6.4 million hunting days a year providing great Survey from the Bureau of Labor Statistics (Roper
economic potential. Reports Worldwide 1999). More than 42 million
64 Urban and Agricultural Communities: Opportunities for Common Ground

households list flower gardening as a primary leisure life control, and gardening practices. The show also gen-
activity (Effortless Gardening 2002). For the past erates revenue for businesses sponsoring the program
three decades, demand from home-gardeners for un- and/or selling products and services featured on it.
biased, research-based horticulture information has
been increasing continually. To meet this enormous
demand, the state of Washington’s Cooperative Ex-
Horticultural Tourism
tension service created the Master Gardeners (MGs) Plants are an essential part of the urban tourism
program in 1972. Since its inception, the MGs pro- experience. Flower, vegetable, and tree festivals are
gram has grown from one county to more than 1,000 held year round to promote tourism and economic
active training programs in all 50 states and four development. Many states or regions hold major gar-
Canadian provinces. The jointly funded (state, coun- den shows or festivals. These activities generate mil-
ty, and federal) Cooperative Extension MGs program lions of dollars for the local economy. Seattle, Bos-
trains volunteer partners who in turn work under ton, and Philadelphia host some of the nation’s largest
extension’s auspices to provide horticultural and land- flower and garden shows. Nearly 40 million U.S. res-
scape information and training for urban and rural idents, or 20%, went on a garden tour, visited a bo-
audiences. The MGs program emphasizes a wide tanical garden, attended a gardening show or festi-
variety of environmental issues such as water conser- val, or participated in a garden-related activity in the
vation and quality, environmental protection, ener- past five years (TIA 2001). Plants serve many pur-
gy conservation, and yard waste management. Oth- poses: to make the location more relaxing and sooth-
er areas of subject matter training include community ing and to add color and excitement, among others.
greening, home and community gardening, youth In a National Gardening Association survey conduct-
education through 4-H horticulture, and health and ed by the Gallup Organization (Relf, McDaniel, and
well-being programming for work with elderly and Butterfield 1992), 50% of respondents indicated that
disabled individuals. In Virginia, more than 20,000 plants and flowers at theme parks, shopping centers,
people have been trained as Virginia Cooperative historic sites, golf courses, public gardens, and restau-
Extension Master Gardeners since 1980. From 1995 rants contributed to the enjoyment of their visits.
to 2000, Oklahoma Cooperative Extension specialists Plants also serve an educational function, as evi-
have certified 1,200 MGs, who have volunteered for denced by botanical gardens and conservatories; ul-
more than 123,000 service hours. In larger states timately, they are a business investment. To deter-
such as Florida, MGs volunteered 730,000 service mine the value of interior plants to the hotel/tourism
hours from 1991 to 1996. This was valued as a net industry, Evans and Malone (1992) conducted a study
in-kind donation of more than $4.6 million (Ruppert, at Opryland in Nashville, Tennessee. The 12 a. of
Bradshaw, and Stewart 1997). indoor space has approximately 18,000 plants valued
The increased demand for gardening, landscape at more than $1 million. The annual horticultural
and lawn care information, educational programming, service budget is approximately $1.2 million. The
and horticulture plant and hard-good products is ex- study attributes several positive effects to the
pected to continue well into this century (Dickson “greatscapes,” including a high occupancy rate of 85%
2001; Reedy 2001). To meet this continued demand, and numerous national awards. Most important, the
the television broadcast industry, which often part- higher costs and occupancy rates for those rooms over-
ners with LGU institutions, is focusing on ways to pro- looking the gardens generate $7 million in addition-
vide gardening and landscape information to the gen- al annual room revenue.
eral public. For example, the television show
“Oklahoma Gardening” is a joint partnership between
Oklahoma State University and the Oklahoma Pub- Touring Green Industry Businesses
lic Television Network. Initiated in 1975, this show Agritourism in the horticulture industry is increas-
is now broadcast twice/wk, 52 wk/yr and has a week- ing in popularity. Because the horticulture industry
ly audience of 175,000. This is equivalent to 9.1 mil- production units often have visual appeal, at least
lion people receiving educational gardening and land- during some portion of the year, considerable oppor-
scaping information annually. Over the past ten tunity exists to combine a production function with a
years, the “Oklahoma Gardening” audience has grown tourism function (Figure 6.2). The Loudoun County
by 700%. This show supplies consumers with science- Virginia Economic Development Office organizes
based, decision-making information about plant and three agritourism events annually and produces an
product selection, appropriate landscape design, wild- attractive brochure and map for each. The Color
Recreation and Leisure 65

Farm Tour lists and describes 17 farms, vineyards, profits, however, Ellison’s uses this opportunity to
and orchards that welcome visitors during the fall survey consumers regarding their plant preferences,
season. A Christmas Loudoun Valley brochure is thus, providing useful marketing information.
available, with places for the family to visit and to Although certainly not applicable to all types of hor-
purchase a Christmas tree or poinsettia. There also ticultural industry operations, agritourism seems to
is a spring tour during which visitors can experience offer a significant opportunity to maintain production
the planting season. Loudoun County is highlight- in urban and suburban areas while at the same time
ing its agriculture for city dwellers and bringing eco- taking advantage of valuable, highly visible locations.
nomic activity to the rural areas at the same time In each of the three aforementioned examples, con-
(Loudoun County 2002) sumers are willing to pay admission fees to view hor-
At least two additional green industry tourism ex- ticultural operations, and thereby supplement the
amples are worth noting. The Flower Fields, located value of the commodities produced, while becoming
just off Interstate 5 in Carlsbad, California (San Di- more familiar with the business enterprise. Agritour-
ego County, second most populous county in Califor- ism also can be used as an opportunity to educate the
nia), is a working farm where Ranunculus spp. and public about the importance of agriculture to society.

Figure 6.2. Visitors can tour the grounds at Calloway’s Figure 6.3. The Flower Fields in Carlsbad, California. Photo
Stonegate Nursery, a retail garden center in Fort courtesy of Tim Davis, Texas Agricultural Experi-
Worth, Texas. Photo courtesy of Tim Davis, Texas ment Station, Dallas.
Agricultural Experiment Station, Dallas.

other flowers are grown for the commercial produc- Public Gardens and Zoos
tion of bulbs and cut flowers (Lobo et al. 1999). Dur-
ing bloom time, lasting about 10 weeks in the spring, Botanical gardens, arboreta, zoos, sculpture gar-
more than 200,000 people visit the site and enjoy the dens, and gardens at historical sites and museums
striking display of colors, which rivals the tulip fields represent an important leisure, economic, scientific,
of Holland (Figure 6.3). An economic study of this op- and educational asset for urban areas. Botanical gar-
eration revealed positive effects for both the farm op- dens have historically had a significant interest in ed-
erations (an additional $600,000 in annual revenue ucation (and, to a lesser extent, research) for the pub-
from paid admissions to the fields) and for Carlsbad lic good in the areas of landscape design, plant
(total economic effect of $3.8 million/yr). evaluations, environmental conservation, ecology, and
Another example of agritourism is Ellison’s Green- wildlife. Most botanical gardens have a variety of sea-
houses in Brenham, Texas (about 45 miles from Hous- sonal display and theme gardens often designed by
ton city limits) (Bruhn 1999). Six days a week, Elli- professional landscape architects that attract visitors
son’s provides guided tours of one of their all year round. There are more than 490 institution-
100,000-sq-ft production greenhouses. The most pop- al members of the American Association of Botanical
ular time for tourists is during the annual poinsettia Gardens and Arboreta. These gardens exist to study,
celebration held before Thanksgiving. An average of display, and conserve living plant collections for the
about 5,000 persons participate in this event, which benefit of the public. Many of these gardens are lo-
results in about $6,000 in profit. In addition to the cated in urban areas where they afford urban visitors
66 Urban and Agricultural Communities: Opportunities for Common Ground

an opportunity to become educated about and to ex- Act by modifying facilities and creating special edu-
perience large-scale horticultural plantings or natu- cational programs of interest to disabled, elderly, dis-
ral plant ecosystems. These public sanctuaries attract advantaged, and other special needs populations.
more than 35 million visitors annually. For example, By managing rather large urban land holdings,
the Chicago Botanic Garden attracts 900,000 people/ public gardens are one of the richest sources of biodi-
yr. Assuming that the average visitor spends $10 on versity and open space in urban areas. Many gardens
parking, refreshments, tours, and other items, this hold collections representative of the diverse ecosys-
would generate $9 million annually. tems of their region of state or county. Because of
Because of botanical gardens, many urban areas their historical focus on plant selection and conser-
actually hold some of the finest collections of plant vation, environmental studies, biodiversity, ecology
specimens in the world. More than 1.5 million plant and land use, garden personnel now are active par-
collections for research, education, and conservation ticipants in discussions about urban growth and
purposes are housed in botanical gardens. Many bo- sprawl.
tanical gardens are part of the North American Plant
Collections Consortium, an organization whose mis-
sion is to collect and to preserve plant specimens and
genetic resources. Through their plant collection,
conservation, and evaluation efforts, botanical gar-
dens are one of the best sources of plant materials for
the commercial horticulture industry and for demon-
strating those plants best adapted for use in local
gardens and landscapes.
Public gardens often are a gathering place (either
due to meeting space or because of staff expertise) for
hobbyist collectors and horticulture enthusiasts. Bo-
tanical garden staff members are among the most ed-
ucated horticulturists and botanists in a community.
Thus, public gardens become the educational resource
for individuals and organized groups who have inter-
est in and enthusiasm for a wide variety of urban
agricultural endeavors. Because of their library hold-
ings, many hobbyists frequent public gardens to fur-
ther their own educations. These enthusiasts may
share their expertise with others, free of charge. Bo-
tanical garden staff members often become pro bono
consultants to city park personnel and urban forest-
ers for plant selection and cultural management.
Public gardens are very involved in outreach activ-
ities and educational programs (Figure 6.4). Many
gardens focus significant resources on adults and
youths who are taught about environmental issues,
conservation, wildlife, landscaping and gardening.
The public school systems use botanical gardens ex-
tensively for educational field trips. Botanical gar- Figure 6.4. A Chicago Botanic Garden staff member joins stu-
dens afford urban families the opportunity to learn dents at the Von Schiller School to plant a new com-
about nature in an urban setting. Many gardens also munity garden. Photo by Bill Biderbost, courtesy of
offer professional development opportunities for pub- the Chicago Botanic Garden, Glencoe, Illinois.
lic school teachers.
Many arboreta and botanic gardens have demon-
stration (enabling) gardens that assist disabled indi-
Golf and Other Sports
viduals in developing home gardens. A great num- Sports fields, sports centers, and golf courses are
ber of arboreta and botanic gardens are addressing big business. Turfgrass, on which this industry de-
the requirements of the Americans with Disabilities pends, is a product of agricultural science. Most LGUs
Recreation and Leisure 67

employ one or more turfgrass scientists to conduct re- arboreta, parks, and golf courses.
lated research, education, and outreach programs. The aforementioned factors in addition to the de-
Professional sports complexes in cooperation with mu- sire of many urbanites to remain in contact with na-
nicipalities have established sophisticated growing ture, experience on-farm activities, and have access
systems including artificial growing media, drainage, to hunting grounds and natural landscape settings
and water-recapture mechanisms that require high- will afford traditional animal, agronomic, forest, and
ly skilled management and operation. For example, horticultural production businesses new opportuni-
specialized turf maintenance equipment and turf- ties for farm diversification and for revenue genera-
grass varieties have been developed to maintain ath- tion. To attract tourists, farm owners may choose to
letic playing surfaces. Well-managed and maintained reprioritize farm operations and expenditures in fa-
golf courses are able to attract revenue-generating vor of recreation and leisure activities. As reported
professional tournaments that are important to local earlier in this chapter, traditional farm operations can
economies. The city of Tulsa, Oklahoma, for exam- become a secondary activity or be eliminated com-
ple, estimated that $60 million dollars was brought pletely. Farm owners can become direct competitors
into the community as a result of hosting the 2001 with other recreation and leisure businesses. Univer-
U.S. Open professional golf tournament. sities and colleges will be called upon to continue and/
It is the authors’ contention that the demand for or to increase (as demand grows) education, training
recreation and leisure activities will continue to ex- and other services to support the existing expanding
pand over the next several decades. Factors contrib- recreation and leisure industries as well emerging rec-
uting to this expansion will be population increases reational and leisure enterprises initiated by tradi-
(especially on a regional basis); greater societal em- tional farm operations. Finally, expansion of tradi-
phasis on health, fitness, and well-being; higher pri- tional farm operations (animal, agronomic,
oritization for leisure and recreational activities by horticultural, and forestry) to include recreation and
families; and increased discretionary time and in- leisure activities can serve to educate the consumer
come. As discretionary income increases, so does the about the diversity within the agriculture industry,
demand for recreational facilities (Templeton et al. to foster appreciation and understanding of each oth-
2000). These factors will result in increased use of er’s needs and activities, and to drive development of
environmental horticultural products such as athlet- beneficial recreational partnerships between commu-
ic fields, botanical and community gardens, nities and farms.
68 Urban and Agricultural Communities: Opportunities for Common Ground

7 Policy and Institutional Dimensions of

Urban Agriculture

tion dropped 11% while consuming 33% more land;

Introduction Chicago’s (Illinois) population increased 4% while
Population growth and a taste for fringe or open- developing 46% more land. These trends continued
country living fuel continual interest in land manage- in the 2000 census, suggesting that sprawl tends to
ment policy near cities. The directions and content follow highway construction (Freedgood, J. 2002.
of this policy agenda differ among nations, but often Personal communication). According to the USDA’s
can be traced to social adjustments occurring in the NRI, between 1982 and 1992, 29% of agricultural land
aftermath of World War II. Still, many observers are converted to urban use was prime agricultural land
impressed by the intensity of the debate during the (USDA-NRCS 2000c). Prime and unique10 farmland
past decade. Dialogue over smart growth, sprawl, and made up 22% of 127 threatened major land resource
related land-use issues seems to be sweeping the areas (MLRAs) identified by the American Farmland
United States. Studies have proliferated and media Trust (AFT), and 32% of this resource was consumed
attention has increased. According to a recent U.S. by urban development.
survey (Pew Center 2000), nearly one-fifth of respon- Interest in growth management stems from numer-
dents listed sprawl-related issues (e.g., development, ous considerations. The 2000 Census indicates that
traffic, roads) as “the most important problem facing the U.S. population grew by 13.1% during the 1990s.
the community where you live.” This issue was high- Aggregate growth rates, however, mask the dramat-
lighted most often by suburban, college-educated, ically higher growth in many sections of the country,
white residents of the United States. particularly in the Sunbelt, the Intermountain West,
The Pew Center (2000) reported that 88% of U.S. and the Far West. During the last decade, the nation-
workers commute to their jobs each day, with only 5% al economy has experienced a period of unprecedent-
indicating that they take public transportation to ed growth and wealth creation. Needs for developed
work. The average commute is increasing and, not residential, commercial, industrial, and transport
surprisingly, the longer the commute, the more like- uses have increased concomitantly. On open-space
ly a respondent is to say that traffic congestion and lands in proximity to larger urban cores, low-density
other sprawl-related issues are a major problem. Fif- development causes MAs to sprawl further into the
ty-one percent of those living in big cities say traffic countryside and increases the density of settlement
congestion is a major problem, and 46% of suburban- in these formerly rural areas. The extent of urban-
ites agree. Only 18% of those living in rural areas ized areas and urban places, as defined by the Bureau
indicate that traffic is a major problem. of the Census, more than doubled over the last 40
Forty-one percent of those living in the suburbs years from 25.5 million a. in 1960 to 55.9 million a. in
consider too much growth and development as a ma- 1990; urban area may be in the range of 65 million a.
jor problem, compared with only 31% of those living when the 2000 decennial census is reported. The con-
in big cities and only 21% in rural areas. Those who tinuation of this level of growth could put substantial
have attended college are more likely to see sprawl pressure on the continuing availability of quality
as a major problem than those who have not (32% vs. farmland, the nation’s ability to achieve a reasonable
24%, respectively). African-Americans are less like- level of food self-sufficiency, and the availability of
ly to see growth and development as a problem (56% water and energy resources to support a shift in loca-
stated it is not a problem) compared with whites (42%) tion to new or less productive lands.
and Hispanics (33%) (Pew Center 2000). The recently completed 1997 National Resources
Population growth is not the sole factor fueling Inventory (NRI), using a more expansive definition of
sprawl. For example, from 1970 to 1990, the popula-
10
tion of Los Angeles (California) grew 45% while de- Unique farmland acreage was estimated by using fruit and
veloped land grew 200%; Cleveland’s (Ohio) popula- vegetable crops.

68
Policy and Institutional Dimensions of Urban Agriculture 69

land used for urban and built-up purposes, indicated area, older suburbs and inner cities may be neglect-
that land conversion accelerated dramatically in the ed. When planners focus on one of these sectors to
early 1990s (USDA-NRCS 2000b, Table 8). Between the exclusion of others, outcomes often are costly and
1982 and 1997, the annual conversion rate was 1.2 the interests of certain groups may be favored over
million a./yr. During the period from 1992 to 1997, those of others. Public perspectives on land use clear-
however, the conversion rate had increased to 2.2 ly are tied to deeply held values about individual
million a./yr. Urban and built-up areas counted in the rights, land, and automobiles. Without broad public
NRI included those measured by the Census Bureau, and private sector involvement in the process, and
including developed areas as small as 10 a. outside public education on the costs and benefits of proposed
urban areas. The addition of roads and other trans- strategies, it may be difficult to generate support for
portation methods expands the total further. The much-needed land-use control measures. One of the
NRI-developed area increased from 73.2 million a. in keys for the future will be to find ways in which dif-
1982, to 87 million a. in 1992, and to 98.2 million a. ferent jurisdictions can identify commonalities and
in 1997. cooperate on a regional basis to address the overall
The U.S. farm, food, and agricultural industries are needs of the rural-urban agroecosystem.
at the epicenter of the ongoing debate over growth
management in the urban periphery. The evidence,
and indeed the day-to-day driving experience of many
Setting Policy
U.S. residents, clearly shows that considerable To a great extent, the answer to the aforementioned
amounts of acreage now devoted to farming and food questions will depend on policies that meld modern
production are directly in the path of land conversion. agriculture—including horticulture and forestry—
Is production capacity jeopardized by these land con- with the emergent urban scene. These policy inter-
versions? Just how can agriculture and plant indus- ventions, in turn, must be calibrated to legal, social,
try businesses (e.g., horticulture, forestry) adapt to political, and cultural parameters constituting the
sprawl? What changes in products and services will “rules of the game,” which must be established and
be needed to allow farmers to capitalize on the oppor- revisited continually by U.S. citizens and their gov-
tunities afforded by close proximity to urban markets? ernments. The texture of the debate can and indeed
Do rising land values and increasing contact with new does differ from region to region of the nation. In the
residents, who, more often than not, are uninformed arid western United States, much acreage remains in
about modern farming practices, doom the vibrancy the public domain, and managing land use near ur-
of farming communities? Or will farmers and plant ban areas is connected to decisions on the use of pub-
industry firms be able to reinvent their businesses to lic land. Otherwise, decisions on the use of U.S. farm-
emphasize higher-value products, more intensive pro- land reside very firmly in the hands of individual and
duction with environmentally friendly practices, and corporate owners. Privately owned land trades free-
more urban-oriented marketing and distribution ly in real estate sale and rental markets and is passed
strategies? Another key issue associated with land between and within generations through gifts and in-
conversion pertains to the efforts that industry makes heritances. Such trades and transfers are relied on
to build good neighborhood relationships. heavily to ration the finite supply of agricultural land
The section that follows pays close attention to the among alternative uses.
roles of local, state, and federal governments in Public authority to intervene in land markets and
growth management, open-space, and farmland pro- decisions regarding private use and ownership of land
tection policies. Tools and techniques are considered reside largely with state and local units of govern-
that combine both regulation and incentive-based ment. Such authorities are threefold. First, local
strategies, that are used to protect farmland, and that governments are empowered to levy an annual prop-
support agriculture’s economic viability. As has been erty tax on real estate. Property taxes, a principal
stated, land use in the rural-urban confluence, where source of revenue for units of local government, in-
the results of haphazard development often are clear- crease the economic costs of owning real estate; sub-
ly visible, is frequently one of the most hotly debated sequently, because asset values fluctuate over time,
issues at local and state levels. Even in rural areas, land values change. Second, the U.S. constitution
especially where there are scenic amenities or areas delegates direct powers to regulate land use, common-
are within commuting distance from employment cen- ly referred to as the “police powers,” (zoning) to state
ters, land management often is a divisive topic. When governments. The states, in turn, often delegate fur-
greater emphasis is given to development of the fringe ther much of the police power to lower units of gov-
70 Urban and Agricultural Communities: Opportunities for Common Ground

ernment such as counties, cities, villages, townships, not pose an immediate or even a longer-term threat
and a plethora of special districts. Finally, U.S. land to the nation’s capacity to meet expected food and fi-
policy is shaped by a constitutional guarantee against ber needs.
the taking of private property without just compen- New research conducted in the 1970s and 1980s
sation. This guarantee applies to direct land acqui- demonstrated, however, that considerable farm pro-
sitions through powers of eminent domain or condem- duction is in close proximity to urban population con-
nation. Additionally, case law has extended this centrations. Conversions to urban use were shown
constitutional protection to other “takings” that can to be, to some extent, offset by added cropland acre-
result from overzealous efforts by governments to age in the aftermath of drainage improvements on
regulate private landowners and the decisions they wetlands, deforestation, and tillage for crop rotations
make regarding the use of their land. on former pasture and grazing lands. Much pasture
“Farmland lies in the middle of the spectrum of pri- and grazing land conversion, particularly in the arid
vate and common interests in land” (Donahue 1999, western United States, has been induced by availabil-
288). The common interest in agricultural land is not ity of supplemental irrigation water from groundwa-
well served by most private landowners, including ter aquifers or from publicly financed surface water
farmers and ranchers. The current economic environ- impoundments. According to CAST (1996), approxi-
ment does little to foster the continuation of small mately 75 million a. of cropland are irrigated in the
farms, to promote sustainable agricultural practices, western United States. In 1990, irrigated agriculture
or to discourage the sale of productive land for envi- accounted for nearly 85% of developed water supply
ronmentally appropriate development. Donahue used in the West. Population growth in the western
(1999) anticipates that this situation is not going to states has accelerated, with most growth occurring in
go away. The question is how can we best protect our urban areas. This growth has led to increased de-
highest quality resources? In the best interest of to- mand for water for municipal and industrial uses.
tal society, we must prevent our best soils from being The competition for available supply has intensified.
lost. Both rural and urban people must join together Because western state legislative bodies have been
in determining the best possible use of land, includ- dominated primarily by urban interests, a balance
ing farmland, to meet their common interests. These between agricultural and nonagricultural interests
interests might include an integrated balance of more has been lacking. This scenario underscores the im-
sustainable, yet productive, uses of land for such ac- portance of rural-urban collaboration to address ways
tivities as food and fiber production, open space for in which limited natural resources such as water can
environmental services, recreation, and economic be shared equitably and protected for future genera-
development. tions.
Within this institutional framework, public policies Despite the concern of some people during the last
on agricultural lands have evolved over the past four quarter-century, it still seems that the nation’s domes-
decades under the rubric of “farmland protection.” A tic food and fiber needs are assured. Less than 50%
blend of regulatory and incentive programs exists. of U.S. cropland is presently used to meet domestic
Primary emphasis has been placed on incentive ap- food and fiber requirements. The remainder is avail-
proaches designed to promote agriculture by afford- able to service export markets. Congress is continu-
ing property owners relief from legal conflicts with ally coping with excess food and fiber production ca-
adjacent property owners, reducing property taxes, or pacity. Nearly 35 million a. are idled under federal
providing compensation to farmland owners who par- subsidy programs through enrollments in the conser-
ticipate in programs restricting the conversion of their vation reserve program (CRP) (Chadbourne and
lands from future development. Chadbourne 2000). Based on 1997 USDA figures,
Farmland protection programs have not been ig- there were 455 million a. of cropland in the United
nored at the federal level. The U.S. Congress consid- States. Between 7 and 8% of total U.S. cropland is
ered, but rejected, a number of legislative initiatives idled under the CRP program (Vesterby and Krupa
in the 1970s. These proposals would have given the 2001).
central government a very noticeable and direct
stance in land-use planning and would have provid-
ed the “deep pocket” for capitalizing farmland protec-
Land Protection Initiatives
tion efforts at state and local levels. Congress did not For the reasons stated in the previous section, di-
act during those years, in part because of a prevail- rect engagement of the U.S. Congress in farmland pro-
ing view that conversion of farmland to urban use did tection programs has come about in an evolutionary
Policy and Institutional Dimensions of Urban Agriculture 71

process. After an exhaustive but inconclusive feder- • PDR programs are not keeping up with farmers’
al assessment of the farmland protection issue in the needs for timely compensation;
late 1970s (National Agricultural Lands Study 1981), • most funding is subject to bonds, appropriations,
Congress passed the Farmland Protection Policy Act and special taxes, so that farmers cannot neces-
in 1981. The USDA did not implement this act for sarily count on it for future transactions; and
many years and the legislation stopped short of pro- • funds do not necessarily flow to farmers in areas
viding financial assistance to state or local govern- where development threatens agriculture.
ments for farmland protection programs. The act did
require federal agencies to identify any adverse effects Although the federal government has done more
their programs might have on farmland protection than most states to promote conservation, funds for
and minimize the extent to which such programs in- PDR are still very inadequate. Average per capita ex-
duce unnecessary farmland conversions. This legis- penditure on easements in states with programs is
lation can help ward off the most obvious conflicts only $0.60 (Thompson and Warman 2000).
between federal and state policies, but the direct ef- Daniels (1999) contends, by contrast, that because
fect of this legislation on land use and conversion of most state and farmland preservation programs orig-
land to urban use probably has been minimal. Such inate in urban-fringe areas, most federal funds are
effects are more likely to evolve out of direct U.S. Trea- being directed to those areas. Although farmland
sury expenditures to support state and local farmland protection efforts are aimed at preserving open-space
protection efforts. and farmland through the purchase of conservation
In the 1990s, movement in the direction of farm- easements, there is considerable debate as to wheth-
land protection appeared, signaling a shift in federal er they are successful at maintaining agriculture as
policy. As part of the 1990 omnibus farm legislation, a profitable business.
Congress passed the Farms for the Future Act, which Conservation easements complement longer-lived
authorized the USDA to provide federal loan guaran- provisions in the federal income tax code that provide
tees and interest rate subsidies to state governments indirect financial incentives and that are legal instru-
providing matching monies to operate farmland pro- ments restricting the use of land to specified conser-
tection funds. Little was done to implement these vation purposes while precluding future conversion
authorities, but the legislation did set the stage for to a developed use. These incentives are targeted at
more focused Congressional action under the 1996 individual landowners who participate in private
Farm Bill, which established the Farmland Protection farmland protection programs operated by nonprofit
Program (FPP). Funds for the FPP come from the organizations. Specifically, the federal tax law en-
federal government’s Commodity Credit Corporation ables taxpayers to claim deductions for charitable
(CCC), which funds several USDA conservation and contributions of conservation easements to qualifying
environmental programs. Total funding authorized private land trusts and organizations. Some landown-
for the program was $35 million (Chadbourne and ers can benefit by such contributions because the re-
Chadbourne 2000), a sum quickly expended by the sultant tax deduction can decrease income tax liabil-
USDA. ities on income earned from other sources.
Recent (1999) legislative proposals requested a re-
authorization of the FPP at $55 million/yr through
2002, but the 106th Congress did not act. However, The Farmland Protection Toolbox
the Agricultural Risk Protection Act of 2000 provid-
ed $17.5 million in financial and technical assistance Regulatory Programs
for the purposes described by the FPP in fiscal year
2001. Interestingly, the Natural Resources Conser- In the United States, efforts to regulate the use of
vation Service (NRCS) has indicated that $10 million farmland are manifested primarily in the implemen-
of $17.5 million available in matching grants for pur- tation of zoning laws. Zoning uses police power to
chase of conservation easements on agricultural lands control land use. A zoning law—typically called a zon-
was open to applications from private nonprofit orga- ing ordinance in the United States—divides the land
nizations such as land trusts (Lawrence, R. D. 2002. area of a jurisdiction into various districts so that land
Personal communication). is used for consistent, compatible purposes. Zoning
Purchase of development rights (PDR) programs ordinances usually define allowable property uses,
alone will not resolve problems associated with farm- prescribe usage intensities (e.g., number of residen-
land loss for the following reasons: tial building lots/land parcel), and specify the rules
72 Urban and Agricultural Communities: Opportunities for Common Ground

to be followed when a structure is placed on the site. tural zone also can be required. This type of ordinance
Zoning first was applied in urban settings, but impor- severely restricts land management options and
tant examples of rural zoning date to the 1930s in a sometimes proves very unpopular with owners of
few regions of the United States. Increasing applica- open, developable land. Governments with such or-
tions of zoning are found on the urban fringe, or in dinances can be vulnerable to legal proceedings
metropolitan counties where land development for whereby owners seek compensation for a “taking” of
urban-related purposes and commercial agriculture their constitutionally guaranteed property rights.
can come into close contact (Textbox 7.1). Because of political and legal pitfalls, few govern-
Zoning ordinances are promulgated by some very ments pursue exclusive agricultural zoning at the lo-
local levels of government that tailor their regulato- cal level.
ry efforts to local conditions. Zoning laws often are
combined with additional rules and regulations re-
garding subdivisions of land parcels into smaller own- Incentive Programs
ership units. Many localities have zoning laws ori- There are a number of political realities confront-
ented almost exclusively to controlling the ing U.S. public policy on farmland protection. Using
development of residential and commercial proper- only police power (zoning) has had limited success in
ties. These jurisdictions may contain substantial protecting and regulating farmland use. The best
quantities of farmland, but often their zoning laws strategy for farmland protection requires the com-
make no explicit provisions for protecting agricultur- bined use of federal, state, and local preservation
al land from urban encroachment or for converting measures (Lapping and Pfeffer 2000).
land, in an orderly fashion, to future development use. Farmland owners, especially active farmers and
Weak or ineffective regulation of this sort often is ranchers, typically voice support for farmland protec-
supported by developers and landowners who want tion objectives but generally endorse programs that
eventually to sell their agricultural land, or to devel- are voluntary and provide financial incentives for
op it with minimal interference from local govern- participants. Consequently, the bulk of state/local
ments. farmland protection programs have stressed these
According to the AFT, agricultural protection zon- two features in program design.
ing ordinances take many forms. The AFT categorizes
these ordinances as exclusive agricultural zoning; Agricultural Districts
large minimum lot size zoning; area-based allowance Agricultural districts are legally recognized geo-
zoning; fixed area-based allowance zoning; and slid- graphic entities in which farming is recognized as a
ing scale area-based allowance zoning. The AFT iden- priority land use. Sixteen states have passed legisla-
tifies agricultural protection zoning statutes in only tion enabling the creation of agricultural districts, ac-
14 states; the most restrictive exclusive agricultural cording to the AFT (2001a). Districts are created for
zoning statutes are found in Oregon and Wisconsin— fixed but renewable periods of time and feature a se-
two states with an exceptionally long history of in- ries of pro-farming provisions that attempt to improve
volvement in zoning initiatives (AFT 2002c). conditions for the continuation of farming within the
Rural communities in most states have the option district’s boundaries. Pro-farming provisions differ,
of undertaking either nonexclusive or exclusive agri- but can include decreased property taxes (as part of
cultural zoning. A nonexclusive ordinance is designed the use-value assessment program already discussed),
to include nonfarm development in the farming zone state policies to encourage farming, and modification
even though farming is the preferred or priority use. or limitation of practices thought to hinder it. These
An ordinance requiring homeowners to build on a latter policies include local laws that are unduly re-
large land parcel—called large lot zoning—is a com- strictive on normal farming practices, use of condem-
mon form of nonexclusive agricultural zoning. Large nation proceedings (eminent domain) on actively
lots limit the number of nonfarm buildings in the ag- farmed land, and restrictions on publicly funded in-
ricultural zone. Under exclusive agricultural zoning, vestments promoting nonfarm development in an
nonfarm dwellings and buildings are prohibited strict- agricultural district (Textbox 7.1)
ly from the agricultural zone. Large lot development, Agricultural district programs often are popular
even with an agricultural purpose, does not general- with farmers because participation is voluntary for
ly do much to protect agriculture and is an expensive each landowner. In exchange for enrollment, farm-
community development pattern. Government re- ers receive a package of benefits, variable by state, for
view of a plan to build a farm dwelling in the agricul- keeping their land in agriculture. Similarly, local gov-
Policy and Institutional Dimensions of Urban Agriculture 73

Textbox 7.1. Primary public farmland protection tools: Benefits and drawbacks (American Farmland Trust 2002)

Agricultural Protection Zoning

Zoning is a form of local land use regulation. Agricultural protection zoning (APZ) ordinances protect the agricultural
land base by limiting non-farm uses, prohibiting high-density development, requiring houses to be built on small lots
and restricting subdivision of land into parcels that are too small to farm.
Benefits Drawbacks
• APZ is an inexpensive way to protect large areas of • Zoning is not permanent. Changes in APZ ordinances
agricultural land. can open up large areas of agricultural land for devel-
• By separating farms from non-agricultural land uses, opment.
APZ reduces the likelihood of conflicts between farm- • APZ can reduce land values, which decreases farmers’
ers and non-farming neighbors. equity in land. For this reason, farmers sometimes
• APZ helps prevent suburban sprawl and reduces in- oppose APZ, making it difficult to enact.
frastructure costs. • APZ may be difficult to monitor and enforce on a day-
• Compared to purchase of conservation easement and to-day basis.
transfer of development rights programs, APZ can be • County APZ ordinances do not protect agricultural land
implemented relatively quickly. against annexation by municipalities.
• APZ is easy to explain to the public because most land-
owners are familiar with zoning.
• APZ is flexible. If economic conditions change, the zon-
ing can be modified as necessary.

Agricultural Districts
Agricultural districts are legally recognized geographic areas designed to keep land in agriculture. Formed by one or
more landowners and approved by one or more government agencies, they are created for fixed, renewable terms.
Enrollment is voluntary; landowners receive a variety of incentives that may include eligibility for differential assess-
ment, limits on annexation and eminent domain, protection against unreasonable government regulation and private
nuisance lawsuits, and eligibility for purchase of agricultural conservation easement (PACE) programs.

Benefits Drawbacks
• Enrollment in agricultural districts is voluntary, mak- • Sanctions for withdrawing land from agricultural dis-
ing the programs popular with farmers. tricts may not be strong enough to discourage conver-
• Agricultural district programs are very flexible; bene- sion.
fits and restrictions can be tailored to meet local ob- • Limits on non-farm development may not prevent ex-
jectives. pansion of public services such as water and sewer
• Agricultural districts provide multiple benefits to farm- lines into agricultural areas. Some agricultural district
ers, including tax relief, protection from local regula- laws address this issue; others do not.
tion and eligibility for PACE programs. • In some states, the benefits provided by agricultural
• Agricultural districts help secure a critical mass of land districts are not enough incentive for farmers to enroll.
to keep farming viable. • In some states, the procedure for creating agricultur-
al districts is lengthy and complex.

ernments often are receptive to the prospect of creat- increased abruptly after World War II, particularly
ing agricultural districts, because the district program on the urban fringe where population growth gener-
may be relatively easy to administer and, to date, is ated increased public service needs. Higher proper-
not subject to legal or constitutional challenges. Fi- ty tax levies on farm real estate are criticized on both
nally, districts usually do not provide substantial tax equity and land-use grounds. Objections on eq-
outlays of public funds. Agriculture district programs uity grounds can be traced to farmers’ concerns that
should not be confused with zoning programs that they will be unable to pay the tax or that they will be
delineate areas governed by local land use regula- taxed out of proportion to the benefits received from
tions. services funded by the tax. Land-use concerns flow
from the argument that high property taxes induce
Agricultural Tax Programs conversion of farmland to urban uses or decrease the
Initial efforts to alter state farmland policy focused net returns from farming sufficiently to force termi-
on the local property tax, which is one of the largest nation of farming operations before land is really
revenue sources for local governments. Tax levies needed for a developed use.
74 Urban and Agricultural Communities: Opportunities for Common Ground

Textbox 7.1. (continued) Primary public farmland protection tools: Benefits and drawbacks (American Farmland Trust 2002)

Agricultural Property Tax Relief

There are two types of agricultural tax relief programs. Differential assessment laws direct local governments to as-
sess agricultural land at its value for agriculture, instead of its full fair market value, which is generally higher. Dif-
ferential assessment laws are enacted by states and implemented at the local level. With a few exceptions, the cost of
the programs is borne at the local level. Circuit breaker tax programs offer tax credits to offset farmers’ property tax
bills. Like differential assessment laws, circuit breaker tax relief credits reduce the amount farmers are required to
pay in taxes. The key difference is that most circuit breaker programs are based on farmer income and are funded by
state governments.
Benefits Drawbacks
• Agricultural tax programs help farmers stay in busi- • Agricultural tax programs do not ensure long-term
ness by lowering their expenses. protection of farmland.
• Agricultural tax programs help correct inequities in the • Differential assessment programs often provide a sub-
tax system. sidy to real estate speculators, who are keeping their
land in agriculture pending development.

Purchase of Agricultural Conservation Easements

Purchase of Agricultural Conservation Easements (PACE) programs pay farmers to keep their land available for ag-
riculture. Landowners sell an agricultural conservation easement to a qualified public agency or private conservation
organization. Landowners retain full ownership and use of their land for agricultural purposes. PACE programs do
not give government agencies the right to develop land. Development rights are extinguished in exchange for com-
pensation. PACE also is known as purchase of development rights (PDR) among other names.
Benefits Drawbacks
• PACE protects farmland permanently, while keeping • PACE is expensive.
it in private ownership. • PACE can rarely protect enough land to eliminate de-
• Participation in PACE programs is voluntary. PACE velopment pressure on unrestricted farms.
can be implemented by state or local governments, or • PACE programs are generally unable to keep up with
by private organizations. farmer demand to sell easements. This results in long
• PACE provides farmers with a financially competitive waiting lists and missed opportunities to protect land.
alternative to development, giving them cash to help • Purchasing easements is time-consuming.
address the economic challenges of farming in urban- • The voluntary nature of PACE programs means that
influenced areas. some important agricultural lands are not protected.
• PACE programs can protect ecological as well as agri- • Monitoring and enforcing easements requires an on-
cultural resources. going investment of time and resources.
• PACE limits the value of agricultural land, which helps
to keep it affordable to farmers.
• PACE programs involve the non-farming public in
farmland protection.

Beginning with the State of Maryland in 1956, all agricultural use. This practice can result in lower
state legislatures have made arrangements to grant taxes because a levy based on the full market value
farmland owners relief from local property taxes. Now standard can be circumvented. Differences between
all 50 states offer some form of tax relief for agricul- market, or full, value and agricultural value can be
tural land; however, only 24 have enacted agricultural especially noticeable in the development of urban ar-
protection zoning (APZ) ordinances. These ordinances eas where value of open land begins to reflect the high-
protect the agricultural land base by limiting nonfarm er income expected from future conversion to a devel-
uses, prohibiting high-density development, requir- oped use.
ing houses to be built on small lots, and restricting Four states have enacted additional tax credit pro-
subdivision of land into small parcels (Textbox 7.1). grams in the form of circuit breaker tax relief. Cir-
Although administrative arrangements vary widely cuit breaker tax relief credits reduce the amount farm-
from state to state, these programs, for the most part, ers and ranchers are required to pay in taxes. The
focus on limiting annual tax levies on land value in program, funded by state governments, is primarily
Policy and Institutional Dimensions of Urban Agriculture 75

Textbox 7.1. (continued) Primary public farmland protection tools: Benefits and drawbacks (American Farmland Trust 2002)

Right-To-Farm Laws
Right-to-farm laws protect farmers and farm operations from public and private nuisance lawsuits. A private nui-
sance interferes with an individual’s use and enjoyment of his or her property. Public nuisances involve actions that
injure the public at large.
Benefits Drawbacks
• Right-to-farm laws strengthen the legal position of • Right-to-farm laws do not prevent nuisance complaints.
farmers and act as a deterrent to public or private • Right-to-farm laws may interfere with neighbor’s prop-
nuisance complaints. erty rights to such an extent that it is deemed to be an
• Right-to-farm laws protect farmers from unreasonable unconstitutional taking of private property rights
local controls on standard agricultural operations. without just compensation.
• Right-to-farm laws provide farm families with a psy- • Right-to-farm laws have rarely been interpreted by the
chological sense of security that farming is a valued courts.
and accepted activity in their communities. • Right-to-farm laws do not prevent farmland from be-
• Right-to-farm laws sometimes allow farmers to recoup ing converted to other uses.
legal costs from frivolous law suits.

Transfer of Development Rights

Transfer of Development Rights (TDR) is a program that allows landowners to transfer the right to develop one parcel
of land to a different parcel of land to prevent farmland conversion. TDR programs establish “sending areas” where
land is to be protected by agricultural conservation easements and “receiving areas” where land may be developed at
a higher density than would otherwise be allowed by local zoning. Landowners in the sending area sell development
rights to landowners in the receiving area, generally through the private market.
Benefits Drawbacks
• TDR protects farmland permanently, while keeping it • TDR programs are technically complicated and require
in private ownership. a significant investment of time and staff resources to
• Participation in TDR programs is voluntary—landown- implement.
ers are never required to sell their development rights. • TDR is an unfamiliar concept. A lengthy and exten-
• TDR promotes orderly growth by concentrating devel- sive public education campaign is generally required
opment in areas with adequate public services. to explain TDR to citizens.
• TDR programs allow landowners in agricultural pro- • The pace of transactions depends on the private mar-
tection zones to retain their equity without develop- ket for development rights. If the real estate market
ing their land. is depressed, few rights will be sold and little land will
• TDR programs are market-driven—private parties pay be protected.
to protect farmland, and more land is protected when
development pressure is high.
• TDR programs can accomplish multiple goals, includ-
ing farmland protection, protection of environmental-
ly sensitive areas, the development of compact urban
areas, the promotion of downtown commercial growth
and the preservation of historic landmarks.

based on farmer/rancher income in which some form farmland value appreciation. These conflicts are par-
of tax credit is given to offset property tax bills (Amer- ticularly intense in farm communities experiencing
ican Farmland Trust 1999). pressure to convert land to urban-related uses. Such
pressures are manifested in wide differences between
Purchase of Development Rights market value of land and its value in a farm use.
(or Conservation Easements) A farmland development right reflects those differ-
Probably the most popular land protection tool to- ences in land values and refers to the landowner’s
day involves efforts to separate the right to develop right to construct nonagricultural structures on the
land from the landowner and subsequently to trans- land. Traditionally, this right has been thought of as
fer it to public or third-party ownership. Such policy one of a bundle of rights making up the benefits of
initiatives explicitly recognize the conflicts generat- land ownership. Development rights programs ac-
ed for active farmers who wish to conduct a farm busi- quire this right from the landowner so that use of the
ness but also to protect their financial interests in land can be restricted legally into the future. This re-
76 Urban and Agricultural Communities: Opportunities for Common Ground

striction takes the form of an easement and is record- Right-to-Farm Laws

ed with the property deed (Textbox 7.1) Right-to-farm laws attempt to give farmers a mea-
Under a Purchase of Development Rights (PDR) sure of protection from private nuisance suits by mod-
program (sometimes called Purchase of Agricultural ifying common nuisance law. A private nuisance in-
Conservation Easements), use of land is restricted terferes with an individual’s use and enjoyment of his
with an agricultural conservation easement. In com- or her property (Textbox 7.1).
pensation for restricting use of the land, the owner Urban-related growth and development in tradi-
receives a sum of money typically equal to the value tional farming communities can generate complaints
of the foregone development potential. Easement from new nonfarm residents about farming practic-
values also may be determined by a numerical scor- es. Common concerns have to do with dust, odor,
ing system (points) that evaluates the land’s agricul- noise, vibration, and use of agricultural chemicals. In
ture production potential. This value typically is cal- some instances, offended neighbors resort to legal
culated as the fair market value of the land minus its actions to seek relief in the form of court suits waged
agricultural value. These values are determined by against farm neighbors (Daniels 1999).
standard real estate appraisal methods. To assist farm operators who may need to ward off
Prospects for tailoring easements to farmland pro- such legal actions, legislatures in all 50 states have
tection objectives were discussed initially in New York enacted right-to-farm laws. These laws have little
in the early 1960s, when the state legislature passed clout in the courts; this may change, however, as more
enabling legislation permitting local governments to people move to the urban fringe and file suits based
acquire land rights for the purpose of preserving open on trespass rather than nuisance doctrine. Conse-
space. Suffolk County, located on the densely popu- quently, a plaintiff could claim that noise, dust, or
lated Long Island Sound in New York State, subse- odor are leaving the farm, thus affecting nonfarm
quently pioneered the first nationally recognized PDR property and decreasing the neighbor’s enjoyment of
program, which was enacted in 1974. King County, his or her property. Nuisance suits against a farmer
Washington, containing the city of Seattle, soon fol- may have little chance of winning, but cost and ag-
lowed with PDR acquisitions in 1979. Twenty-two gravation to the farmer may be significant. In some
states have state or locally funded PDR programs states, the farmer is not protected from nuisance suits,
(Freedgood, J. 2002. Personal communication). State e.g., if he or she changes the operation from a dairy
boards or commissions are appointed to devise pro- farm to a hog farm (Daniels 1999). Proponents of such
cedures for reviewing applications made by owners laws argue that by eliminating, or at least decreas-
wishing to sell development rights. In some instanc- ing, the threat of future lawsuits over standing-farm-
es, local committees or land preservation boards are ing activities, the chilling effect of legal action is re-
established to assist with administration of the pro- stricted greatly and farm operators subsequently will
gram and with selection of land parcels for develop- make new investments and take other steps needed
ment right acquisition. to promote the viability of their farm businesses.
Purchase of Development Rights programs are vol- Regardless of right-to-farm laws, when farmers or
untary, and state or local governments initiating them ranchers see nearby land being developed, they tend
usually have more applications for easement sale than to decrease their level of investment in their own farm
can be accomplished with available funds. Funding in anticipation of selling the land for development.
is crucial because easement purchase can be enor- This process called impermanence syndrome describes
mously expensive when a land parcel is prone to de- a process of disinvestments in farming or a reduction
velopment. One of the biggest challenges for govern- of the intensity of farm production in anticipation of
ments is to find ways to pay for purchase of future land use conversion (Berry 1978; Heimlich and
conservation easements. Potential funding sources Anderson 1987).
include bonds, taxes (property, sales, real estate
transfer), annual appropriations, and federal dollars Transfer of Development Rights
(transportation funding, Farmland Protection Pro- Transfer of Development Rights (TDRs) enable the
gram), and other creative sources. Several state-op- landowner to transfer the right of development from
erated programs make explicit provisions for private one parcel of land to another. The TDR programs,
contributions from third parties—individual resi- often established by local zoning ordinances to pro-
dents, corporations, or private organizations—wish- tect farmland, can shift development from agricultur-
ing to assist farmland protection efforts. al use areas to designated growth zones that are closer
to municipal services. These programs allow land-
Policy and Institutional Dimensions of Urban Agriculture 77

owners to separate and sell the development rights natural resource conservation have been in existence
from their other property rights (Textbox 7.1). Trans- for more than a century, but their numbers multiplied
fer of Development Rights can be designed to address rapidly in the 1980s and 1990s. These nonprofit or-
multiple goals including agricultural land protection, ganizations usually are registered with the U.S. In-
conservation of environmentally sensitive areas, and ternal Revenue Service, and individuals or corpora-
preservation of historically significant lands. Al- tions donating funds or property to support their
though this mechanism prevents nonagricultural de- programs may be in a position to treat donations as a
velopment of agricultural land, it also reduces the charitable contribution when filing income tax re-
market value of the protected land while providing the turns. Charitable contributions are tax deductible,
owner with liquid capital. The TDR programs can be thereby decreasing the donor’s taxable income. In-
distinguished from PDR programs by their associa- come tax reform in the mid-1980s, combined with el-
tion with the private market. Most TDR transactions evated public concern about rural resource conserva-
are between private landowners and developers. tion, helped stimulate interest in private land trusts
The TDRs may be more appropriate to urban ar- at both national and regional levels.
eas where the market is more conducive to transfer These third-party organizations are increasingly
of development rights, thus avoiding problems of con- active in the farmland protection arena. They often
fiscation and the fact that PDRs are so expensive have broad conservation objectives and focus on a
(Lapping, M. 2000. Personal communication). variety of natural resources in a designated region.
A 1992 study reported that more than 30% of local and
Private Land Trusts regional organizations in the Northeastern United
Direct third party efforts to protect U.S. farmland States protected some agricultural land (Weir and
are emerging through a proliferation of private, not- Bills 1992). Although conservation easement dona-
for-profit land trust and conservancy organizations. tions are frequently used, other methods include ed-
Private land trusts and conservancies dedicated to ucational and consulting services for landowners.
78 Urban and Agricultural Communities: Opportunities for Common Ground

8 New Visions for Urban Agriculture

Only in cooperation with other partners can agri-

Introduction culture help resolve the challenges facing a rapidly
This report has discussed agriculture in a new urbanizing society. Many problems facing the rural
light. Agriculture’s contemporary role in an urban- and urban subsectors of U.S. society have similar ef-
izing society has been the central theme. When fects (Figure 8.1). Although the sources of problems
viewed broadly, agriculture can serve as a valuable may differ, their effects on the environment, the com-
resource for both rural and urban leaders concerned munity, and the individual are very similar. Success-
about issues of community economic development, ful response and cost-effective resource use will re-
land use conservation and management, and commu- quire joint planning, problem solving, and cost
nity livability. The term urban agriculture refers to sharing. Each partner can bring unique knowledge
a complex system encompassing a full spectrum of and experience to the situation and, simultaneously,
activities from a traditional core of production, pro- can derive mutual benefits from the working relation-
cessing, marketing, distribution and consumption, to ship.
more extensive system components including recre- The last decade has brought about sweeping chang-
ation and leisure, business entrepreneurship, individ- es in the public’s interest in food systems, diet and
ual health benefits, scenic beautification, environmen- health, information access, natural landscapes, and
tal restoration and remediation, community health environmental protection and conservation. This pe-
and well-being services, and economic vitality. The riod also has witnessed a decline in the profitability
report identifies partnership opportunities and poli- of farms and ranches and in the numbers of people
cy recommendations for urban and rural leaders and directly involved in farming and ranching, as well as
decision makers to enable more cooperative solutions in the loss of productive farmland. These changes
to common and complex environmental, health, safe- have been accompanied by intense debate among
ty, nutritional, social, and economic problems. It stakeholders concerning which policies are needed,
recommends changes that the agriculture system, what the impacts of policy and funding decisions will
universities and colleges, and various levels of gov- be, who will be affected by these decisions, and who
ernment must undertake to remain relevant to soci- will pay for the proposed solutions. With increased
ety. population densities and commuting times, people
An interdependency exists between rural and ur- seek additional meaning in their lives, an enhanced
ban areas, which is illustrated aptly by the concept sense of community, and more opportunities to recon-
of a rural-urban agroecosystem within which agricul- nect with nature. Many of these expectations are oc-
ture plays a major contributory role. The rural-ur- curring, however, as natural resources (e.g., land,
ban agroecosystem is defined as a biological and nat- water, and air) are diminishing in quality and/or
ural resource system that must be managed jointly quantity.
by rural and urban people for the purposes of Economic growth and improvements alone cannot
• producing safe and accessible food and nonfood sustain communities. Community prosperity also
products, necessitates investment in human and social capital,
for example, in new sources of innovation and entre-
• providing services to the environment and com- preneurship. This may mean enticing immigrants to
munity, relocate to communities lacking sufficient human re-
• generating direct and indirect social and economic sources. The survival of rural communities depends
benefits to the rural-urban system, and on the development of strategies for such communi-
• ensuring individual and community health and ties to connect to each other and to find ways to link
well-being. to thriving metropolitan centers (Stauber 2001). Com-
prehensive planning for sustainability should address

78
New Visions for Urban Agriculture 79

Problems in the Rural Problems in the Urban

Potential Impacts
Agricultural Subsystem Agricultural Subsystem
Animal Waste Disposal Contamination (air, soil, water), Human/Animal Waste Disposal
• From animal/poultry feedlots psychological stress (animals), • From residential “feedlots” (city and
(confinement operations) that health problems (animal, suburban residences), companion
generate waste humans), increased management animals, and urban wildlife, all of
costs, disposal problems which generate waste
Food Processing Waste Disposal Contamination of air and water Household Waste Disposal
• Plant parts and waste water resources, water treatment • Plant parts and waste water
disposal that generate waste problems, sewer system capacity disposal
limitations, potential threat to
human health
Pesticide and Fertilizer Applications Contamination of air, soil, and Pesticide and Fertilizer Applications
• For commercial crop production water resources; potential danger • For lawn, tree, and shrub care,
• For highway and utility right-of-ways, to human health and food safety gardens and parks
vegetation control programs • Vegetation control programs for
• For insect control in food and grain street boulevards, utility right-of-ways,
storage facilities, farm buildings, parking lots, easements, waterways
and animals
Water Runoff Contamination of soil and water Water Runoff
• From croplands, feedlots, other resources, increased waterway • From gardens, lawns, and chemically
animal confinement facilities, grain and aquifer management treated house foundations
storage areas challenges and costs

Soil Erosion and Soil Health Loss of top soil, waterway Soil Erosion and Soil Health
• From water and wind, over-cropping, contamination, respiratory • From water- and wind-inadequate
poor tillage practices, deforestation, problems, soil nutrient depletion crop rotation and vegetation coverage
monocropping, inadequate crop of gardens, drainage channels,
rotation monocropping, new subdivisions
Water Limitations Water rights issues, irrigation Water Limitations
• Watershed and aquifer depletion restrictions, crop losses, increased • Watershed and aquifer depletion
• Drought waterway and aquifer management • Drought
challenges
Animal Carcass and Crop Contamination of air and water, Garbage Dumps, Landfills,
Residue Disposal cost of waste disposal and Yard Waste Disposal
• Recycling/Composting composting facilities, human safety • Recycling/Composting
Energy Consumption and Fuel Depletion of natural resources, air Energy Consumption and Fuel
Efficiency of Equipment and contamination, ozone pollution, Efficiency of Equipment and
Practices high energy cost Practices
Human/Community Capital Inadequate community leadership Human/Community Capital
• Labor shortages and collaborative problem solving • Labor shortages
• Limited youth activities capacity, crime and delinquency, • Limited youth activities
population change (in some (e.g., inner cities)
• New immigrant communities cases, out-migration), community
• Shortage of young farmers conflict • New immigrant communities
• Shortage of local investment • Hobby farmers with limited
farm/business experience

Figure 8.1. Common problems and potential impacts within the rural-urban agroecosystem. The commonality of the problems and
impacts suggests that potential solutions may have application to both rural and urban populations. This idea further sub-
stantiates the value of rural-urban partnerships to preserve natural resources, maintain business and economic viability,
control pollution, and build healthy and livable communities. Pooling financial and human resources can generate solu-
tions more quickly and with increased economic benefits. By applying an integrated rural-urban approach, shared prob-
lems can become jointly owned solutions that produce pay-offs for everyone.
80 Urban and Agricultural Communities: Opportunities for Common Ground

both economic and resource (human and natural) and agricultural leaders and public officials in
availability and replenishment. If the often compet- identifying mutual needs and opportunities.
itive needs of both urban and rural areas are not in- 2. Integrated, long-term rural-urban resourc-
tegrated, however, outcomes may lack elements that es. The multidimensional issues and needs
contribute to regional competitive advantage and of urban, urban-edge, and rural agriculture
problem-solving capacity. must be incorporated into long-term compre-
The following domains for collaborative problem hensive economic, environmental, and social
solving have been identified by the CAST report: (1) development plans. Natural and cultural amen-
comprehensive planning, (2) public policy, (3) higher ities, many located outside urban areas, are valu-
education, (4) research, and (5) partnerships and col- able assets, especially as populations expand and
laboration. Each category includes initiatives that move away from their agricultural roots. Incen-
could enhance research, education, problem solving, tives for rural-urban cooperation can offer attrac-
and planning. tive pay-offs to all participating partners. Coop-
erative funding initiatives will be needed to help
Comprehensive Planning manage common resources such as watersheds
and estuaries, energy sources, and natural habi-
As indicated in this report, urban agriculture is a tat areas.
complex and dynamic endeavor involving many activ- 3. Community food systems. Planning for a
ities, purposes, attributes, and outcomes. Because it functional, safe, and sustainable urban food
is an integral part of the urban economy and ecology, system requires that residents and organiza-
it should be part of the comprehensive planning pro- tions understand their existing food systems
cess. Land-use planning and agricultural planning, and identify local or regional goals for a
for example, will include many pragmatic dimensions desired food system. Elements to consider in-
as well as input from and collaboration with diverse clude food sources, value-added production and
groups. Many individual pieces of the metropolitan processing potentials, customer-producer rela-
agriculture puzzle are identified, but planning is need- tionships, biowaste recycling, energy sources and
ed sorely now to put these pieces together into a co- costs, economic and community development, in-
herent and functional whole. In international cities dividual health, land use, and food security. An-
such as Dar-es-Salaam (Tanzania), Kampala (Ugan- other consideration might be institutional or gov-
da), Ho Chi Minh (Vietnam), and Shanghai (China), ernment purchases of local or regional agriculture
urban planning includes agriculture by identifying products.
publicly controlled zones that prohibit certain types
of farming, by identifying “green belts” for communi- 4. Financial incentives. Low-cost loans, tech-
ty gardens, and by establishing buffer areas to help nical assistance, and other financial or tax
control development and protect urban soil (de Zeeuw, incentives for entrepreneurial urban agri-
Gundel, and Waibel 1999). cultural business activities, alternative and
Urban agriculture is a tool that can be used in a niche production opportunities, public gar-
comprehensive planning approach to address farm dens, environmental site restoration, wildlife
and nonfarm issues related to community livability, habitat development, farmland protection,
environmental and natural resource conservation and waterway remediation, groundwater re-
use, and local economic vitality. Six comprehensive charge, scenic beautification, and interior-
planning initiatives to consider are the following: scaping for aesthetic and therapeutic values
should be provided.
1. Public support. Without an understanding of 5. Funding. Creative community-based revenue
the rural-urban agroecosystem or the role that generation to support the outcomes of joint
both rural and urban partners play within it, pub- planning (e.g., community grants, volunteer
lic support for institutional or policy change will contributions, business-community partner-
be difficult to gain. Efforts must be made to ships, and fee-for-service activities) should
help both rural and urban residents under- be explored. Some of the resources often taken
stand and appreciate the broader applica- for granted could have a cash value that would
tions of agriculture and its potential for instill local pride in the asset.
helping to resolve common problems. A key
strategy involves the engagement of community 6. Existing resources. Planners should consult
New Visions for Urban Agriculture 81

with the many research-based information family farmers, and society’s goals for more sustain-
resources for agriculture, including servic- able food, agriculture, natural resource, and commu-
es within the USDA (e.g., the Cooperative nity systems to meet the needs of future generations.
State Research, Education, and Extension The need for reform in U.S. farm policy was rein-
Service [CSREES] and the Natural Resourc- forced by a recent AFT national public opinion sur-
es Conservation Service [NRCS]), which pro- vey of registered voters, which indicated overwhelm-
vide information about soils, plants, water, ing public support for the many services that
and waste handling systems. Land-grant uni- farmland provides, including food and fiber produc-
versities and metropolitan colleges and universi- tion, wildlife habitat, scenic vistas, ecosystem servic-
ties, non-profit organizations such as AFT, and es, ground-water recharge, and “agritainment.” The
botanical gardens are additional sources of infor- public supports the use of farm subsidy payments to
mation. help family farmers under stress from low market
prices, floods, or drought, and to encourage improved
conservation and stewardship practices (AFT 2001b).
Public Policy Equitable rural and urban policies must be tailored
Academicians and others have advocated strongly to a region’s identity and needs as well as to the wel-
the decoupling of agricultural policy from rural com- fare of its residents. The following three dimensions
munity development policy because of the former’s should be considered in the shaping of future urban
traditional focus on commodity production and the lat- agricultural policies: land use, food systems, and hu-
ter’s on social and economic needs in a changing soci- man capital development.
ety. Relatively few of the nation’s policies have ad-
dressed the role of agriculture within metropolitan
and rural areas. Urban agriculture is at the interface Land Use
of agricultural enterprises, local communities, and the As urban areas continue to grow and to sprawl,
natural landscape. This interface requires that pub- they change the landscape by altering or eliminating
lic policy address the common and unique needs of ecologically valuable land and forest resources. Land
each component. Important aspects of this policy pro- fragmentation has become an important issue at the
cess, and the common ground they share, are land- urban fringe. The spread of urban boundaries and
use planning, planning for agriculture, and long-term human populations into rural areas alters the land-
food security. Embedded in the planning and food scape in terms of its economic, social, cultural, and
security issues are the sustainability and the viabili- natural functions and values. How can these chang-
ty of natural resources and ecosystems and the devel- es occur and how can they be mediated? The follow-
opment of alternative policies preserving the capabil- ing suggestions are offered to address some of the
ity to use these resources wisely while ensuring challenging agricultural land-use policy issues.
quality of life. As new policies are developed and cur- 1. Analysis of alternative policy instruments.
rent policies scrutinized, assessments of their effects A crucial need exists for cost effectiveness
must be made regularly to support informed decision analyses of alternative land-use policy in-
making by policymakers and local leaders. struments (e.g., rural zoning, urban growth
Farm subsidy payments can hurt rural communi- boundaries, tax incentives, and agricultural con-
ties by absorbing financial resources. This practice servation easements). Alternative tools for farm-
limits the availability of funds to encourage rural com- land and open-space protection and management
munities to work in partnership with urban neigh- need to be compared by means of selected case
bors. At the same time, current farm policies omit studies. Because land-use change tends to be a
certain types of farm businesses (e.g., turf and vege- regional phenomenon, regional technologies for
table, fruit, greenhouse, nursery, and other specialty guiding growth also should be analyzed for cost,
crops) often found in MAs. A need exists to reorient effectiveness, and distributional issues. Who
agricultural policy toward programs equitably sup- pays, who gains, and who loses under rural zon-
porting diverse farming and/or food systems to ing, easement purchase programs, or tax incen-
strengthen the relation between rural and urban ar- tives? Political positions are taken based on who
eas and to promote natural-resource stewardship. is asked to pay the bill for protecting open space.
Policies also should reflect the realities of the kinds Alternative policy scenarios, including subse-
of current systems, the public support that exists for quent effects, are needed.
82 Urban and Agricultural Communities: Opportunities for Common Ground

2. Land conversion data needs. Need exists for Food Systems

documentation of land conversion from ag-
riculture to other uses. Data from actual trans- The interdependence of urban and rural life is rep-
actions are needed to augment the NRI and the resented historically in the relationship between the
Census of Agriculture. production of food, fiber, and wood products and the
3. Land-use decision making. Various physi- urban markets where these value-added products are
cal, economic, and demographic variables consumed. Although globalization, restructuring
should be integrated to develop improved within the domestic agricultural system, and demo-
spatial models of land-use patterns to design graphic changes have obscured the relationship be-
local policy. A useful activity in this regard tween producers and consumers, product cost, quali-
would be to assemble scientists in several disci- ty, and safety continue to be important issues to
plines working on land-use models for a national everyone.
workshop on predictive land-use models, with ap- 1. Food access and advocacy. Policies should
plications for real situations. be developed to ensure that all residents
4. Analysis of real local decision processes. Ag- have access to local, affordable, safe, and
ricultural preference zoning, for example, sug- nutritious food. Food policy councils (FPCs)
gests that certain land areas will remain in exist at the state level in two states and in approx-
active farming, thus prohibiting nonfarm devel- imately 16 other communities in the United
opment. In practice, zoning amendments, vari- States and Canada. Several additional states
ances, petitions, referenda, and other practices (North Carolina, Utah, Kentucky, Oklahoma, and
determine how land is used. Actual land-use Massachusetts) are considering cooperative food
decision making behavior within institu- policy arrangements and FPC formations. An
tional and /or governmental frameworks FPC is an officially sanctioned group of people
should be documented. representing different elements of a state or lo-
5. Roles for government and higher education. cal food system and charged with making recom-
Appropriate roles for federal, state, and lo- mendations regarding improvement of the food
cal governments in land-use policy develop- system. An FPC can contribute in other ways as
ment and implementation should be identi- well (e.g., by serving as a forum for understand-
fied. Processes should be included for constituent ing individual actions and their effects on other
engagement and solicitation of recommendations. parts of the system, monitoring food systems,
Opportunities for improving how the Federal improving access to and quality of the local food
Farmland Protection Program is integrated with system, pushing for more comprehensive policy
state, local, tribal, and nonprofit farmland protec- initiatives, conducting public education and re-
tion programs, other conservation programs, and search, and promoting more sustainable food sys-
overarching growth management plans should be tems) (Hamilton 2001). State legislators should
identified. Items to consider include an evalua- consider seriously the formation of FPCs and oth-
tion of fund allocation criteria; an analysis of op- er types of food system coalitions. Coalition ac-
portunities to enhance the leveraging of landown- tivities could include exploration of regional op-
er donations; an assessment of how to maximize portunities for promoting unique rural-urban
environmental benefits of protected parcels by amenities and enterprises.
connecting them with natural corridors; an as- 2. Localized economic and community bene-
sessment of the potential to target protection of fits. State and local government policies
farmland in high-priority areas; an evaluation of should be used to provide local and region-
program success measures; and a quantification al support for production, distribution, and
of the environmental benefits associated with use of food and food products originating in
farmland protection. Public and private organi- the area. Support should be given to farmers’
zations are in a good position to collaborate on markets, farm stands, CSAs, and other direct
training programs targeting land use and agri- farmer-to-consumer marketing mechanisms (e.g.,
culture land protection issues, policies, tools, and through land allocation, state agency support,
case experiences. and promotion). Also included might be state
programs to purchase local food for state institu-
tions, and tax incentives to encourage retail out-
New Visions for Urban Agriculture 83

lets to take advantage of locally available foods. ing as a profession? How can policy promote the
3. Food security and nutrition. Who consumes development of needed skills for more sustainable
what products, in what quantity, and at production and marketing systems appropriate to
what costs in a given period of time are im- smaller, more intensive land parcels in urban
portant market issues. There are also vital neighborhoods?
social and cultural issues when access to 2. What is the role of agricultural policy in cre-
affordable and nutritious food is unequal ating a new generation of successful agricul-
among particular societal groups. Many gov- turalists who can adapt to the needs of a
ernmental and local community programs exist more urbanized society? Could policy fos-
to serve these groups. As federal and other gov- ter a healthier balance between large-scale
ernmental policies decrease the size of the U.S. corporate agriculture and small to midsized
social welfare program, disadvantaged groups family farming systems that exist within or
and their patterns of consumption relative to near MAs?
where they live must be monitored continually. 3. What programs can be developed to help
Programs such as the Community Food Security young farmers or ranchers gain access to
Program and others under the USDA’s Food, needed capital? There may be ways for young
Nutrition, and Consumer Services auspice need and more experienced farmers to partner in
continued public funding and support. adapting a farm enterprise for the future.
4. Converting and revitalizing vacant or un-
derused urban lands. Policy initiatives are
needed to convert or revitalize underused or Higher Education
misused urban land to encourage more lo-
calized food production and access and to Since the passage of the Land Grant Acts of 1862
increase knowledge of horticulture and oth- and 1890, the study of agriculture has been perceived
er food-related activities. by many people as largely under the purview of LGUs.
Furthermore, urban studies have been perceived as
mainly unrelated to agriculture and under the domain
Human Capital Development of non-LGUs, or at least outside of colleges of agricul-
ture. For urban agriculture to reach its potential,
There is much evidence that farming, as an occu- LGUs, non-LGUs, and colleges within LGUs must
pation, no longer is attractive to the greater portion work together to educate students (through formal
of the U.S. population. This fact is reinforced by the learning processes) and the public (through informal
increasing average age of the U.S. farmer and by the learning processes). Metropolitan universities and
decline in numbers of individuals with a direct tie to colleges are among the key players in such future re-
production agriculture. Even when immigrants mi- lationships. A great number of these institutions of-
grate to rural communities for agricultural labor pur- fer exciting undergraduate courses and graduate pro-
poses, their migration and stay often represents a grams focusing on problems of the rural-urban
temporary situation. Immigrants frequently leave a interface (e.g., University of New Orleans, Cleveland
rural area as soon as they can find work in a metro- State University, University of Southern Maine, Uni-
politan one. Many new residents have a background versity of North Carolina–Charlotte, The Evergreen
in agriculture and entrepreneurship from other coun- State College, and Tufts University). Some specific
tries. Yet little effort is made to encourage them to opportunities for higher education include the follow-
remain in the agricultural sector at a managerial or ing:
ownership level. Questions to help frame policy are 1. College and university curricula. College
as follows: and university curricula, including general
1. How can a new generation of entrepreneur- education requirements, should be strength-
ial farmers evolve? What type of policies are ened to ensure that urban agriculture issues
needed to offer mentoring and incentives are addressed in an interdisciplinary, sys-
for new farmers and ranchers? For example, tems-oriented manner. The rural-urban agro-
might states identify ways to mentor and to en- ecosystem concept and the interdependency that
courage urban entrepreneurs, immigrants, or exists between the sectors should be developed
women interested in entering farming or ranch- further. Curricula should include subject matter
84 Urban and Agricultural Communities: Opportunities for Common Ground

integrating such areas as resource allocation ships between urban leaders and planners
and management, horticulture and forestry, and to develop educational and outreach
agroecosystems analysis and services, food sys- programs addressing problems within the
tems, conflict resolution and consensus building, rural-urban agroecosystem. Three important
social and cultural change, conservation and en- focal areas are food systems, agricultural land
vironmental protection, technology’s social im- and open-space protection, and building entrepre-
pacts, IPM, urban soils, land and water, policy neurial capacity.
and planning, landscape design, and applied/par- • Food systems. Food-system learning
ticipatory research. Learning processes engaging projects should be initiated. These projects
will monitor and analyze the food systems in
particular communities or regions; improve
access of low-income residents to food sources
by improving transportation or by influencing
retail outlet location decisions; advocate for,
and establish, community gardens for afford-
able and fresh produce; facilitate food-related
employment and entrepreneurship; educate
residents and leaders about issues related to
nutrition, grocery shopping, gardening, food
buying and marketing, food preparation, and
policy; encourage sustainable food production
and distribution; strengthen linkages between
local farmers and consumers; devise innovative
hunger-prevention programs; provide leader-
ship to involve community leaders in the devel-
opment of community food security provisions
and to formulate food and agriculture policy
recommendations at various government lev-
els.
• Agricultural land and open-space protec-
tion. More emphasis needs to be given to
extension and applied research programs
in the area of agricultural land and open-
space protection. Such efforts need to be
developed thoughtfully to ensure neutral-
ity and balance in addressing the needs
and interests of all stakeholders, without
favoring any interest group over another.
Figure 8.2. A faculty member points out qualities of a pond- Public education based on solid data is needed
raised hybrid striped bass for a student studying about how agriculture contributes to the com-
fisheries science at Delaware State University.
Photo by Scott Bauer, Agricultural Research Ser-
munity and how much it contributes economi-
vice, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Beltsville, cally. One important aspect to address is the
Maryland. issue of how much “critical mass” of farming
and associated infrastructure is needed to sus-
students in real-world issues and problems faced tain benefits. Extension also can assume lead-
by people in communities, governments, and the ership in documenting and disseminating suc-
private sector should be encouraged (Figure 8.2). cessful farmer adaptation strategies. Where
2. Outreach and extension. Extension out- extension has helped in the process of farmland
reach programs could be strengthened in and open-space policy development, it is impor-
several areas. Following the lead of some, all tant to document the processes used, and es-
LGUs should establish a rural-urban inter- pecially those that have been successful. How
face team to initiate collaborative partner- have stakeholders been identified and en-
New Visions for Urban Agriculture 85

gaged? This information would be useful if it ple of all ages, in light of current trends towards
were written up in case study form and shared urbanization. This presentation will call for an
with other communities developing participa- updating of curricula offered by such programs as
tory processes and policies for farmland and Ag in the Classroom, 4-H, and Future Farmers
open-space protection (NRCRD 2001). of America (FFA). Opportunities exist to work
• Building entrepreneurial capacity. Amer- through programs such as Master Gardeners,
ican economic success is rooted in entre- Master Composters, and docent programs in bo-
preneurship. Extension can play a key role tanical gardens to offer holistic strategies for ur-
in stimulating entrepreneurial partner- ban agriculture, including issues of rural-urban
ships between rural and urban constitu- interdependency.
encies and in assisting communities in 5. Professional development. In-service train-
identifying market opportunities and cus- ing programs should be established for col-
tomer preferences. Chances for success can lege and university faculty and staff to help
be increased when rural communities establish them deal effectively with the emerging ur-
direct connections to urban leaders and deci- ban agriculture-related issues addressed in
sion makers, market outlets, and consumers. this report. Opportunities to include an urban
Extension can also provide entrepreneurial agriculture curriculum in the training of public
leadership training and support for the orga- school teachers and other youth educators should
nization of farmer marketing alliances. be identified.
3. Bridge building. Programs should be devel- 6. Internal planning and organization. High-
oped to resolve conflict and to build partner- er education can benefit by sharing resourc-
ships between urban and rural users of ag- es, searching out new sources of funding,
ricultural information and technology, and addressing rural-urban agroecosystem
especially to serve commodity groups, other issues. Some sharing may be made possible by
special interest groups, and urban user means of creative reallocation of existing monies;
groups. Special attention should be paid to it will be essential, however, to seek the support
learning about the needs, interests, and priorities and the participation of new partners. Resourc-
of urban-oriented organizations such as the Ur- es should be refocused on issues beyond commod-
ban Land Institute, National League of Cities, ity-based agriculture, to include holistic strate-
National Governors Association, National Asso- gies and content more appropriate to the
ciation of Towns and Townships, American Plan- changing rural and urban agricultural situation.
ning Association, and National Association of Careful planning will be needed to identify a
Counties. Where possible, LGUs should be encour- cross-disciplinary mechanism or structure that
aged to partner with, and learn from, urban-orient- will foster a systems approach for responding to
ed and other appropriate nonprofit groups such as common urban-rural agricultural opportunities.
the AFT, Kellogg Foundation, and Audubon Soci-
ety. Such partnerships offer a timely opportunity
for LGUs to demonstrate where and how agricul- Research
ture can contribute to organizational agendas.
The clear need exists for more science-based
4. Public education and promotion. Public ed- information in designing, developing, and man-
ucation to improve understanding between aging urban environments. Without a strong sci-
rural and urban populations about the in- ence base, decisions too often are made solely on the
terdependency of these sectors and the poten- basis of factors such as financial gain, political influ-
tial contributions that agriculture can make ence, and public sentiment. Such decisions may seem
to improved quality of life, economic en- to work in the short-term but have negative long-term
hancement, resource conservation, and en- consequences. Research opportunities related to ur-
vironmental preservation is needed. Distance ban agriculture, as broadly defined in this document,
education technology offers significant opportu- have not been clearly articulated or enumerated in
nities for reaching out to a variety of place-bound writing. Key areas of research need to be identified
audiences about the issues of urban agriculture for the agricultural, biological, and social sciences.
and their relevance to urban life. The subject Active engagement with urban and rural community
matter of agriculture must be presented to peo- leadership will help individuals refine and focus this
86 Urban and Agricultural Communities: Opportunities for Common Ground

research agenda and assist in defining researchable organic amendments such as sands, ashes, and
problems and matching research needs with the ca- expanded clays and shales to improve soil po-
pabilities of universities, governments, and indus- rosity and water infiltration;
tries. Without rural and urban input and buy-in, it • to remediate soils contaminated with industri-
is unlikely that sufficient funding will be generated al wastes;
to meet the multifaceted research needs associated • to develop turfgrass varieties that sustain ve-
with urbanization. hicular and pedestrian traffic while accommo-
1. Plant adaptability and production systems. dating storm water; and
Plants perform many important functions in the • to evaluate the basic properties of urban waste
urban environment, which often is not conducive materials including biosolids, food residuals,
to plant growth and development. There are coal combustion ashes, and municipal yard
needs, therefore, waste compost and to determine how to use
• to identify and/or to develop, through plant these materials judiciously as soil amendments
evaluations and plant breeding, landscape in potting mixes and urban gardens or as back-
plants better suited for the rigors of the urban fill material for tree wells, street medians, and
environment; so forth.
• to identify visually acceptable native plants
that can be produced economically;
• to develop small-statured landscape plants
that better fit the restricted landscape spaces
common in urban environments;
• to develop plants that are biosensors, to moni-
tor specific environmental hazards such as ra-
dioisotopes, built-up soil chemicals, and fuel
contaminants. Currently, a cost effective way
to monitor many environmental hazards may
not exist. These and other future roles for
plants to monitor the environment may prove
invaluable;
• to develop diverse and environmentally friend-
ly crop-animal production systems incorporat-
ing value-added options (agritourism,
farm-based processing, etc.) suitable for small-
er-acreage urban environments; and
• to develop landscape plants that are shade tol-
erant, to accommodate urban landscape needs.
2. Urban soils. In urban environments, soil is an
important natural resource influencing plant per-
formance and providing engineering functions.
Research is needed
• to manage soil fertility for optimal plant health
while minimizing negative environmental ef-
fects;
• to develop cost-effective compost systems;
• to improve urban soil quality (structure, chem-
istry, and biology). Waste composting and uti- Figure 8.3. A plant pathologist examines cultures of different
root pathogens that can reduce yields of strawber-
lization offer the potential for urban soil im-
ries grown in poorly or nonfumigated soil. Photo by
provement; Scott Bauer, Agricultural Research Service, U.S.
• to determine when and how best to utilize in- Department of Agriculture, Beltsville, Maryland.
New Visions for Urban Agriculture 87

3. Water management. Urban water issues, es- • IPM and biocontrol systems of plants, in-
pecially in the western and southern United sects and diseases (Figure 8.3);
States, where MAs have been increasing, are • structural pest-management strategies
characterized by increasing conflict due to the (e.g., control of household pests, wood-
demand for high-quality water for urban con- destroying pests, and pests that invade
sumption, industrial processes, and irrigation. structures such as airplanes, docks, ships,
Accordingly, an acute need exists for research railroad cars, or trucks) posing minimal
• to develop water conservation programs risks for humans and the environment;
and landscape designs leading to more and
efficient use of water; • safe methods for discouraging wildlife
• to identify and/or to develop landscape from feeding on valuable landscape
plants requiring less water; plants, for selecting plants resistant to
• to develop more efficient irrigation sys- animal feeding, and for preventing trans-
tems increasing water use efficiency; mission of animal diseases to humans.
• to develop improved landscape manage- 5. Entrepreneurial products. Advancements in
ment techniques aimed at decreasing the science and technology have created oppor-
negative effects of fertilizer and pesti- tunities for new products and services. Agri-
cides on surface- and groundwater quali- cultural science has made it possible to create
ty; several revenue streams from any one product
• to identify appropriate construction ma- (e.g., extraction of plant and animal compounds
terials and designs for construction of for treatment of health ailments, production of
groundwater recharge systems and wet- food preservatives, or generation of energy and
lands that can be used to control the energy byproducts). These new developments
quantity and quality of urban storm-wa- create a need for documentation of economic fea-
ter runoff; sibility, marketing and production budgets for
products or services such as biofuels, neutraceu-
• to develop total maximum daily load ticals, waste utilization, alternative composting
(TMDL-maximum pollutant load capaci- technologies, site remediation, natural resource
ty) for a body of water and land in urban management, and individual health care servic-
watersheds, for the purpose of designing es. Through creative partnerships, rural and ur-
remedial systems to restore water quali- ban areas can work together to create a variety
ty; and of value-added products and services.
• to characterize the ecological risks asso-
ciated with water re-use programs of in- 6. Social and economic dimensions. There is
dustries and municipalities. Based on this limited understanding of the general pub-
characterization, alternatives can be developed lic’s attitudes, perceptions, and knowledge of
for improving management and decreasing eco- the contributions of urban agriculture. Part
logical and health risks. of society’s challenge is to build public recognition
of the reciprocal value existing between rural and
4. Pest management. Urban landscapes face chal- urban sectors and of the positive role that agri-
lenges from insects and plant pathogens. Addi- culture, in its broadest sense, can play. There also
tionally, there are other pest concerns (termites, is a continual need to understand consumer
spiders, etc.) associated with built structures and trends and demands regarding agricultural prod-
with human diseases (Lyme disease, Nile Virus, uct and service expectations, especially those re-
etc.) transmitted by insects and wildlife. In ur- lated to individual and community health and
ban environments, however, pesticide usage is a well-being. Research should be conducted on the
serious concern and likely will face increasingly following topics:
stringent regulation. There is a need for research
aimed at developing more environmentally- • Public attitudes and perceptions. Nation-
friendly pest management strategies. This need al and local studies using targeted focus
includes development of groups should describe the general pub-
lic’s understanding and perceptions of
• insect- and disease-resistant plants; agriculture’s role in rural and urban so-
88 Urban and Agricultural Communities: Opportunities for Common Ground

cieties. A national survey should investi- • Problem clarification. Documentation

gate the degree of differentiation that the and understanding of the nature and the
public makes between the two sectors, for amount of converted farmland should be
instance, whether the public distinguish- improved, as should documentation and
es between rural and urban agriculture, understanding of farmers’ adaptations to
and how it perceives urban sprawl. changes at the rural-suburban fringe.
• Connections and common interests. Rel- Topics that should be considered include relat-
atively little understanding exists of the ed outcomes; population changes in places
actual connections and common interests where farmland and open space are under
between farm and nonfarm (or rural and threat; personal and family factors affecting
urban) people and organizations. Given farmers’ decision making in the face of threat;
this type of insight, people could be more effects of industrializing the food system on
able to take advantage of existing social net- farmers’ decision making about land conver-
works and common denominators for improved sion; economic effects of farmland loss on com-
rural-urban policy planning. munities; role of agriculture in local, regional,
• Individual and community health and and state economies; location choices and pref-
well-being. Research is essential to docu- erences of residents and roles of organizations
ment the effect that plants have on health affecting choices; and factors influencing devel-
and well-being of individuals and commu- opment of farmland and open space. Questions
nities in diverse settings and cultures. to be addressed include: What is the critical
These effects can include environmental, ther- mass of farms and associated businesses need-
apeutic, and economic applications. Research- ed for long-term farm viability? What is the
able areas include plant and animal roles in nature of “sprawl” and what are its impacts on
prevention and recovery from major illnesses, agriculture? How can agriculture help mitigate
and in stress reduction; effects of plants and an- the problems of population growth and sprawl?
imals on decreased cost of health care; chil- What are the population growth trends and the
dren’s plant and animal interactions and their amount of agricultural land used for develop-
developmental benefits; plant and animal ef- ment?
fects on worker productivity and absenteeism; • Public preferences and values. Public per-
and effects of attractive and well-planned land- ceptions of farmland, including values and
scapes on commuter stress mitigation. preferences and perceived positives and nega-
tives, are important for planning purposes. Do
7. Farmland protection. A conference sponsored people want farms and the accompanying
by the American Planning Association, The Cen- changes of economic viability, or do they want
ter for Agricultural and Rural Policy, The North- the amenities that come with living near
east Regional Center for Rural Development, The farms? People’s willingness to pay for the out-
Swank Program in Rural-Urban Policy (The Ohio comes of farmland and open-space protection
State University), and others was held in Septem- policies should be documented. Rural and ur-
ber 2001 to examine the regulations surrounding ban stakeholders in farmland policy
land-use management (agricultural protection should be identified, as should their goals,
zoning, right-to-farm laws, and urban growth including convergent and conflicting goal
management regulations) and to identify the sets and policies.
knowledge gaps concerning the effectiveness of • Integration of policy tools. Integration of
these policies (NRCRD 2001). Conference par- policy goals should be improved, as should
ticipants, including leading scholars and program analytical methods, policy tools, and gov-
managers, generated recommendations to ernmental boundaries. Improved under-
strengthen the research agenda on farmland and standing of farmland protection goals to ensure
open-space protection. The section that follows that policy design meets stakeholder preferenc-
draws on the proceedings of this conference, as es is called for. Multidisciplinary studies help-
well as on the suggestions of the CAST authors. ing explain land conversion decisions and
The recommended areas of research are as stresses could be used to help formulate pub-
follows: lic and private responses to farmland and open
New Visions for Urban Agriculture 89

space loss. Insights from family sociology, con- programs; engaging in systems-oriented stud-
flict resolution, legal, financial, and other hu- ies of the relations between farmland protec-
man dimensions might aid in the consideration tion issues and other issues such as housing,
of certain complex problems. Because policies and identifying stakeholders; and clarifying the
often are used together, the potential comple- political and institutional connections.
mentarity (or conflict) of different policy tools
is an important issue, as is the means of eval-
uating “blended” policies. How to apply poli-
cies across political boundaries effectively, and
Partnerships and Collaboration
what the outcomes may be for different stake- Historically, agricultural commodity and allied in-
holders and jurisdictions, need to be under- dustry groups have been the voices of agriculture. By
stood more clearly. Evaluation of existing re- providing financial and political support and advice,
gional growth management programs would be these interest groups have had a major influence on
useful. the traditional agricultural system. Generally, they
• Effects of farmland protection policies. have defined their interests as rural; consequently,
Limited research has been done to document they probably have not appreciated the value of an
agricultural land protection policy options and urban partnership fully. Likewise, urban populations
their effectiveness. Studies are needed to as- probably have failed to appreciate fully the value of
certain the true effects of policies on prop- partnering with rural constituencies. The changing
erty values, to learn the effects of granting agricultural support base, increasing environmental
variances to agricultural zoning, and to concerns, diminishing natural resources, and increas-
understand the unintended consequences ing public demand for recreational and open spaces
of farmland and open-space protection will continue to make rural-urban partnerships ex-
policies, including second- and third-lev- tremely important. If agriculture is to survive, albe-
el effects. What are the implications of policy it in a different form, in an urbanizing society, part-
designs emphasizing common group goals, and nerships between traditional agricultural groups and
how are individual interests affected? Advanc- urban interest groups will be imperative. These new
ing conceptual designs for policy evaluation relationships hold promise for all participants and
and implementing comparative evaluation have the potential to secure new resources, to preserve
studies across states are necessary steps. productive agriculture land and open space, to con-
There also is a need to measure and to under- trol sprawl, to maintain equitable access to natural
stand the effects of land-use fragmentation (or resources, and so on.
“leapfrog” development) on agriculture, aes- Partnerships and coalitions among diverse organi-
thetics, and wildlife habitats. Another impor- zations can play a crucial role in solving problems and
tant issue is the need to understand the envi- creating new opportunities, especially when urban
ronmental benefits of working agricultural agricultural issues are so complex, multidimension-
lands in urban-influenced areas. al, and often unprecedented. Urban agriculture can
• New policy tools. Research on farmland attract a wide group of stakeholders, ranging from
and open-space protection needs to be individuals in higher education to those in state and
more creative. Approaches can include iden- local governments or in the private sector. Govern-
tifying new funding sources for PDRs; using ment agencies include those with nonagricultural
multidisciplinary teams to understand farm- orientations such as planning, environmental health,
ers’ departure from farming, and, subsequent- economic development, and tourism. Together, a co-
ly, applying these findings to interventions; alition of broad-based interests could be a formidable
creating multidisciplinary studies of develop- force with which to address the opportunities and
ment patterns at the rural-urban interface, challenges of urban agriculture.
including roles and motivations of different Regardless of one’s institutional affiliation, the ad-
stakeholders; examining interactions among vantages of expanding relationships beyond those
policies, farmers, and residents at the rural- within the organizations with which one normally as-
urban fringe, including insights into success- sociates are many. For urban leaders and planners,
ful farmer adaptations; documenting who ben- establishing ties with agricultural partners can lead
efits and who pays as a result of these to new knowledge, information, and resources. For
90 Urban and Agricultural Communities: Opportunities for Common Ground

rural and urban leaders, establishing partnerships and the economy, agriculture and food, urban revital-
opens opportunities to connect the two sectors, there- ization, and environmental and natural resources.
by expanding resources, generating economic oppor- The “urban-rural common ground” concept, to which
tunities, and providing better customer insights. For this report directs attention, fits clearly within the
nonprofit organizations, new partnerships can expand Kellogg Commission mandate. The questions that
the scientific resource base and enable development this CAST report raises require a range of problem-
of an area of expertise pertinent to their missions. The solving, financial, and other resources. Six sugges-
private sector can benefit from university partner- tions are provided to stimulate ideas about potential
ships by accessing new science-based knowledge with partnerships through which to address the complex
which to strengthen the competitive advantage. Part- issues of the rural-urban agroecosystem.
nerships between agencies and urban leaders can help 1. Expanded representation. The strength of
businesses through product exposure and can provide partnerships is the breadth of experiences
timely insights into urban needs and priorities. and backgrounds brought together. This is
As the agricultural agenda shifts towards urban in- the crucial mandate of urban agriculture
terests, LGUs have an opportunity to reposition them- and will call for coalition building among
selves in response to societal needs. Land-grant uni- diverse organizations whose agendas corre-
versities, whose mission includes outreach and service spond with certain components of the rural-
to all of society, must identify new and creative ways urban agroecosystem. Key partners include the
of doing business to reach their full potentials in an following:
urbanizing environment. The enormous intellectual
capital held in LGUs has the capacity to help fuel an • Higher education. The LGU departments
urban agriculture success story paralleling that of the (e.g., sociology, psychology, marketing, polit-
rural agricultural agenda over the past 100 years. ical science, languages, ethics, history, archi-
The urban agricultural agenda offers LGUs a unique tecture and landscape design, urban plan-
opportunity to engage collectively both urban and ning, engineering, environmental sciences,
rural constituents. Strong relationships between ur- extension services, and various agricultural
ban leaders and organizations bringing a different set sciences), community colleges, private univer-
of experiences and perspectives to the table can sities, and medical and technical schools.
strengthen both rural and urban areas and the agri- • Government agencies. County/state lead-
cultural institution itself. Land-grant universities ership (e.g., commerce and trade, tourism,
have an opportunity to reinvent themselves by devis- planning, transportation, parks and recre-
ing strategies to service rural needs while simulta- ation, community and economic development,
neously adapting science and services to meet the land use, and agriculture) and federal agen-
needs of a growing urban sector. cies such as the Department of Education, the
The challenge is to build new strategic partner- Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), the
ships and new forms of public support while respond- USDA Sustainable Agriculture Research and
ing to the expectations of traditional clientele. The Education, CSREES, the Food and Drug Ad-
engaging of new partnerships will require leadership ministration, the National Institutes of
and focused efforts in which common problems, goals, Health, the National Science Foundation, and
and agendas are shaped together, for mutual bene- departments of public works.
fit. The value of diverse partnerships, for example, • Nonprofit organizations and other asso-
with K–12 education, community colleges, and other ciations. Botanical gardens and arboreta,
public and private four-year institutions of higher zoos, community food coalitions, community
education, has been articulated clearly in reports by gardens, greening organizations, the faith
the Kellogg Commission on the Future of State and community, conservation, wildlife and envi-
Land Grant Universities (1999, 2000). According to ronmental organizations (e.g., Audubon, Si-
the commission, universities must continue to change erra Club, Ducks Unlimited, AFT, Land Trust
to meet societal expectations. One way to accomplish Alliance, Trust for Public Lands), private
change is to create two-way partnerships defined by foundations (e.g., W. K. Kellogg, Kerr, Noble,
mutual respect and joint commitments to finding so- Mott), sustainable agriculture, and consum-
lutions to real societal problems. Issues to be rede- er advocacy. Associations include such groups
fined in more contemporary terms include education as the Urban Land Institute, The National
New Visions for Urban Agriculture 91

League of Cities, The National Governors As- ment. The URP effort also is supported by
sociation, National Association of Towns and partnerships with other federal agencies. The
Townships, American Planning Association, NRCS partners with AFT to support the Farm-
and National Association of Counties. land Information Center and to supply farm-
• Private sector firms. Green industry, land- land protection information.
scape firms, tourism industry, processing and • Wildlife and recreation area partner-
distribution businesses, retail outlets, hospi- ships. For example, the Audubon Cooperative
tals, nursing care facilities, and agronomic Sanctuary System, a partnership between
and equipment firms. Audubon International and the U.S. Golf As-
sociation, encourages golf courses to develop
2. Partner engagement. The urban agriculture resource management programs to improve
agenda offers higher education an opportu- environmental quality for both people and
nity to involve the entire campus communi- wildlife.
ty in solving complex urban agriculture
problems. Furthermore, developing a multi- • Watershed protection partnerships. The
disciplinary university effort in partnership New York City Watershed Protection Pro-
with both urban and rural communities, grams, established under the 1996 Watershed
public and private agencies, and private Agreement, reflect a partnership among up-
industry offers an excellent holistic model state New York watershed communities, envi-
for developing programs addressing contem- ronmental organizations, New York City, New
porary societal needs. Opportunities for off- York state, and the EPA (Pfeffer and Wagenet
campus partnerships include the following: 1999). At stake is 1.4 billion gal. of high-qual-
ity drinking water for daily consumption by al-
• Community food systems partnerships. most 9 million New York City residents. This
Building partnerships between farmers and partnership implements a comprehensive
more urban-based groups (e.g., horticulture as- management and water quality enhancement
sociations, food systems councils, consumer ad- program to protect the watershed, the drink-
vocacy organizations, and farmers’ markets) ing water supply, and the economic viability of
could be very beneficial. One example could the agriculture-based economy within the wa-
include the integration of CSA initiatives tershed communities.
(whereby consumers share the risks and ben-
efits of farming) with the agenda of a food pol- 3. Future faculty roles. The urban agriculture
icy council concerned about state or local food agenda calls for integrated and interdisci-
policy. Community food projects can connect plinary discovery, learning, and engagement
food producers, consumers, and local food sys- approaches within universities. Faculty
tems to community objectives such as im- participating in these collaborative activi-
proved local health and diet, public education, ties run the risk of not being rewarded by
food access, youth development, and recre- their institutional culture unless evaluation
ation. and reward guidelines are adapted to recog-
nize individual contributions to the whole
• Community greening partnerships be- partnership. This calls for revision of traditional
tween urban and rural areas. The Ameri- reward systems based solely on refereed journal
can Community Gardening Association, for articles, grant dollars received, and individual
example, is composed of various professional achievement. Recognition of creativity and col-
groups and volunteers who believe that gar- laborative scholarship will be an important mo-
dening and landscaping activities are catalysts tivator to entice faculty contributions to partner-
for neighborhood and community development. ships associated with complex urban agriculture
• Government, nonprofit organizations, problems (Boyer 1990).
and community partnerships. The Urban 4. Cooperative extension. Extension remains
Resource Partnership (URP) is a USDA initia- one of the country’s most unique mechanisms
tive encouraging neighborhood conservation for reaching beyond the university campus
partnerships for education, resource protection into constituent communities. Nationwide,
and enhancement, and community develop- there are 74 LGUs classified as 1862 or 1890
92 Urban and Agricultural Communities: Opportunities for Common Ground

LGUs, 30 LGUs classified as 1994 institutions, to engage K–12 education, undergraduate,

and 3,150 county administrative units. In 1999– and graduate students attending public and
2000, there were 32,000 extension employees and private schools, colleges, and universities, in
2.8 million extension volunteers. In 1997 (the last the issues and problems of urban agricul-
year for which data are available), staff in exten- ture. Engagement can be facilitated through stu-
sion reached more than 110.5 million U.S. resi- dent experiential learning or service-learning
dents. In spite of the strength of these resourc- opportunities such as internships, traineeships,
es, most extension personnel are not situated in and applied research projects. Through service-
metropolitan counties, and fewer yet are address- learning courses and community-based programs
ing rural-urban agroecosystem issues/problems. of study, students from different disciplines can
The following suggestions offer means of collaborate with the private and public sectors
strengthening extension’s effects in this impor- and with nonprofit organizations to create mean-
tant area: ingful community activities for academic credit.
• Broaden campuswide extension partner- The service learning model, where institutional-
ships to provide a wider base of expertise ized, can enrich the learning and discovery expe-
on urban agriculture issues. riences of faculty, students, and members of both
rural and urban agriculture communities. Spe-
• Offer educational opportunities to orient cific suggestions for universities attempting to
organizations about the values of urban strengthen the experiential learning experience
partnerships. Develop a team approach that for students, faculty, and partners follow:
includes key urban agroecological elements
(e.g., forest and natural resources, social and • A campuswide center or institute should
economic, environmental, business and mar- be created to address the rural-urban
keting, nutrition and health, planning and de- agroecosystem. A collaborative unit pat-
sign, consumer horticulture, and crop produc- terned after Clemson University’s Sandhill
tion information). Collaboration Center could bring together di-
verse college and extension expertise, environ-
• Assume leadership for urban and rural mental and sustainability interests, communi-
agriculture coalition building and for ty leaders, and others. State agency partners
engaging various interest communities in might include commercial, natural resource,
urban agriculture planning, program de- environmental, recreational, and tourist
velopment, and funding. These joint coali- groups. University and other organizational
tions could address regional opportunities for investments would be necessary.
achieving a competitive advantage around
unique urban-rural enterprises, cultural • University resources should be invested
amenities, and alliances. in a community of scholars program to
support rural-urban agroecosystem expe-
• Enhance extension’s human resource ca- riential learning opportunities.
pacity by offering urban agriculture pro-
fessional development opportunities in- • Partnerships should be encouraged be-
volving specialized training from tween faculty in agricultural sciences and
nontraditional partners and the campus- the social sciences to bring together in a
wide community; identify opportunities service learning setting students of agri-
for extension personnel to learn from, culture and those interested in urban
and work with, new urban agriculture and/or related human issues. The intent
partners and cooperators. would be to collaborate with urban profession-
als and to use agricultural applications to meet
• Support and enhance volunteer-based community needs.
programs such as extension Master Garden-
ers and extension Master Composters, and ex- 6. Funding strategies. To finance or to support
pand the concept to include “master entrepre- the building of partnerships and the urban
neurs” or other appropriate volunteer-based agriculture agenda, creative funding strat-
programs. egies are needed. One of the major challenges
to supporting urban agriculture initiatives will be
5. Experiential learning. An opportunity exists the perception that funds will be diverted from
New Visions for Urban Agriculture 93

already underfunded rural commitments. This with a pet, or of knowing the farmers who produce
dilemma highlights the importance of a well- their food. This document has attempted to paint a
planned strategy evidencing clear understanding broad picture of agriculture beyond its traditional
of the benefits to all partners. Funding resourc- rural roots and production focus and to move the dis-
es must be identified and shared so that all part- cussion towards viewing agriculture as a common
ners benefit. Although redirection of resources denominator across rural and urban communities and
may be one way to support new initiatives, reve- environments. This CAST report has documented
nue streams may be limited. Some alternative some of the many diverse components of agriculture
funding strategies are as follows: that are embedded in the rural-urban agroecosystem,
• Target state and federal grant initiatives a holistic concept used to highlight the connections
to engage rural and urban people in plan- between rural and urban economic, environmental,
ning processes that address the rural-ur- and human factors (see Figure 1.1).
ban agroecosystem. The objectives of this report have been (1) to broad-
en the understanding of agriculture in an urbanizing
• Form a rural-urban coalition of interests society; (2) to identify opportunities for rural and ur-
to identify and to respond to common ru- ban constituencies to work cooperatively toward com-
ral concerns. mon goals; (3) to document the contributions and/or
• Engage legislators, businesses, nonprofit services that agriculture provides to both rural and
organizations, government agencies, and urban sectors; (4) to stimulate broad debate and dis-
community leaders in development of cussions about program and policy directions and
joint proposals. A broad base of ownership priorities pertaining to agriculture in an urbanizing
in the proposal concept, its implementation, society; and (5) to propose ways in which contempo-
and problem solving approaches should be built rary agriculture, with other partners, can help soci-
(e.g., through think tanks, coalitions, centers, ety meet the challenges associated with urbanization.
and/or institutes). The audience for the report has been government
• Approach private and nonprofit funding policymakers and planners; administrators and fac-
sources to support rural-urban agricul- ulty of colleges and universities; and members of di-
ture partnership initiatives. verse agricultural interest groups. Although the con-
• Create innovative business models for tents are applicable to the interests of traditional
profit- and resource-sharing (e.g., of facili- agricultural clientele, such as agriculture commodi-
ties, personnel, expertise, or funds) that involve ty groups, they have direct relevance to the needs of
private industry, local communities, family local government decision makers and planners, and
farmers, retailers, etc. to urban-oriented organizations focused on problems
• Develop fee-based university-delivered of urban growth, economic development, community
distance learning and professional devel- advocacy, food security, resource management, and
opment programs. other issues.
Several useful, though not necessarily new, con-
cepts have been discussed: urban agriculture and the
Conclusions rural-urban agroecosystem. Terms such as rural, ur-
ban, metropolitan, and farm have been clarified. The
Agriculture is an integral part of urban growth and document has provided background on the historical,
population change. This fact often is unrecognized by political, geographical, and demographic context of
the general public, mainstream agricultural interests, agriculture, discussed the myths and stereotypes as-
and political leaders. In the minds of many, there is sociated with agriculture, and documented the met-
sometimes a rural-urban split that results in compe- ropolitan nature of today’s agriculture. For example,
tition for resources, separate policies, and inaccurate by 1997, metropolitan counties accounted for more
stereotypes. But the interests and goals of rural and than half of all agricultural employment.
urban areas must be addressed together, and agricul- The report has summarized the services provided
ture may provide a framework in which to do this. by contemporary agriculture to both urban and rural
Many people have a deep-seated cultural need, some- areas, e.g., restoration and remediation, planning and
times expressed in terms of the satisfaction of work- revitalization, and modifying landscapes and conserv-
ing in the soil, of being close to nature, of sharing time ing energy. Other benefits of agriculture, such as
94 Urban and Agricultural Communities: Opportunities for Common Ground

business and economic contributions, individual and of agricultural sciences could be put to valuable use
community health and well-being, and recreation and in helping to meet many of the challenges of urban-
tourism, have been described. Growth management ization. Together, rural and urban communities have
and agricultural land-use policy, including an over- the potential to create a mutually beneficial situation
view of tools and strategies for agricultural land and based on their unique resources, experiences, and
open space protection, have been addressed. The con- common needs. Success will be achieved, however,
cluding section has proposed important new visions only with proactive leadership, shared resources, cre-
to consider for agriculture in an urbanizing society. ative policy options, and effective collaboration. Land-
A number of different elements within each of the grant universities, industry, traditional agricultural
topics presented have received attention: comprehen- interest groups and urban partners—such as metro-
sive planning, higher education, research, and part- politan educational institutions, city leaders, and ur-
nerships and collaboration. ban planners—will need to work together to embrace
This clearly is an appropriate time to redefine ag- change and provide a new and exciting future for
riculture in the context of an urban society. The everyone.
wealth of knowledge associated with the wide array
 Appendix A: Tables 95

Appendix A: Tables

Table A.1. Historical patterns of size of farm population and percentage of U.S. population

Farm population Percentage

Year (000s) of U.S. population

1880 21,973 43.8

1890 24,771 42.3
1900 29,875 39.2
1910 32,077 34.8
1920 31,974 30.2
1930 30,529 24.8
1940 30,547 23.1
1950 23,048 15.2
1959 16,592 9.4
1960 13,445 7.5
1964 12,954 6.8
1969 10,307 5.1
1970 9,712 4.8
1974a 9,264 4.4
1978 6,501 2.8
1980 6,051 2.7
1982 5,628 2.5
1987 4,986 2.1
1990 4,591 1.9
1991 4,632 1.8

aSubsequent data were based on 1974 farm definition.

Source: Data from 1880 to 1910 from USDC (1975). Data for 1920 to 1980 from Kalbacher and DeAre (1986). Other data from USBC (1993b).

95
96 Urban and Agricultural Communities: Opportunities for Common Ground

Table A.2. Historical patterns of number of farms, acres in farms, percentage of land in farms, and average size of farms, 1850 to 1997

Number of farms Acres in farms Percentage Average farm size

Year (000s) (000s) of land in farms (acres)

1850 1,449 293,561 15.6 203

1860 2,044 407,213 21.4 199
1870 2,660 407,735 21.4 153
1880 4,009 536,082 28.2 134
1890 4,565 623,219 32.7 137
1900a 5,740 841,202 37.0 147
1910 6,366 881,431 38.8 139
1920 6,454 958,677 42.2 149
1930 6,295 990,112 43.6 157
1940 6,102 1,065,114 46.8 175
1950 5,388 1,161,420 51.1 216
1954 4,782 1,158,191 60.8 242
1959 3,711 1,123,508 49.5 303
1964 3,158 1,110,185 49.0 352
1969 2,730 1,063,346 47.0 389
1974b 2,314 1,017,030 44.8 440
1978 2,258 1,014,777 44.6 449
1982 2,241 986,797 43.6 440
1987 2,088 964,471 42.6 462
1992 1,925 945,532 41.8 491
1997 1,912 931,795 42.2 487

aData for Alaska and Hawaii were included for the first time.
bSubsequent data were based on 1974 farm definition.
Source: Data from 1850 to 1969 from USDC (1975). Post-1970 data from the periodic Census of Agriculture conducted by the USDC and the USBC.
 Appendix A: Tables 97

Table A.3. Population by ethnicity, 1980 to 1999, and county metropolitan proximity in 1993a

County metro Number of

proximity, 1993 counties Anglos Blacks Other races Hispanics

1980
Metro 836 Sum 137,415,038 21,908,489 4,575,446 13,111,049
% of total sum 76.2 83.9 82.1 89.8

Adjacent 1,002 Sum 23,204,536 2,537,159 326,702 799,981

to metro % of total sum 12.9 9.7 5.9 5.5

Not adjacent 1,297 Sum 19,631,186 1,658,196 667,683 697,322

to metro % of total sum 10.9 6.4 12.0 4.8

Total 3,133 Sum 180,250,760 26,103,844 5,569,831 14,608,352

% of total sum 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0

1990
Metro 836 Sum 145,031,516 24,955,181 7,789,538 20,035,736
% of total sum 77.0 85.2 85.6 91.5

Adjacent 1,003 Sum 23,964,065 2,630,250 465,160 1,027,809

to metro % of total sum 12.7 9.0 5.1 4.7

Not adjacent 1,299 Sum 19,422,985 1,698,519 843,607 835,847

to metro % of total sum 10.3 5.8 9.3 3.8

Total 3,138 Sum 188,418,566 29,283,950 9,098,305 21,899,392

% of total sum 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0

1999
Metro 835 Sum 150,013,778 27,714,914 10,631,390 27,375,424
% of total sum 76.7 84.7 87.3 91.0

Adjacent 1,002 Sum 25,486,249 3,075,353 551,889 1,538,256

to metro % of total sum 13.0 9.4 4.5 5.1

Not adjacent 1,298 Sum 20,042,613 1,912,045 989,700 1,173,455

to metro % of total sum 10.2 5.8 8.1 3.9

Total 3,135 Sum 195,542,640 32,702,312 12,172,979 30,087,135

% of total sum 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0

aSource: U.S. Bureau of the Census (1993a) and authors’ computations. Race and ethnicity data in the 2000 census were excluded because
changes in definitions affected their comparability with data from prior years.
 98 Urban and Agricultural Communities: Opportunities for Common Ground

Table A.4. County population change, 1980 to 1999, by ethnicity and metropolitan proximity in 1993a

Percentage of change in population

Anglos Blacks Hispanics Other populations
County metro
proximity, 1993 1980 to 1990 1990 to 1999 1980 to 1990 1990 to 1999 1980 to 1990 1990 to 1999 1980 to 1990 1990 to 1999

Metro Mean 12.0 9.5 36.4 42.7 42.5 93.8 79.8 46.6
Median 7.1 6.4 14.8 24.1 34.8 71.8 61.2 39.4
Number 836 836 836 836 836 836 836 836

Adjacent Mean 2.7 5.5 67.6 136.8 16.9 120.7 66.9 39.6
to metro Median 0.5 3.8 1.0 18.8 5.4 72.6 39.8 20.1
Number 1,003 1,002 1,003 1,003 1,002 1,003 1,003 1,003

Not adjacent Mean –3.2 0.9 103.0 82.1 18.7 117.3 40.8 45.5
to metro Median –5.2 –0.4 0.0 10.0 3.3 63.1 20.6 15.0
Number 1,299 1,299 1,299 1,299 1,299 1,299 1,292 1,268

Total Mean 2.8 4.7 74.0 89.1 24.5 112.1 59.5 43.9
Median –0.3 2.4 3.1 17.7 13.1 69.3 37.3 24.3
Number 3,138 3,138 3,138 3,138 3,138 3,138 3,138 3,138

aSource: U.S. Bureau of the Census and authors’ computations. Race and ethnicity data in the 2000 census were excluded because changes in
definitions affected their comparability with data from prior years.
 Appendix A: Tables 99

Table A.5. Employment in the agricultural, forestry, and fisheries industry, 1980 to 1997, by county metropolitan proximity in 1993a

County metro
proximity, 1993 1980b 1990c 1997c

Metro Employment 1,840,802 1,680,307 1,651,319

% of ag industry employment 46.9 53.9 54.5
% of category’s total employmentd 2.4 1.8 1.6
% of total U.S. employmente 1.9 1.5 1.3
Adjacent Employment 971,619 715,788 695,720
to metro % of ag industry employment 24.8 23.0 22.9
% of category’s total employmentd 9.2 6.0 5.4
% of total U.S. employmente 1.0 0.6 0.6

Not adjacent Employment 1,108,124 719,064 685,476

to metro % of ag industry employment 28.3 23.0 22.6
% of category’s total employmentd 12.8 7.6 6.8
% of total U.S. employmente 1.1 0.6 0.5

Total Employment 3,920,786 3,115,159 3,032,515

% of ag industry employment 100.0 100.0 100.0
% of total U.S. employmente 4.0 2.7 2.4

aSource: U.S. Bureau of the Census (1993a) and authors’ computations. Wessex, Inc. provided 1997 employment estimates. Agricultural industries
included crop production; livestock production; agricultural services (except horticulture); horticultural services; forestry; and fishing, hunting, and
trapping.
bIncludes mining employment for 1980 only. Also, three unclassified counties had 241 workers in the agriculture, forestry, and fisheries industry and
2,649 workers in all industries in 1980.
cTwo unclassified counties had no workers in the agriculture, forestry, and fisheries industry but had 80 and 58 workers in other industries during
1990 and 1997, respectively.
dPercentage sector employment was based on the employment in all industries for the particular metropolitan/nonmetropolitan category.
ePercentage U.S. employment was based on the total employment across all industries in the United States for the indicated year.
 100 Urban and Agricultural Communities: Opportunities for Common Ground

Table A.6. Employment in agricultural (farming, forestry, and fishing) occupations, 1980 to 1997, by county metropolitan proximity
in 1993a

County metro
proximity, 1993 1980b 1990c 1997c

Metro Employment 1,281,871 1,508,141 1,583,441

% of ag occupation employment 45.9 53.1 53.6
% of category’s total employmentd 1.6 1.6 1.6
% of total U.S. employmente 1.3 1.3 1.2

Adjacent Employment 745,904 666,604 694,393

to metro % of ag occupation employment 26.7 23.5 23.5
% of category’s total employmentd 7.1 5.2 5.4
% of total U.S. employmente 0.8 0.5 0.6
Not adjacent Employment 766,261 664,122 678,350
to metro % of ag occupation employment 27.4 23.4 22.9
% of category’s total employmentd 8.9 7.0 6.8
% of total U.S. employmente 0.8 0.6 0.5

Total Employment 2,794,213 2,838,873 2,956,187

% of ag occupation employment 100.0 100.0 100.0
% of total U.S. employmente 2.9 2.4 2.4

aSource: U.S. Bureau of the Census (1993a) and authors’ computations. Wessex, Inc. provided 1997 employment estimates. Agricultural occupa-
tions included farming, forestry, and fishing jobs, as well as horticultural specialty farmers and managers.
bThree unclassified counties had 177 workers in agricultural occupations and 2,649 workers in all occupations in 1980.
cTwo unclassified counties had 6 agricultural workers and 80 workers in other occupations during 1990. In 1997, unclassified counties had 3
agricultural workers and 54 workers in other occupations.
dPercentage sector employment was based on the employment in all industries for the particular metropolitan/nonmetropolitan category.
ePercentage U.S. employment was based on the total employment across all industries in the United States for the indicated year.
 Appendix A: Tables 101

Table A.7. Total number of farms, 1978 to 1997, by metropolitan proximity in 1993a

Total number of farms

County metro
proximity, 1993 1978 1982 1987 1992 1997

Metro Meanb 889 911 858 777 772

Medianc 777 789 733 662 639
Numberd 800 804 793 801 802

Adjacent Mean 787 772 715 663 650

to metro Median 701 684 636 594 581
Number 981 982 984 983 982

Not adjacent Mean 608 590 559 513 507

to metro Median 530 518 482 446 439
Number 1,271 1,272 1,255 1,265 1,267

Total Mean 739 733 688 613 526

Median 637 621 580 526 524
Number 3,052 3,058 3,032 3,049 3,051

aSource: U.S. Bureau of the Census (1978 to 1992) and USDA–NASS (1997a).
bMean is equal to the total number of farms divided by the number of counties in a proximity group.
cMedian is the number of farms whereby one-half of the counties are ranked below and one-half above that number.
dNumber is the number of counties that had farms. Some counties were omitted because of missing information or lack of farms.
102 Urban and Agricultural Communities: Opportunities for Common Ground

Table A.8. Percentage of county acres in farmland, 1978 to 1997, by metropolitan proximity in 1993a

Percentage of acres in farmland

County metro
proximity, 1993 1978 1982 1987 1992 1997

Metro Meanb 41.1 39.3 37.6 36.2 35.5

Medianc 43.6 42.0 40.0 37.0 37.2
Numberd 800 804 793 801 802

Adjacent Mean 54.4 53.2 51.8 50.7 49.7

to metro Median 58.8 57.0 54.0 52.0 52.2
Number 981 982 984 983 982

Not adjacent Mean 42.5 41.6 41.2 40.5 39.8

to metro Median 68.8 67.0 66.0 65.0 64.1
Number 1,271 1,272 1,255 1,265 1,267

Total Mean 44.9 43.7 42.9 41.9 41.1

Median 56.2 55.0 53.0 50.0 49.4
Number 3,052 3,058 3,032 3,049 3,051

aSource: U.S. Bureau of the Census (1978 to 1992) and USDA–NASS (1997a).
bMean percentage equals 100 times the sum of the number of farm acres in a proximity group divided by the total number of county-land acres in
that group of counties.
cMedian is the middle percentage value in the ranking of farmland percentages for counties in a proximity group.
dNumber is the number of counties in the proximity group. Some counties were omitted because of missing information or lack of farms.
 Appendix A: Tables 103

Table A.9. Average farm size in acres, 1978 to 1997, by metropolitan proximity in 1993a

Average farm size in acres

County metro
proximity, 1993 1978 1982 1987 1992 1997

Metro Meanb 276 257 262 274 271

Medianc 195 185 188 191 189
Numberd 800 804 793 801 802

Adjacent Mean 360 358 379 399 392

to metro Median 255 254 264 274 277
Number 981 982 984 983 982

Not adjacent Mean 696 701 739 790 777

to metro Median 351 360 388 412 426
Number 1,271 1,272 1,255 1,265 1,267

Total Mean 449 440 462 491 487

Median 266 262 273 283 285
Number 3,052 3,058 3,032 3,049 3,051

aSource: U.S. Bureau of the Census (1978 to 1992) and USDA–NASS (1997a).
bMean equals the sum of the number of farm acres divided by the total number of farms in a proximity group of counties.
cMedian is the middle value in the ranking of average farm sizes for counties in a proximity group.
dNumber is the number of counties in the proximity group. Some counties were omitted because of missing information or lack of farms.
 104 Urban and Agricultural Communities: Opportunities for Common Ground

Table A.10. Total gross sales ($000s) for farms, 1978 to 1997, by metropolitan proximity in 1993a

Total gross value of agriculture product sales ($000s)

County metro
proximity, 1993 1978 1982 1987 1992 1997

Metro Meanb 49,921 60,693 68,307 87,354 107,725

Medianc 33,489 40,094 44,191 54,729 63,812
Numberd 800 804 793 801 802

Adjacent Mean 41,737 52,414 57,609 73,913 89,247

to metro Median 33,954 42,549 47,906 60,883 71,025
Number 981 982 984 983 982

Not adjacent Mean 50,792 63,579 69,834 92,230 112,181

to metro Median 40,698 49,176 54,371 67,178 77,243
Number 1,271 1,272 1,255 1,265 1,267

Total Mean 47,419 58,860 65,213 84,442 102,954

Median 36,449 44,645 49,036 61,190 71,699
Number 3,052 3,058 3,032 3,049 3,051

aSource: U.S. Bureau of the Census (1978 to 1992) and USDA–NASS (1997a).
bMean equals the sum of gross farm acres divided by the total number of farms in a proximity group of counties.
cMedian is the middle value in the ranking of average gross farm sales for counties in a proximity group.
dNumber is the number of counties in the proximity group. Some counties were omitted because of missing information or lack of farms’ sales.
 Appendix A: Tables 105

Table A.11. Value of crop sales ($000s) for farms, 1978 to 1997, by metropolitan proximity in 1993a

Crop sales ($000s)

Crops by metro
proximity, 1993 1978 1982 1987 1992 1997

Metro
Grains 6,327,721 8,330,507 6,235,848 7,862,408 9,968,343
Cotton/cottonseed 1,207,605 1,422,270 1,569,898 1,576,294 1,791,667
Tobacco 849,340 999,508 616,426 929,894 1,064,216
Hay/silage/field seeds 751,060 766,714 884,780 1,074,747 1,644,105
Vegetables/corn/melons 2,437,525 3,164,869 3,437,311 4,712,288 6,088,115
Fruits/nuts/berries 3,521,503 4,531,478 5,324,461 6,817,748 9,851,590
Nursery/greenhouse 2,213,408 3,008,152 4,497,098 5,840,527 8,310,164
Other crops 1,076,344 1,277,912 1,638,225 1,801,094 1,788,801
Total 18,384,506 23,501,410 24,204,047 30,615,000 40,507,002

Adjacent to metro
Grains 8,949,495 11,933,104 9,277,339 11,791,942 15,127,788
Cotton/cottonseed 927,545 892,914 1,309,347 1,416,259 2,026,035
Tobacco 996,310 1,165,848 740,266 1,129,669 1,243,838
Hay/silage/field seeds 640,139 640,241 761,911 907,331 1,262,123
Vegetables/corn/melons 505,121 615,829 788,379 972,235 1,372,163
Fruits/nuts/berries 599,615 727,721 1,010,458 1,403,605 1,694,315
Nursery/greenhouse 181,872 240,845 480,777 741,782 1,206,341
Other crops 777,175 945,333 1,133,126 1,538,650 1,585,067
Total 13,577,272 17,161,835 15,501,603 19,901,473 25,517,670
Not adjacent to metro
Grains 11,382,310 15,759,968 12,802,120 16,204,505 21,392,406
Cotton/cottonseed 952,956 878,166 1,279,970 1,501,054 2,061,101
Tobacco 465,200 584,685 364,495 585,337 595,269
Hay/silage/field seeds 760,462 756,274 807,450 1,028,739 1,570,492
Vegetables/corn/melons 216,329 264,802 381,685 561,621 713,218
Fruits/nuts/berries 369,132 466,657 534,830 852,662 906,015
Nursery/greenhouse 98,822 138,666 180,990 375,776 570,287
Other crops 1,093,299 1,385,183 1,568,338 1,944,345 2,171,371
Total 15,338,510 20,234,401 17,919,878 23,054,039 29,980,159

Total
Grains 26,659,526 36,023,579 28,315,307 35,858,855 46,488,537
Cotton/cottonseed 3,088,106 3,193,350 4,159,215 4,493,607 5,878,803
Tobacco 2,310,850 2,750,041 1,721,187 2,644,900 2,903,323
Hay/silage/field seeds 2,151,661 2,163,229 2,454,141 3,010,817 4,476,720
Vegetables/corn/melons 3,158,975 4,045,500 4,607,375 6,246,144 8,173,496
Fruits/nuts/berries 4,490,250 5,725,856 6,869,749 9,074,015 12,451,920
Nursery/greenhouse 2,494,102 3,387,663 5,158,865 6,958,085 10,086,792
Other crops 2,946,818 3,608,428 4,339,689 5,284,089 5,545,240
Total 47,300,288 60,897,646 57,625,528 73,570,512 96,004,831

aSource: U.S. Bureau of the Census (1978 to 1992) and USDA–NASS (1997a).
106 Urban and Agricultural Communities: Opportunities for Common Ground

Table A.12. Value of livestock and poultry sales ($000s) for farms, 1978 to 1997, by metropolitan proximity in 1993a

Livestock and poultry sales ($000s)

Livestock and poultry
by metro proximity, 1993 1978 1982 1987 1992 1997

Metro
Poultry/products 2,973,704 3,347,482 4,226,327 4,530,091 5,663,362
Dairy products 4,837,784 6,964,751 6,972,242 7,795,346 8,533,442
Cattle/calves 6,502,374 6,685,158 7,047,534 7,286,179 6,824,449
Hogs/pigs 1,484,688 1,997,807 1,989,621 1,875,890 2,141,777
Sheep/lambs/wool 160,064 150,815 199,129 205,796 221,016
Other livestock/products 457,168 707,770 895,292 795,244 1,163,754
Total 16,415,782 19,853,783 21,330,145 22,488,546 24,547,800
Adjacent to metro
Poultry/products 2,915,251 3,339,316 4,485,218 5,701,422 8,673,118
Dairy products 4,030,462 5,876,470 5,869,493 6,414,831 6,415,695
Cattle/calves 7,880,658 8,471,271 9,631,307 10,517,116 9,721,171
Hogs/pigs 2,798,823 3,594,061 3,629,611 3,854,694 5,130,557
Sheep/lambs/wool 129,964 112,129 164,052 124,512 127,621
Other livestock/products 124,603 163,878 253,550 268,365 364,669
Total 17,879,761 21,557,125 24,033,231 26,880,940 30,432,831

Not adjacent to metro

Poultry/products 2,050,516 2,295,404 3,049,166 4,027,639 5,932,337
Dairy products 2,076,947 2,941,833 2,977,602 3,299,703 3,693,219
Cattle/calves 15,021,907 15,909,772 19,068,311 23,169,932 23,457,653
Hogs/pigs 3,307,251 4,182,212 4,131,963 4,155,343 5,595,427
Sheep/lambs/wool 298,934 252,151 344,244 259,083 272,565
Other livestock/products 143,668 173,382 324,627 345,784 489,724
Total 22,899,223 25,754,754 29,895,913 35,257,484 39,440,925

Total
Poultry/products 7,939,471 8,982,202 11,760,711 14,259,152 20,268,817
Dairy products 10,945,193 15,783,054 15,819,337 17,509,880 18,642,356
Cattle/calves 29,404,939 31,066,201 35,747,152 40,973,227 40,003,273
Hogs/pigs 7,590,762 9,774,080 9,751,195 9,885,927 12,867,761
Sheep/lambs/wool 588,962 515,095 707,425 589,391 621,202
Other livestock/products 725,439 1,045,030 1,473,469 1,409,393 2,018,147
Total 57,194,766 67,165,662 75,259,289 84,626,970 94,421,556

aSource: U.S. Bureau of the Census (1978 to 1992) and USDA–NASS (1997a).
 Appendix A: Tables 107

Table A.13. Locations and total production areas of the top five floricultural producers in the United States (Onofrey 2000)

Headquarters Examples of Total production area

Company location production locations (millions of square feet) Crop mix

Hines Horticulture Irvine, CA Vacaville, CA 12.0 50% bedding plants

(Los Angeles area) (between Sacramento 50% potted flowering plants
and San Francisco);
Houston, TX

Color Spot Pleasant Hill, CA San Francisco Bay Area, CA; 11.9 36% bedding plants
Nurseries, Inc. (San Francisco Bay Area) San Antonio, TX 31% potted flowering plants
18% foliage plants
15% other
Kurt Weiss Long Island, NY Cheshire, CT; 7.0 75% potted flowering plants
Greenhouses Long Island, NY; 20% bedding plants
Georgetown, SC 5% other
(about 60 miles from Charleston)

Yoder Brothers Barberton, OH Salinas, CA;

(near Cleveland/Akron) Fort Myers, FL;
Pendleton, SC (near Greenville) 4.6 89% propagation material
9% potted flowering plants
2% other
Baucom’s Summerville, SC Summerville, SC 3.8 30% bedding plants
(near Charleston) 30% potted flowering plants
20% foliage plants
20% other

Table A.14. Top ten U.S. lawn and garden retail businesses in 1999 (Morey, Morey, and Morey 2000)

Sales Number
Company ($ million) of stores

Home Depot 5,490 900

Lowe’s, Inc. 2,780 556
Wal-Mart, Inc. 1,317 2,485
K-Mart Corp. 1,262 2,167
Orchard Supply Hardware/Sears 578 200
Frank’s Nursery and Crafts 500 257
Target, Inc. 376 674
Menard’s Inc. 310 150
Price Costco Co. 275 195
Albertson’s Inc. 230 1,700
 Appendix B: Abbreviations, Acronyms, and Symbols

a. acre LGU land grant university

ACGA American Community Gardening Association MA metropolitan area
AFT American Farmland Trust MG master gardener
AHTA American Horticultural Therapy Association MIA Miami International Airport
AMS Agricultural Marketing Service MLRA major land resource area
APZ agricultural protection zoning MSA metropolitan statistical area
CCC Commodity Credit Corporation Mt million metric tons
CO2 carbon dioxide NASS National Agricultural Statistics Service
CRP conservation reserve program NIH National Institutes of Health
CSA community supported agriculture NRCS Natural Resources Conservation Service
CSREES Cooperative State Research, Education, and NRI National Resources Inventory
Extension Service NSF National Science Foundation
DOE Department of Education NTUFHP NonTimber urban forestry and horticultural
EPA Environmental Protection Agency product
ERS Economic Research Service OMB Office of Management and Budget
FAO Food and Agriculture Organization PDR purchase of development rights
FDA Food and Drug Administration ppm part per million
FFA Future Farmers of America SMA standard metropolitan area
FPC Food policy council SMSA standard metropolitan statistical area
FPP Farmland Protection Program sq ft square feet
FTE full time equivalent t ton
gal. gallon TDR transfer of development rights
HFS Hartford Food System TMDL total maximum daily load
hr hour URP Urban Resource Partnership
HT horticultural therapy USD U.S. dollars
IPM integrated pest management USDA U.S. Department of Agriculture
kWh kilowatt hour WIC Women, Infants, and Children
lb pound WRI World Resources Institute

108
Appendix C: Glossary 109

Appendix C: Glossary

Adaptive farms. Farms with sales of $10,000 or more annually, Disturbed lands. Mine sites, highways, rights-of-way, etc.
on which high-value products make up one-third of sales, more Environmental horticulture. Also called ornamental horticul-
than $500 in sales is earned per acre, there are100 to 200 acres ture; the cultivation of indoor and outdoor landscape plants
requiring intensive labor and input management, and the for use in populated environments.
farm operates as a business exclusively or with other enter- Food policy council. An officially sanctioned group of people rep-
prises. resenting different elements of a state or local food system and
Agricultural districts. Legally recognized geographic areas de- charged with such things as making recommendations for the
signed to keep land in agriculture. Formed by one or more improvement of the food system, educating the public about
landowners and approved by one ore more government agen- their food system, etc; roles of food policy councils may vary.
cies, they are created for fixed, renewable terms. Food system. All the steps involved in putting food on the table:
Agricultural protection zoning. Ordinances protecting the ag- growing, harvesting, processing, packaging, transporting,
ricultural land base by limiting nonfarm uses, prohibiting marketing, consuming, and disposing.
high-density development, requiring houses to be built on Green industry. Enterprises engaging in the commerce of envi-
small lots, and restricting subdivision of land into parcels that ronmental horticulture, e.g., nurseries, greenhouses, sod
are too small to farm. farms, and landscape maintenance firms.
Atmospheric carbon dioxide. A greenhouse gas crucial to main- Impermanence syndrome. A process of disinvestment in farm-
taining a heat balance on earth. Carbon dioxide is the most ing or a reduction of the intensity of farm production in antic-
important atmospheric heat-trapping gas. ipation of future land-use conversion.
Bioremediation. Use of microbes to break down or to immobi- Living machines. A technology attempting to convert high-
lize toxic compounds. strength industrial wastewater into a water supply suitable
Brownfields. Abandoned, idled, or under-used industrial or com- for most home needs.
mercial sites where real or perceived environmental contam- Modern (or contemporary) agriculture. Modern agriculture
ination has occurred. consists of five major components: (1) It includes the devel-
Carbon cycle. One of the central processes in the ecosystem, by opment and manufacture of biotechnologies, agrichemicals,
which carbon is transferred between organisms, soils, and the mechanical equipment, and other technologies that enhance
atmosphere. production capabilities, increase product safety, and improve
Carbon cycling process. The role of soil respiration and struc- product quality for consumers; (2) it includes conservation and
ture, contributions from plants and microorganisms, and the preservation enterprises aimed at sustaining and remediat-
rates of carbon transfer between active and resistant fractions ing natural resources, and promoting eco-recreation and ag-
of stored carbon. ritourism; (3) it includes creating and effectively managing
Carbon sequestration. Removal and storage of carbon dioxide functional, attractive landscapes that enhance the urban en-
in above- and below- ground biomass. Storage of carbon di- vironment and make cities more livable; (4) it involves the
oxide can help to mitigate global temperature change and to producing, gathering, processing, and marketing of food, fi-
improve soil quality. ber, ornamental plants, and forest products for consumers; and
Community food system. A local or regional food system with (5) it embraces the activities of people and organizations that
four specific qualities: (1) concern for food security; (2) rela- produce, disseminate, and/or use agriculturally related infor-
tively short distances between system components, as between mation for decision-making purposes and for public education.
producer and consumer; (3) self reliance; (4) sustainability. See also urban agriculture.
Community health. The socio-economic capacity of a communi- Phytoremediation. Use of plants to accumulate contaminates
ty to create a social and physical environment to sustain the and/or to break down waste (toxins) into less harmful prod-
visions and goals of the citizens. ucts.
Constructed wetlands. Human-created wetlands designed and Purchase of agricultural conservation easements (PACE).
developed for water treatment. Programs that pay farmers to keep their land available for ag-

109
110 Urban and Agricultural Communities: Opportunities for Common Ground

riculture. Landowners sell an agricultural conservation ease- widespread strip commercial development; great fiscal dispar-
ment to a qualified public agency or private conservation or- ities among localities; segregation of types of land uses in dif-
ganization. See also purchase of development rights (PDR). ferent zones; and reliance on trickle-down to provide housing
Purchase of development rights (PDR). A community growth to low-income households. (Sprawl Guide, http://
management strategy intended to provide increased protec- www.plannersweb.com/sprawl/define.html [28 April 2001])
tion for farmland, forest, and natural areas by removing de- Traditional farms. Farms with sales of more than $10,000 an-
velopment potential from land areas placed in a protected sta- nually, high-value products making up one-third or less of
tus. See also purchase of agricultural conservations easements sales with $500 or less sales/acres, or conventional livestock
(PACE). and/or crops that make up more than one-third of sales, more
Recreational farms. Farms with sales of less than $10,000 an- than 200 acres (the largest of the three types of farms), little
nually, having less than 100 acres, and requiring little daily off-farm employment, and extensive management rather than
management. intensive management.
Right-to-farm laws. Laws protecting farmers and farm opera- Traffic calming. A technique by which landscaped circles and
tions from both public and private nuisance lawsuits. A pri- speed control mechanisms slow traffic and reclaim streets for
vate nuisance interferes with an individual's use and enjoy- pedestrians and neighborhoods.
ment of his or her property. A public nuisance involves actions Transfer of development rights (TDR). A program allowing
that injure the public at large. landowners to transfer the right to develop one parcel of land
Rural-urban agroecosystem. A biological and natural resourc- to a different parcel of land to prevent farmland conversion.
es system managed jointly by rural and urban people (1) to TDR programs establish "sending areas" where land is to be
provide services to the environment and community, (2) to gen- protected by agricultural conservation easements and "receiv-
erate direct and indirect business (including food production ing areas" where land may be developed at a higher density
and marketing) and health benefits for society as a whole, and than otherwise would be allowed by local zoning.
(3) to contribute recreation and leisure outlets for an urban- Urban agriculture. A complex system encompassing a full spec-
izing society (See Figures 1.1 and 1.3 in Chapter 1.) trum of activities from a traditional core of production, pro-
Self-sufficiency index. Percentage of total program expenses cov- cessing, marketing, distribution and consumption, to more
ered by sales. extensive system components including recreation and leisure,
Smart growth strategies. Strategies used by planners to influ- business entrepreneurship, individual health benefits, scenic
ence the pattern and density of human population develop- beautification, environmental restoration and remediation,
ment. community health and well-being services, and economic vi-
Sprawl. Inflation that occurs over time in the amount of land area tality. See also modern (or contemporary) agriculture.
consumed per unit of human activity, and the degree of dis- Urban-influenced. Areas within statistical metropolitan coun-
persal between land areas; the unavoidable consequence of ties or adjacent counties.
society's use of automobiles. Anthony Downs, policy analyst, Water re-use. Reclamation, or “gray,” water from waste treatment
identified the following ten traits of sprawl: unlimited outward facilities that is used to sustain recreational areas and irri-
expansion; low-density residential and commercial settle- gation of nonfood crops.
ments; leapfrog development; fragmentation of powers over Zoning law. Division of land within a jurisdictional area into various
land use among many small localities; dominance of transpor- districts so that land is used for consistent, compatible purposes.
tation by private vehicles; no planning or control of land uses;
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118 Urban and Agricultural Communities: Opportunities for Common Ground

Index

A Agroecosystem services for restoration and remediation, 27-28

Air pollution, 34
Access in food systems, 82 Air quality, indoor-outdoor, 36
Acid mine soils, 30 Alternative composting technologies, 87
Adaptive farms, 56, 57, 109 American Association of Botanical Gardens and Arboreta, 65
Advocacy in food systems, 82 American Community Gardening Association (ACGA), 56, 91
Ag in the Classroom, 85 American Farmland Trust (AFT), 9, 38, 68, 90
Agribusinesses, 15 American Planning Association, 85, 88, 90
distinction between farming and, 16 Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA) (1990), 66
Agricultural conservation easements, purchase of, 74 Anglo-Americans, 22, 23
Agricultural districts, 2, 9, 72-73, 109 Animals, 26
benefits, 73 companion, 12, 46, 48-49
drawbacks, 73 human interactions with, 49
Agricultural industry, employment in, 23, 99, 100 range sciences and, 38
Agricultural land and open-space protection, 84-85 Animal science, 48
Agricultural Marketing Service (AMS) of USDA, 58 Aquaculture industries, 15, 26, 47
Sustainable Agriculture Research and Education, 90 Aquatic treatments, 29
Agricultural protection zoning (APZ), 1, 9, 106 Aquifers, 28
benefits, 73 reduction, 28
drawbacks, 73 Arboreta, 65
ordinances for, 72, 73, 74 Area-based allowance zoning, 72, 73
Agricultural Risk Protection Act (2000), 71 Atmospheric carbon dioxide, 31, 106
Agricultural tax programs, 2, 9, 73-75 Audubon Cooperative Sanctuary System, 91
property tax relief, 74 Audubon International, 91
benefits, 74 Audubon Society, 85, 90
drawbacks, 74
Agriculture, 5, 12. See also Urban agriculture B
benefits of, to urbanizing society, 8
business contributions to urbanizing society, 41-47 Back Roads Adventures, 63
changes in, 7 Bacterial water pollution, 38
components of, 4-5, 13 Bats, 37
contemporary, 4 Bed and breakfast establishments, 62
contributions to community health and well-being, 48 Bedding plants, 43
contributions to urbanization, 1 Beneficial insects, 26
educational events in, 62 Benson, Ezra Taft, 24
historical context of, 7, 15-17 Biodiverse plant life, 25
myths, stereotypes, and realities, 24-25 Biofuels, 87
opportunity offered by, 7, 17-18 Biological pollution, 47
planning in, 80 Bioremediation, 31-32, 109
public perception of, 25 Biotechnologies, development and manufacture of, 4
role of, in urban society, 1, 4 Bird watching, 8, 62
rural-urban, 23-24 Botanical gardens, 8-9, 65-66
service role of, 8 Bridge building in higher education, 10, 85
in planning and revitalization, 33-40 Brownfields, remediation of, 27, 31-32, 109
in urbanizing society, 27-32 Business and economic benefits, 1
sustainable, 14
Agriculture, U.S. Department of
C
Agricultural Marketing Service, 58
AgriRecycle, Inc., 30 Canopy density, 36
Agritainment, 81 Canopy management, 35
Agritourism events, 64-65 Carbon cycle, 31, 109
Agrochemicals, development and manufacture of, 4 Carbon cycling process, 31, 109
Agroecology, 48 Carbon dioxide, atmospheric, 31

118
Index 119

Carbon monoxide, 36 Cooperative State Research, Education, and Extension Service

Carbon sequestration processes, 8, 25, 27, 31, 109 (CSREES), 81, 90
Carlyle Consulting, 30 Country life, 15
Center for Agricultural and Rural Policy, 88 County population change, 98
Chemical pollution, 47 Cranberry marshes, 19n
Chicago Botanic Garden, 66 Crime, impact of community gardens on, 52
Chincoteague National Wildlife Refuge, 63 Cronon, William, 16
Christmas trees, 63, 65 Cross-cutting dimensions of urban agriculture, 17
Circuit breaker tax relief, 74-75 Crossover products, 46
City dairies, 19n Currency exchange and investments, 26
City life, 15 Cut flowers, 42, 43, 45-46
City-managed parks, 39
Clean water, 25 D
Collaborative problem solving, domains for, 80
College and university curricula in higher education, 83-84 Demographic changes, 7, 22-23
Commodity Credit Corporation (CCC), 71 Desert ecosystem, 37
Community, in partnerships and collaboration, 91 Developed land, 20
Community development, 17-18, 48 Direct marketing strategies, 56
Community food projects, 91 Discount department stores, 43
Community Food Security Program, 83 Disease management, 36-38
Community food systems, 8, 10, 11, 53, 61, 109 Disturbed lands, 109
in comprehensive planning, 80 rehabilitation of, 27
in partnerships and collaboration, 91 Ducks Unlimited, 90
Community gardens, 8, 12, 39, 51
Community Greening Grants Revitalization Program (Baltimore), E
38
Community greening partnerships between urban and rural areas Ecological restoration, 52
in partnerships and collaboration, 91 Economic development, 17-18
Community Greening programs, 11, 38-39 Economic growth and improvements, 78
Community health and well-being, 1, 109 Economic production similarities and differences, 23-24
agriculture's contributions to, 48 Economic Research Service (ERS), 19n
Community planning processes, 33 Ecosystems, 13
Community quality of life, 51-53 defined, 13-14
Community supported agriculture (CSA), 8, 54-55, 82 Ecosystem services, 81
Commuting, 50 Eden Alternative, 49
Companion animals, 12, 46, 48-49 Ellison's Greenhouses, 65
Composting, 25, 27, 30-31 Entomology, 38
Comprehensive planning, 1, 9, 11 Entrepreneurial capacity, building, in higher education, 85
community food systems in, 80 Entrepreneurial food gardens and farms, 54, 55-58
existing resources in, 81 Entrepreneurial products in research, 87
financial incentives in, 80 Environmental horticulture, 41-46, 109
funding in, 80 Environmental protection, 12
initiatives in, 2, 10 Environmental Protection Agency, 90
integrated, long-term rural-urban resources in, 80 Environmental risk mitigation, 27
public support in, 80 Equestrian activities, 8, 62
Computer technology, 26 Equine industries, 15, 46-47
Conditional use, 39 Ethnic distribution, 22-23, 97
Connecticut Farmers' Market Nutrition program, 55 Eutrophication, 47
Conservation, 4, 15, 27 Exclusive agricultural zoning, 72, 73
Conservation easements, 71, 75-76 Existing resources in comprehensive planning, 81
Conservation Fund, 63 Experiential learning in partnerships and collaboration, 92
Conservation reserve program, 70
Conserving and revitalizing land areas, 38-40 F
Constructed wetlands, 29, 109
Construction, 8 Farmers' market, 8, 12, 54, 58-60
Consumer horticulture, 63-64 Farming
Container gardening, 63 distinction between agribusiness and, 16
Contemporary agriculture, 4 economic crisis affecting, 17
Converting and revitalizing vacant or underused urban lands in improvements in techniques, 21
food systems, 83 metropolitan, 33
Cooperative extension Farmland development right, 75-76
in partnerships and collaboration, 91-92 Farmland protection, 9, 38, 70
personnel in, 11 agricultural tax programs, 73-75
Cooperative Extension Master Gardeners program, 64 conservation easements, 75-76
120 Urban and Agricultural Communities: Opportunities for Common Ground

effect of policies on, 89 Forestry, 26, 48

incentive programs, 72-73 employment in, 99, 100
private land trusts, 77 Forming alliances, 56
purchase of development rights, 75-76 4-H Club, 85
regulatory programs, 71-72 4-H horticulture, 64
in research, 88-89 Franklin, Benjamin, 7, 15
right-to-farm laws, 76 Fresh Aire Farms, 30
transfer of development rights, 76-77 FreshMarket Aquafarm, 47
Farmland Protection Policy Act (1981), 9, 71 Friends of Holcomb Farm Estate, 55
Farmland Protection Program (FPP), 71 Funding
Farm population, 21 in comprehensive planning, 80
historical patterns of size of, 95 strategies in partnerships and collaboration, 92-93
Farms Future Farmers of America (FFA), 85
acreage in, 21
adaptive, 56, 57, 109 G
average size in acres, 103
changes in definitions of, 18-19 Garden centers, 43
definition of, 19n Gardening, 8, 62
entrepreneurial, 54, 55-58 container, 63
historical patterns of number of, 96 flower, 64
livestock and poultry sales for, 106 herb, 63
mean size of, 23 supplies for, 63
percentage of county acres in, 102 Gardens
recreational, 56-57, 110 botanical, 8-9, 65-66
sod, 44 community, 8, 12, 39, 51
subsidy payments for, 81 entrepreneurial food gardens, 54, 55-58
tenant, 19n public, 65-66
total gross sales for, 104 sculpture, 65
traditional, 56, 57, 110 Geological Survey's National Water Quality Assessment Program,
value of crop sales for, 105 35
Farms for the Future Act, 71 Goldsmith Rural Modification scheme, 19n
Farm-to-school programs, 61 Golf courses, 29, 37, 62
Farm-to-table programs, 54, 60-61 Golfing, 8, 66-67
Federal Farmland Protection Program, 82 Government agencies in partnerships and collaboration, 90, 91
Fertility, 8 Government-related obstacles, 39
Fertilization, 45 Graf Growers, 63
Filtration systems for surface waters, 27 Grain sales, 24
Financial incentives in comprehensive planning, 80 Grass seed production, 44
Firewood, 63 Greatscapes, 64
Fish and Wildlife Service, 63 Greenbelts, 29, 80
Fisheries industry, employment in, 98, 100 Greenhouse crop production, 42-43
Fixed area-based allowance zoning, 72, 73 Greenhouses, 19n
Floral product wholesalers, 45-46 Green industry, 41-46, 58, 109
Floriculture producers, locations and total production areas of, 107 indirect economic benefits of, 44
Flower Fields, 65 total grower receipts for crops, 42
Flower gardening, 64 touring businesses, 64-65
Flowering plants, potted, 42 Groundwater contamination, 28
Flowers, cut, 42, 43, 45-46 Groundwater recharge, 27, 81
Foliage plants, 42, 44 Growth, managing, 34-35
interiorscapes and, 44-45 Gypsy moths, 37
Food and Drug Administration, 90
Food and fiber production, 81 H
Food and plant gathering, 26
Food buying clubs, 54 Habitat modification, 47
Food policy councils (FPCs), 82, 109 Hamilton, Alexander, 25
Food production, 25 Hartford Food System (HFS), 55
Food systems, 109 Herb gardening, 63
access and advocacy, 82 Higher and better uses, 39
converting and revitalizing vacant or underused urban lands, 83 Higher education. See also Land-grant universities (LGUs)
learning projects, 84 bridge building, 85
localized economic and community benefits, 82-83 building entrepreneurial capacity, 85
policies, 10 college and university curricula, 83-84
public policy on, 82-83 initiatives in, 2, 10
security and nutrition, 83 internal planning and organization, 85
Index 121

outreach and extension, 84-85 agricultural colleges in, 41

in partnerships and collaboration, 90 in strengthening community vitality, 17
professional development, 85 turfgrass and, 66-67
public education and promotion, 85 Land management, public interest in, 1
public policy on, 83-85 Land protection initiatives, 70-71
Highway medians, vegetation controls on, 28 Landscape and energy modifications, 35-36
Hiking, 8, 62 Landscape architects, 49-50
Hispanics, 22, 23 Landscape design, 8
Holiday decorating, 45 installation, and maintenance, 43-44
Home improvement centers, 43 Landscapes, 29
Homestead Act, 7, 15 influence on real estate values, 44
Horticultural therapy, 12, 49-50 Land Trust Alliance, 90
Horticultural tourism, 64-67 Land use, 10
Horticulture, 26, 38, 48 analysis of alternative instruments, 81
consumer, 63-64 analysis of real local decision processes, 82
environmental, 41-46, 109 conversion data needs, 82
4-H, 64 decision making, 82
ornamental, 41-46 fragmentation, 89
Human and community health, 12 planning, 27, 80
Human-animal interactions, 49 public policy on, 81-82
Human capital development, 10 roles for government and higher education, 82
public policy on, 83 Large lot zoning, 72
Human-companion animal relationships, 48 Large minimum lot size zoning, 72, 73
Human-plant interactions, 49 Lawn and garden retail businesses, top ten United States, 107
Lawn clippings, 37
I Leapfrog development, 89
Leased hunting, 63
Immigrant populations, 4, 12 Lewis and Clark Expedition, 25
Immunization effect, 50 Lincoln, Abraham, 24
Impermanence syndrome, 76, 109 Livestock sales, 24, 103
Incentive programs, 2, 9, 72-73 Living Machines, 29-30, 109
Individual health and well-being, 1, 48-51 Localized economic and community benefits in food systems, 82-
Individual health care services, 87 83
Indoor-outdoor air quality, 36 Louisiana Purchase, 25
Insect management, 36-38 Lyme disease, 37, 38
Insect rearing, 26
Integration M
long-term rural-urban resources, in comprehensive planning, 80
of policy tools, 88-89 Major land resource areas (MLRAs), 68
Intergenerational equity, 14 M and M Hunting Lodge, 63
Interiorscapes, production of foliage plants for, 44 Master Composters, 85, 91
Internal planning and organization in higher education, 85 Master Gardeners (MGs), 64, 85, 91
Irrigated parks, 29 Mechanical equipment, development and manufacture of, 4
Irrigation water, storage sites for, 27 Metropolitan, 20
Metropolitan area (MA), 19, 19n, 20n
J continued growth of, 22
standard definitions of, 20n
Japanese beetles, 37 Metropolitan counties, agricultural jobs in, 23
Jefferson, Thomas, 7, 15, 24, 25 Metropolitan farming, 33
Just compensation, 70 Metropolitan statistical area, 20-21
K Migration, 4, 12, 22
Minority populations, growth of, 22
Kellogg Commission on the Future of State and Land Grant Uni- Modern agriculture, 109
versities, 90 Money, 12-13
Kellogg Foundation, 85, 90 Mosquitoes, 37
Kerr Foundation, 90 Mott Foundation, 90
L N
Labeling, 57 National Association of Counties, 85, 90
Land areas, conserving and revitalizing, 38-40 National Association of Towns and Townships, 85, 90
Land conservation, 38 National Governors Association, 85, 90
Land fragmentation, 81 National Institutes of Health, 90
Land-grant universities (LGUs), 3, 11, 15, 64, 81, 83, 84, 90. See National League of Cities, 85, 90
also Higher education National Science Foundation, 90
122 Urban and Agricultural Communities: Opportunities for Common Ground

Natural areas, 27 Planning and revitalization, 1

Natural resource management, 87 agriculture's service role in, 33-40
Natural Resources Conservation Service (NRCS), 71, 81 Planning process, merging interests of stakeholders in, 40
Neglected sites, 38 Plant adaptability and production systems, 10, 86
Neutraceuticals, 87 Plants
New York City Watershed Protection Programs, 91 agricultural functions performed by, 35
Noble Foundation, 90 bedding, 43
Noise pollution, 34 common interior, 36
Nonexclusive ordinance, 72 engineering functions performed by, 35
NonHispanic blacks, 22, 23 foliage, 42, 44-45
Nonmetropolitan area, 19 human interactions with, 49
Nonmetropolitan county, 20, 21 installations, 8
Nonmetropolitan population, growth in, 22 pathology, 37, 38
Nonprofit organizations in partnerships and collaboration, 90, 91 potted, 42
North American Plant Collections Consortium, 66 potted flowering, 42
Northeast Regional Center for Rural Development, 88 rotations, 44-45
Nursery crop production, 42-43 spacing, 35
Nursery services, 8 utilitarian purposes of, 35
Nursery stock, 43 Poinsettias, 63, 65
Police powers, 69-70
O Policy
institutional dimensions of urban agriculture and, 1, 9-10, 68-
Oklahoma Cooperative Extension, 64 77
Oklahoma Gardening, 64 new tools, 89
On-farm recreation and entertainment farming, 62-63 setting, 69-70
Open space conservation, 9 Pollution, 14
Open space lands, 27, 68 air, 34
Organic Foods Production Act (1990), 57 bacterial water, 38
Organic production systems, 57 biological, 47
Ornamental horticulture, 41-46 chemical, 47
Outdoor spaces, design and maintenance of, 52 noise, 34
Outreach and extension in higher education, 84-85 Pollution abatement, 27
Pollution control, 27
P Population
by ethnicity, 97
Parks farm, 21
city-managed, 39 growth, 1
irrigated, 29 Potted flowering plants, 42
public, 8 Potted plants, 43
Partnerships and collaboration, 89-93 Poultry product sales, 24
community food systems, 91 Poultry sales, 24, 106
community greening partnerships between urban and rural Power, 12
areas, 91 Preservation, 4, 15
cooperative extension, 91-92 Prime agricultural land, 34
experiential learning, 92 Private land trusts, 2, 10, 77
funding strategies, 92-93 Private sector firms in partnerships and collaboration, 90-91
government, nonprofit organizations, and community, 91 Problem clarification, 88
government agencies, 90 Procedural obstacles, 39
higher education, 90 Professional development in higher education, 85
initiatives in, 2-3, 11 Property taxes, 69
nonprofit organizations and other associations, 90 Pruning, 45
private sector firms, 90-91 Public education and promotion in higher education, 85
watershed protection, 91 Public gardens, 65-66
wildlife and recreation area, 91 outreach activities and educational programs, 66
Perception-related obstacles, 40 Public housing neighborhoods, planted landscapes in, 51-52
Perdue Farms, Inc., 30 Public parks, 8
Perennials, 63 Public policy, 81
Pesticide on food systems, 82-83
applications, 45 on higher education, 83-85
fertilizer use and, 8, 27 on human capital development, 83
nutrient runoff and, 28 initiatives in, 2, 10
use, 13 on land use, 81-82
Pest management, 10, 87 Public preferences and values, 88
Phytoremediation, 8, 27, 31-32, 109 Public services for residential development, 33
Index 123

Public support in comprehensive planning, 80 Seed production, 58

Purchase of Agricultural Conservation Easements (PACE), 9-10, Self-sufficiency index, 56, 110
76, 109 Sensory stimulation and reminiscence, 50
benefits, 74 Service role, of agriculture in urbanizing society, 8, 27-32
drawbacks, 74 Sharecroppers, 19n
Purchase of development rights (PDR), 2, 9, 34, 71, 75-76, 89, 109 Sharers, 55
Sick building syndrome, 36
Q Sierra Club, 90
Site-related obstacles, 39
Quality-of-life amenities, 25 Site remediation, 27, 87
Sliding scale area-based allowance zoning, 72, 73
R Smart growth programs, 9, 34, 107
Social and economic dimensions in research, 87-88
Railroads, 7, 15 Social networks, 26
Real estate values, landscapes influence on, 44 Sociology, 48
Recharge areas for aquifers, 27 Sod, 44
Recreational farms, 56-57, 110 Sod farms, 44
Recreational pursuits, 25 Soil
Recreation and leisure, 1, 8-9, 62-67 erosion, 27, 28
Recycled wastewater, 54 fertility, 27
Recycling, waste, 30-31 retention, 8
Regulatory programs, 1, 9-10, 71-72 Spadra Landfill, 29
Remediation of brownfields, 25, 31-32 Sports, 66-67
Research, 85-89 Sprawl, 9, 14, 34, 68, 110
entrepreneurial products, 87 common characteristics of, 33
farmland protection, 88-89 Stahlbush Island Farms, 57-58
initiatives in, 2, 10-11 Stakeholders, merging interests of, in planning process, 40
pest management, 87 Standard metropolitan statistical area (SMSA), 20n
plant adaptability and production systems, 86 Steamboat Landing, 60
social and economic dimensions, 87-88 Storm water management, 8, 27-28
urban soils, 86 Subsurface water flow, 27
water management, 86-87 Suburban, 18
Residential development, public services for, 33 Sustainable agriculture, 14
Restoration and remediation, 1 Swank Program in Rural-Urban Policy, 88
agroecosystem services for, 27-28
Retail garden centers and nurseries, 43 T
Right-to-farm laws, 2, 9, 76, 110
benefits, 75 Takings, 70
drawbacks, 75 Tax abatements, 12
Roadside stand operations, 54 Tax credit programs, 74
Roosevelt, Theodore, 24 Teikei movements in Japan, 55
Rural, relevance for community life, 19 Temporary use, 39
Rural communities, survival of, 78-79 Tenant farms, 19n
Rural frontiers, 19 Therapeutic riding, 12
Rural myth, 16 Total crop sales, 24
Rural people, lifestyles of, 5, 13 Tourism, 8-9
Rural sociology, 38 attractions in, 62
Rural-urban agriculture, 23-24 horticultural, 64-67
Rural-urban agroecosystem, 4, 13-14, 78, 110 Toxic dumps, 38
common problems and impacts on, 79 Traditional farms, 56, 57, 110
defined, 5 Traffic calming, 52, 107
ultimate goal of, 14 Traffic congestion, 68
Rural-Urban Continuum Codes, 19n, 20 Transfer of development rights (TDR), 2, 9, 34, 34n, 76-77, 110
benefits, 75
drawbacks, 75
S Transpirational cooling, 36
Transportation industry, 15
Santa Ana National Wildlife Refuge, 63 Transportation systems, 26
Scenic vistas, 81 Tree festivals, 64
Schools, 29 Trust for Public Lands, 90
Sculpture gardens, 65 Trusts, private land, 77
Security and nutrition in food systems, 83 Turfgrass, 66-67
Sedentary life style, 50-51 production and management, 44
Sedimentation/filtration systems, 28 Tyson Foods, 30
124 Urban and Agricultural Communities: Opportunities for Common Ground

U Veterinary medicine, 38, 48

Virginia Cooperative Extension Master Gardeners, 64
United Nation's Food and Agricultural Organization, 19n
U.S. agricultural census, 18 W
U.S. Golf Association, 91
Universities. See Higher education; Land-grant universities (LGUs) Wal-Mech Farm Bed and Breakfast, 63
U-pick operations, 54, 57 Waste disposal, 28
Urban Waste recycling, 8, 27, 30-31
defined, 19n Waste utilization, 87
liberal use of term, 19 Wastewater reclamation, 28-32
Urban agriculture, 12, 110 Wastewater remediation, 8, 27
cross-cutting dimensions of, 17 Water availability, 14
defined, 5-6, 14 Water management, 10, 86-87
new visions for, 2-3, 10-11, 78-94 Water pollution, bacterial, 38
policy and institutional dimensions of, 9-10, 68-77 Water remediation, 28-32
scope of, 7-8, 25-26 Water reuse, 27, 110
as underrecognized component of, 15-16 Watershed protection, 11
Urban built-up areas, 19-20 in partnerships and collaboration, 91
Urban edge, 18 Wetlands, constructed, 29
Urban entomology, 37 Wildlife and recreation area in partnerships and collaboration, 91
Urban food systems, 54 Wildlife habitat, 11, 25, 81
Urban fringe, 19n Wildlife management, 36-38, 37
Urban growth, 12 Wildlife viewing, 8, 62
boundaries of, 34 Wire service delivery, 45-46
Urban-influenced, 25, 110 Women Infants and Children (WIC)
Urban-influenced counties, 8 coupon programs, 58-59
Urban Influences Codes, 19n Farmers' Market Nutrition Program, 60
Urbanization, agriculture's contributions to, 1 World Resources Institute (WRI), 19n
Urbanizing society
agriculture's benefits to, 8
Y
agriculture's business contributions to, 41-47
agriculture's service role in, 27-32 Youth education, 64
Urban Land Institute, 85, 90
Urban people, lifestyles of, 5, 13
Z
Urban plant communities, 51
Urban Resource Partnership (URP), 91 Zone of hunters, 16
Urban society, role of agriculture in, 1, 4 Zone of intensive agriculture, 16
Urban soils, 10 Zone of livestock and lumber production, 16
in research, 86 Zoning, 10, 69-70
Urban sprawl, reusing brownfields and, 32 agricultural protection, 1, 9, 72, 73, 74, 109
Urban tree-planting programs, 51 area-based allowance, 72, 73
large lot, 72
V large minimum lot size, 72, 73
laws on, 72, 110
Vacant lands, 38 sliding scale area-based allowance, 72, 73
Vegetation controls, on highway medians, 28 Zoning amendments, 82
Vegetation strips, 28 Zoning ordinances, 71-72
Vegetative cover, failure to maintain, 28 Zoos, 8, 65-66
Veterinary immunodiagnostics sector, 46