LIFE CYCLE

Journal of Oil ASSESSMENT FOR Vol.

Palm Research OIL PALM FRESH FRUIT
22 December BUNCH
2010 PRODUCTION FROM CONTINUED LAND USE FOR OIL PALM PLANTED ON MINERAL SOIL (part 2)
p. 887-894

LIFE CYCLE ASSESSMENT FOR OIL PALM

FRESH FRUIT BUNCH PRODUCTION FROM
CONTINUED LAND USE FOR OIL PALM
PLANTED ON MINERAL SOIL (part 2)
ZULKIFLI, H*; HALIMAH, M*; CHAN, K W*; CHOO, Y M* and MOHD BASRI, W*

ABSTRACT
Life cycle assessment (LCA) is an important tool for identifying potential environmental impacts associated
with the production of fresh fruit bunches (FFB) from specific operations in Malaysian oil palm plantations.
This LCA study is to make available the life cycle inventory for cradle-to-gate data so that the environmental
impacts posed by FFB production in the plantation can be assessed. The results of the study provide the
Malaysian palm oil industry with information, and identify ways and measures to reduce the environmental
impacts.
Most of the foreground data were collected directly from the oil palm plantations (site specific) from a
detailed survey of the estates throughout Malaysia. The inventory data were collected from 102 plantations
(based on feedback to a questionnaire) covering 1.1 million hectares of planted area, which is approximately
25% of the total area under oil palm. This survey area consisted of immature (1- to 2-year-old palms) and
mature (3- to 25-year-old palms) areas, with both data sets included in the inventory for an amortized period of
25 years. Data gaps were filled by information obtained through literature and public databases, or calculated
using published models. The inputs and outputs from upstream activities were quantified on the basis of a
functional unit of production of 1 t FFB, while the life cycle impact assessment (LCIA) was carried out using
the Sima Pro version 7.1 software and the Eco-indicator 99 methodology.
The weighted results of LCA for the production of 1 t FFB from continued land use (replanting) show
significant environmental impacts in the fossil fuels, respiratory inorganics and climate change categories. The
most significant process contributing to these environmental impacts comes from the production and usage
of the various fertilizers (especially N fertilizers) from the use of field machinery (tractors) during operations
in the plantation, and the use of transport vehicles bringing inputs to the plantations and transporting FFB
to the mills. Producing FFB from continued land use (replanting) has no effect on land use.
The results clearly show that nitrogenous fertilizer production and application in the plantation is the
most polluting process in the agricultural stage of FFB production; this is followed by the energy used by the
machinery in the plantations and for transportation of FFB to the mills. Ways of reducing the environmental
impacts are by increasing the FFB yield through the use of high-yielding oil palm planting materials which
will result in increased fruit production, by applying more organic sources of nitrogen fertilizer instead of
chemical fertilizers, by returning the nutrient-rich slurry from palm oil mill effluent (POME) treatment
ponds to the field, or by applying compost (empty fruit bunches + POME) as fertilizer.

* Malaysian Palm Oil Board,

P. O. Box 10620,
50720 Kuala Lumpur,
Malaysia.
E-mail: zulhashim@mpob.gov.my

887
Journal of Oil Palm Research 22 (december 2010)

Keywords: Malaysia, oil palm plantation, fresh fruit bunches (FFB), life cycle assessment (LCA), life cycle impact assessment (LCIA).

Date received: 11 October 2010; Sent for revision: 13 October 2010; Received in final form: 19 October 2010; Accepted: 20 October 2010.

INTRODUCTION production of fresh fruit bunches (FFB) and in

assessing GHG emissions from specific operations
The cultivation of oil palm in Malaysia began in in an oil palm plantation for the production of FFB.
1917. Today, an approximate land area of 4.69 million This study only considered continued land use by
hectares is planted with oil palm, producing about oil palm from a previous generation (replanting)
17.56 million tonnes of palm oil (MPOB, 2009). The and not from other land use resulting in a change
oil palm industry is continually expanding to meet from the primary or degraded forest, or from other
the demand for oil for use as food and biodiesel. tree crops.
The key for increased production is mainly by
intensifying production per unit area through yield
advancement with improved planting materials BACKGROUND OF FFB PRODUCTION
and good agricultural practices. However, the
continuous increase in oil palm area has generated Oil palm is a monoecious crop as it bears both
negative perceptions by the NGOs concerning male and female flowers in the same plant. The
issues in biodiversity, erosion and greenhouse gas palm produces compact bunches of 10 to 25 kg
(GHG) emissions that lead to global warming. each, bearing 1000 to 3000 fruits, and are almost
There is also greater public awareness in climate spherical or elongated in shape. Generally, the fruit
change, and a growing demand for green biofuel is dark purple, almost black when unripe, turning
especially by the European Union (EU). Therefore, to orange red when ripe. The fruit comprises a hard
for sustainable production of oil palm, a long-term kernel (seed) enclosed in a shell (endocarp) which
balance between inputs and outputs across the is surrounded by a fleshy mesocarp.
boundary system of oil palm production must be The oil palm may grow to a height of
maintained during its life cycle. approximately 10 m before it is replanted after about
Life cycle assessment (LCA) is the most holistic 25-30 years. The harvested FFB contains around 25%
and comprehensive method used in assessing oil, 25% seeds (5% kernels), 13% mesocarp fibre, 7%
an environmental burden and impacts resulting shell, and 23% empty fruit bunches (Corley and
from oil palm production. The results presented Tinker, 2003). In Malaysia, the oil palm planted is
in this study quantify the environmental impacts mainly the tenera variety, a hybrid between dura
associated with the processes, products or activities and pisifera. Tenera yields about 4 to 5 t of crude
carried out in the plantation during the life cycle palm oil (CPO) per hectare in a year, and about 1 t
of oil palm, which is 25 years. However, it is of kernels. Oil palm is the most efficient oil-bearing
recognized that the results of this study are specific crop in the world, requiring only 0.26 ha of land to
to oil palm planted on mineral soil only as the produce 1 t of oil, whereas soyabean, sunflower and
detailed methodology on peat which includes a rapeseed require 2.22, 2.00 and 1.52 ha, respectively,
study on carbon (C) stock, peat oxidation and C to produce the same (Yusof and Chan, 2004).
emissions is on-going, and will be reported once The oil palm nursery is the first link in the palm
all data are available. The impacts due to pesticides oil supply chain. From the economic point of view,
and heavy metal residues are small and regarded as the major significant aims of the nursery phase are
having an insignificant effect on the environment. to minimize the immature period in the field and
The effect of indirect land use change (ILUC), to ensure the highest possible early yield, whilst
which is defined as the displacement of prior crop at the same time to keep nursery costs as low as
production and the possible land use induced by possible. The palms are grown in polybags in the
the movement of prior crop production to other nursery. In the pre-nursery, germinated seeds are
areas, was not included in this study. It needs to be sown in small polybags (15 cm × 23 cm, or 6” × 9”)
noted that this displacement may have a potentially until the seedlings are approximately three to four
large contribution to the overall GHG emissions. months, at which time they are transplanted into
However, due to a lack of data and the complexity large polybags (38 cm × 45 cm, or 15” × 18”) and
of the methodology, this ILUC effect was not grown without protective cover until they are 12 to
estimated in this study. 15 months old. In the main nursery, the polybags
The main objective of the study is the use are arranged at 0.9 m × 0.9 m × 0.9 m, or 0.75 m ×
of the LCA approach in identifying potential 0.75 m × 0.75 m, measured centre to centre, for an
environmental impacts associated with the equilateral triangular spacing. All seedlings are

888
 LIFE CYCLE ASSESSMENT FOR OIL PALM FRESH FRUIT BUNCH PRODUCTION FROM CONTINUED LAND USE FOR OIL PALM PLANTED ON MINERAL SOIL (part 2)

irrigated with 0.5 litre water per day in the pre- in the plantation as a nutrient source for the
nursery, and with 1.5-2.5 litres per day in the main replants. The felled palms contain about 95 t of
nursery. Watering is normally done twice daily, dry weight per hectare (Khalid et al., 2000; 2009),
before 11.00 am and after 4.00 pm. The seedlings and will decompose within two years. Due to the
are fertilized, and sprayed with pesticides for crop undesirable emissions from fires, open burning
protection. Dithiocarbamate is the most commonly has been prohibited in Malaysia since 1989, and
used fungicide. Fertilization is carried out manually. zero burning is currently being practiced for land
However, some nurseries use ‘fertigation’ for preparation prior to replanting.
premature seedlings (<4 months), i.e. applying
nutrients together with the irrigation water.
The seedlings are field-planted when they are
METHODOLOGY
12-15 months old at a density of 136-148 plants per
hectare on mineral soils (assuming an average of
The LCA study was conducted according to the
142 ha-1). Before planting, the soil is ploughed and
ISO standards on LCA described in ISO 14040
a legume cover sown, typically Mucuna bracteata.
and ISO 14044 (ISO, 2006a, b). LCI and LCIA were
The cover crop prevents soil erosion and fixes
performed using SimaPro 7 (Netherlands). This
nitrogen (N) from the atmosphere, an important
software contains US and European databases
source of N especially when the palms are young.
on a wide variety of materials, in addition to an
Clear weeding is done in a circle around each palm
assortment of European- and US-developed impact
to prevent weed competition. The weeded circle
assessment methodologies. The methodology
is maintained in the mature palms to allow access
selected to conduct LCIA was the Eco-indicator 99
for harvesting and to facilitate the picking up of
(Goedkoop and Spriensma, 1999).
scattered loose fruits. These weeded circles are kept
weed-free by spraying with herbicides.
The palm bears fruits within two to three years, Scope and Boundaries
and continues to do so for the next 20 to 25 years,
producing one FFB every 10 to 21 days. Harvesting The system was defined by a cradle-to-gate
at every 10-15 days is done manually, using a sickle approach, starting from land conversion and
attached to an aluminium pole. Normally, the transplanting of seedlings to the plantation until
two fronds under the fruit bunch are pruned and FFB are delivered to the mills during the 25 years’
stacked in neat piles between the palms as mulch. lifetime of the oil palm (Figure 1).
The harvested FFB are brought to the roadside The agricultural operations considered under
where they are collected by 5- to 10-t lorries to be this study were divided into four stages during
transported to the mill. the palm’s life cycle. They are (i) the conversion
Fertilizers are sourced from suppliers and stage from previous land use, (ii) the immature
transported to the plantation by road. The most plantation (not yet bearing FFB), (iii) the mature
common fertilizers applied to oil palm are muriate plantation, and (iv) the replanting stage for the next
of potash, ammonium sulphate, kieserite and rock generation. The data collected were applied as an
phosphate. The fertilizers, brought by tractors from average of the four stages over a lifetime of 25 years.
the store to the field, are broadcast manually. Only carbon dioxide (CO2) and nitrous oxide (N2O)
Herbicides are usually sprayed only when emissions were considered for global warming
the palms are immature and their canopy has not potential (GWP) assessment.
covered the soil surface fully to prevent light from
reaching the weeds. Most of the herbicides used Functional Unit
are water-based formulations, and are manually
applied using knapsack sprayers. Insecticides are The reference flows (input and output) of this
the major pesticides used in oil palm, but their use cradle-to-gate LCA study were based on a mass
is minimal. The application of phosphorus-based basis (functional unit of 1 t) of FFB produced.
or organophosphate insecticides for bagworm
control is very specific, being done through manual Items Excluded from the Study
trunk injection. Often, it is possible to reduce the
use of insecticides and rodenticides by practicing Disposal of polybags which are brought from
integrated pest management with components of the nursery to the plantation during transplanting
biological control, such as the use of barn owls, was not taken into account due to the difficulty in
Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt), etc. getting a suitable model or representative data. It
Oil palm is replanted after 25 to 30 years when was assumed that the polybags are collected and
yield becomes increasingly poor and there is sold back to the factory for recycling.
difficulty in harvesting the tall palms. The palms Data on the inputs and outputs were gathered
are felled and chipped, and the chips applied from plantations on mineral soils only. LCA for oil

889
Journal of Oil Palm Research 22 (december 2010)

Figure 1.  System boundary for fresh fruit bunches (FFB) production.

palm on peat was not included in this study as the practices in Malaysia have been collected through
detailed methodology on peat, which includes a surveys. The yield of FFB is the average yield from
study on C stock, peat oxidation and C emissions, the survey.
is currently being carried out by the Tropical Peat The foreground data which describe the specific
Institute (TROPI) of MPOB. The complete LCA production sub-systems included in the production
study on peat will be reported once the data from of FFB were obtained through responses to
peat are made available. With the available data, the questionnaires, observations, communication by
input and output data as an indicator at the national telephone and interviews, and by on-site verification
level will then be computed. of the data. Data gaps were filled by information
The impact of heavy metals is also small and obtained from scientific literature and public
regarded as insignificant to the environment. databases, or calculated using published models.
GHG emissions from the production of machinery,
equipment and the construction of buildings were Emissions at the Plantation
also excluded as they are minor compared to the
overall emissions in the system. Emissions from the oil palm plantation are
In this LCA study, starting from cradle-to-gate, determined by the establishment of nutrient
all operations in the plantations, including balances, and by the use of models for the emissions
intermittent transportation of inputs and products of N2O, NO, NH3, N2, NO3, P (Schdmit, 2007) and
by road were considered relevant unless excluded for CO2 from energy generated from the use of fossil
based on the system boundary definition criteria fuels. The models are described by IPCC (2000;
listed in Table 1. 2007), FAO and IFA (2001), and Vinther and Hansen
(2004).
Sources of Data GHG emissions from the production of
fertilizers and pesticides used in the plantation are
Input data required are on materials or energy determined by the Ecoinvent methodology in the
that go into the cultivation stage, while outputs Simapro version 7.0 software, while total emissions
are emissions to air, water and soil, during the from usage of pesticides are based on the EPA
production of 1 t FFB. The cultivation stage for report (EPA report, 1994) where it is assumed that
oil palm includes activities in the field for the an applied pesticide evenly distributed emissions
immature/mature palms. Most data on cultivation to air, water and soil (Schdmidt, 2007). The various

890
 LIFE CYCLE ASSESSMENT FOR OIL PALM FRESH FRUIT BUNCH PRODUCTION FROM CONTINUED LAND USE FOR OIL PALM PLANTED ON MINERAL SOIL (part 2)

TABLE 1.  SYSTEM BOUNDARY DEFINITION CRITERIA

Excluded
Difficult Not directly
Category Included Part of a
to obtain relevant to
different
representative scope and goal
system
data of study
Production, maintenance -    -
and replacement of capital
equipment
Production of kieserite -   - -
fertilizer, borate fertilizer,
NPK compound fertilizer
Indirect land use change - -   -
Disposal of polybags at the - -   -
plantation
Production of urea  - - - -
Production of ammonium  - - - -
sulphate
Production of phosphate rock  - - - -
Production of muriate of  - - - -
potash
Impact of heavy metals to the -   - -
environment
Usage of pesticides  - - - -
Capital goods  but too small - - - -
Production of plantation  - - - -
pesticides
Transportation of raw  - - - -
materials from the port to
plantation
Transportation of FFB to mill  - - - -
Plantation input e.g. fertilizers,  - - - -
pesticides
Seedling from the nursery  - - - -
Land use change Only considerred - - - -
on continued land
use with oil palm
Energy use in machinery  - - - -
in the plantation
Output to air  - - - -
Output to water  - - - -
Output to soil  - - - -

GHG emissions from the plantation are then GHG following the guidelines of IPCC. The GWP
summed up per hectare, and converted to per 1 t for CO2 is 1 kg CO2-eq, for CH4 is 23 kg CO2-eq
of FFB produced by dividing the emissions by the and for N 2O is 296 kg CO 2-eq. The other main
FFB yield. GHG (hydrofluorocarbons, perfluorocarbons and
The three most important GHG determined sulphurhexafluoride), although their GWP are high,
in oil palm plantations are CO2, N2O and CH4. were not taken into account as they are insignificant
The concept of GWP is applied to compare these in FFB production chains.

891
Journal of Oil Palm Research 22 (december 2010)

Method for LCIA TABLE 3.  THE CHARACTERISTICS OF THE

PLANTATIONS USED IN THE STUDY
The Eco-indicator 99 methodology was Plantation characteristics
adopted. This methodology uses the damage-
oriented approach or end-point approach for FFB yield (t ha-1 yr-1) 20.7
impact assessment. Impact categories considered in Planting density 142
this methodology include carcinogens, respiratory (palm ha-1)
organics and inorganics, climate change, ionizing Soil characteristics Mineral soils
radiation, ozone layer depletion, ecotoxicity,
Plantation lifetime 25 years
acidification/eutrophication, land use, minerals
and fossil fuels. No of plantations 102
It should be noted that the applied LCIA method Total area 1.1 million ha (93.7
for land use and biodiversity was not included % mature and 6.3 %
due to the assumption of continued land use from immature)
previously old oil palm stands.

Uncertainty of Results
production of FFB in the plantation. The system
As the study considered continued land use boundary includes the nursery and the plantation
from former oil palm plantations, no deforestation (practicing continued land use).
had taken place. The sensitivity analysis was
estimated based on individual parameters for Characterized Results
FFB production for which there were large ranges
and deviations from the LCA results, such as FFB Figure 2 shows the characterized results
yield, N fertilizer use, and emission factor for the contributed by inputs used for the production of
production of N fertilizers and diesel use as shown 1 t FFB in the plantation. The characterized results
in Table 2. It was shown that N fertilizer use is the indicate the contribution by the inputs at the
most sensitive parameter, especially in having a plantation in all eleven impact categories of impact
global warming effect. assessment.

Weighted Results
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
The characterized results are weighted and are
Life Cycle Inventory (LCI) shown in Figure 3. Based on the weighted results
for producing 1 t FFB from continued land use
Table 3 summarizes the material and energy (replanting), the significant impact categories are
inputs and outputs associated with the production fossil fuels, respiratory inorganics, climate change
of FFB that were used to carry out LCIA. The LCIA and acidification (eutrophication). The land use
results presented in this article are based on 1 t of (nature occupation) impact category was not
FFB produced in the plantation. included because it was assumed that the land
continued to be planted with oil palm.
Life Cycle Impact Assessment (LCIA)
Environmental Hotspots
The characterization and weighted results for all
the scenarios studied are for the system boundary For the production of FFB in the plantation, the
which starts from the nursery right up to the weighted results using Eco-indicator 99 show that

TABLE 2.  INPUT DATA: PARAMETERS AND THEIR RANGES FOR SENSITIVITY ANALYSIS

Parameters Unit Low Base High Source

FFB production t FFB ha yr
-1 -1
17 20 31 FRIM, IPCC
N fertilizer use t N ha-1 yr-1 50 73 120 *Survey
EF for AS fertilizer production kg CO2 eq/kg N 0.9 2.7 7.6 Syahrinuddin (2005)
EF for urea fertilizer production kg CO2 eq/kg N 0.9 1.3 4
EF N2O from managed soil Kg N2O-N/t N 3 10 30 Syahrinuddin (2005)
Diesel consumption Gj ha-1 yr-1 2.1 3.2 5.1 Syahrinuddin (2005)

892
 LIFE CYCLE ASSESSMENT FOR OIL PALM FRESH FRUIT BUNCH PRODUCTION FROM CONTINUED LAND USE FOR OIL PALM PLANTED ON MINERAL SOIL (part 2)

120

110

100

90

80

70

60
%

50

40

30

20

10

0
Carcinogens Resp. organics Resp. inorganics Climate Radiation Ozone layer Ecotoxicity Acidification/ Land use Minerals Fossil fuels
change eutrophication
FFB production (continued land use) September 2010 Nursery with pesticide emissions
Input of N fertilizer Ammonium nitrate, as N, at regional storehouse/RER U
Ammonium sulphate, as N, at regional storehouse/RER U Urea, as N, at regional storehouse/RER U
Phosphate rock, as P2O5, beneficiated, dry, at plant/MA U Potassium chloride, as K2O, at regional storehouse/RER U
Glyphosate, at regional storehouse/RER U Feb 2010 [sulfonyl]urea-compounds, at regional storehouse/RER U Feb 2010
Bipyridylium-compounds, at regional storehouse/RER U Feb 2010 Pyretroid-compounds, at regional storehouse/RER U Feb 2010
Organophosphorus-compounds, at regional storehouse/RER U Carbofuran, at regional storehouse/RER U Feb 2010
2,4-D, at regional storehouse/RER U Pesticide unspecified, at regional storehouse/RER U
Reinforcing steel, at plant/RER U Fibre cement corrugated slab, at plant/CH U
Tractor, production/CH/I U Agricultural machinery, general, production/CH/I U
Analyzing 1 kg FFB production (continued land use) September 2010, Method: Eco-indicator 99 (H) V2.03 / Europe EI 99 H/A/ characterization.

Figure 2.  Life cycle impact assessment (LCIA) for the production of 1 t fresh fruit bunches (FFB) from continued land
use – characterized results.

3.5

2.5
mPt

1.5

0.5

0
Carcinogens Resp. organics Resp. inorganics Climate Radiation Ozone layer Ecotoxicity Acidification/ Land use Minerals Fossil fuels
change eutrophication
FFB production (continued land use) September 2010 Nursery with pesticide emissions
Input of N fertilizer Ammonium nitrate, as N, at regional storehouse/RER U
Ammonium sulphate, as N, at regional storehouse/RER U Urea, as N, at regional storehouse/RER U
Phosphate rock, as P2O5, beneficiated, dry, at plant/MA U Potassium chloride, as K2O, at regional storehouse/RER U
Glyphosate, at regional storehouse/RER U Feb 2010 [sulfonyl]urea-compounds, at regional storehouse/RER U Feb 2010
Bipyridylium-compounds, at regional storehouse/RER U Feb 2010 Pyretroid-compounds, at regional storehouse/RER U Feb 2010
Organophosphorus-compounds, at regional storehouse/RER U Carbofuran, at regional storehouse/RER U Feb 2010
2,4-D, at regional storehouse/RER U Pesticide unspecified, at regional storehouse/RER U
Reinforcing steel, at plant/RER U Fibre cement corrugated slab, at plant/CH U
Tractor, production/CH/I U Agricultural machinery, general, production/CH/I U
Analyzing 1 kg FFB production (continued land use) September 2010, Method: Eco-indicator 99 (H) V2.03 / Europe EI 99 H/A/ weighting.

Figure 3.  Life cycle impact assessment (LCIA) for the production of 1 t fresh fruit bunches (FFB) from continued land
use – weighted results.

the most significant impacts are in the following plantations and transporting FFB to the mills. The
order: impact on toxicity mainly comes from the use of
pesticides, especially in the nursery. The fossil
• fossil fuels;
fuels, respiratory inorganics and climate change
• respiratory inorganics;
impact categories relate to air emissions while
• climate change;
the acidification/eutrophication impact category
• ecotoxicity; and
relates mainly to water emission.
• acidification.
Acidification potential is explained mainly by
The impacts on respiratory inorganics, emissions of ammonia into air, nitrates leaching
fossil fuels, climate change and acidification/ into ground water, and land provision for oil palm
eutophication come from the production and use cultivation. In the case of FFB production, the
of the various fertilizers, especially N fertilizers, acidification potential is mainly due to nitrogen
and from the use of field machinery (tractors) oxide emissions. A significant contribution also
during operations in the plantation and the use comes from ammonia emissions to air in the
of transport vehicles bringing the materials to the plantation.

893
Journal of Oil Palm Research 22 (december 2010)

CONCLUSION GOEDKOOP, M and SPRIENSMA, R (1999). The

Eco-Indicator 99 – A Damage Oriented Method for Life
The results presented in this study reflect the current Cycle Impact Assessment – Methodology Report. Third
management practices used in oil palm plantations, edition. Pre Consultants. Amersfoort. 14 pp.
and they are only valid under these circumstances.
The major hotspots identified in the plantations are IPCC (2006). IPCC Guidelines for National Greenhouse
N fertilizer use, the production of N fertilizer, and Gas Inventories. Institute for Global Environmental
energy use in transport. Improvement options exist Strategies, Hayama, Japan.
to mitigate the environmental burden, which among
others are: by applying more organic sources of N IPCC (1996). IPCC Guidelines for National Greenhouse
fertilizer and increasing the yield of FFB. Returning Gas Inventories. Reference manual. Geneva,
the nutrient-rich slurry from the palm oil mill Switzerland.
effluent (POME) treatment ponds to the field or
applying compost (from empty fruit bunches and IPCC (2000). Good Practice Guidance and Uncertainty
POME) as fertilizer, will help reduce N2O emission Management in National Greenhouse Gas Inventories.
from inorganic fertilizer application. Increasing the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change
yield of FFB can be achieved by growing the latest (IPCC), Geneva.
improved oil palm planting materials which have
the potential for increased fruit production. More ISO 14040 (2006). Environmental Management –
improvements can be obtained by disseminating to Life Cycle Assessment – Principles and Framework.
the growers information on the best management International Standard Organization (ISO),
practices in relation to reducing environmental Geneva.
impacts during the production of FFB.
KHALID, H; ZIN, Z Z and ANDERSON, J M (2000).
Decomposition processes and nutrient release
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT patterns of oil palm residues. J. Oil Palm Research
Vol. 12 No. 1: 46-63.
We kindly acknowledge the oil palm plantations
in Malaysia for provision of data. We are grateful KHALID, H; CHAN, K W and AHMAD TARMIZI,
to Director-General of MPOB, for permission to M (2009). Nutrient cycling and residue management
publish this article. during oil palm replanting in Malaysia. Paper
presented at PIPOC 2009, 9-12 November, 2009. 27
pp.
REFERENCES
SCHMIDT, J H (2007). Life Cycle Assessment of
CORLEY, R H V and TINKER, P B (2003). The Oil Rapeseed Oil and Palm Oil. Ph.D thesis. Aalborg
Palm. Fourth edition. Blackwell publishing. University Denmark. 271 pp.

ECOINVENT (2004). Ecoinvent data v1.3. Final SYAHRINUDIN (2005). The potential of oil palm
Reports Ecoinvent 2000 No. 1-15. Swiss Centre for and forest plantations for carbon sequestration on
Life Cycle Inventories, Dübendorf. degraded land in Indonesia. Ecology and Development
Series No. 28 (Vlek PLG, Denich, M; Martius, C;
EPA CONTRACT EMISSION No. 68-D2-0159 (1994). Rodgers, C; van de Giesen, N eds.). Göttingen,
Factor documentation for AP-42 Section 9.2.2. Germany:Cuvillier Verlag. p. 107.
Pesticide Application. Midwest Research Institute,
Kansas City, MO. VINTHER, F P and HANSEN, S (2004). SimDen –
en simpel model til kvantificering af N2O-emission
FAO and IFA (2001). Global Estimates of Gaseous og denitrifikation (English: SimDen – a simple
Emissions of NH3, NO and N2O from Agricultural model for quantification of N 2O-emission and
Land. Food and Agriculture Organization of the denitrification). DJF rapport. Markbrug nr. 104.
United Nations (FAO) and International Fertiliser Danmarks Jordbrugsforskning, Ministe-riet for
Industry Association (IFA), Rome. Fødevarer, Landbrug og Økonomi, Tjele, Denmark.
p. 4.
FAO (2006b). Global planted forests thematic
study: results and analysis by A Del Lungo; J Ball YUSOF, B and CHAN, K W (2004). The oil palm
and J Carle. Planted Forests and Trees Working Paper and its sustainability. J. Oil Palm Research Vol. 16
38. Rome. No. 1: 1-10.

894