Alexandria University

Faculty of Engineering
Electrical Engineering Department

Report on Semiconductor Materials

Electrical Engineering Department

Semiconductors Materials
code: 0714870

By
Eng. Mai Mohamed Abdelgelil Amin
Table of Contents
Abstract.................................................................................................................7
OVERVIEW ON PERIODIC TABLE......................................................................8

CHAPTER 1...........................................................................................................9
OVERVIEW ON PERIODIC TABLE......................................................................9
Introduction...........................................................................................................9
1. Development of the Periodic Table..............................................................10
1.1 Law of Octaves..................................................................................................10

1.2.1 Problem of law of octaves..........................................................................11

1.2 Henry Moseley..................................................................................................11

Fig.2 Moseley’s periodic table................................................................................11

1.3 Mendeleev's Periodic Table...............................................................................11

1.3 The modern periodic table.................................................................................12

1.3.1 Columns in the table - groups.....................................................................13

1.3.2 Rows in the table - periods.........................................................................14

1.4 Group 1 Elements..............................................................................................14

1.4.1 Common properties....................................................................................15

1.4.2 Physical and chemical trends in Group 1..................................................16

1.5 The transition metals.........................................................................................17

Fig.6 transition metals.............................................................................................18

1.5.1 properties of transition metals with this activity:.......................................18

1.6 Group 7 elements...............................................................................................19

1.6.1 Common properties....................................................................................19

1.8.2 Physical and Chemical trends in Group 7......................................................20

Melting point and boiling point............................................................................20
Colour.....................................................................................................................21

Reactivity................................................................................................................21

Reactions.................................................................................................................21

1.9 Metals................................................................................................................22

1.10 Non-metals......................................................................................................22

Group 1 (alkali metals) elements......................................................................24

Properties of alkali metals................................................................................24

Reactions with halogens....................................................................................25

Reaction with water...........................................................................................25

Reactivity............................................................................................................25

Group 7 (halogens) elements............................................................................25

Properties of halogens.......................................................................................25

Reactivity............................................................................................................26

Trend in reactivity.............................................................................................26

Transition metals...............................................................................................26

Reactivity of transition metals..........................................................................27

Uses of transition metals...................................................................................27

Structure of an Atom..............................................................................................28

Atomic structure diagram.......................................................................................30

Atomic Number......................................................................................................31

Atomic Mass...........................................................................................................32

Calculating sub-atomic particles from atomic number and mass number..........33

Isotopes...................................................................................................................34
Relative Atomic mass.............................................................................................34

1.1 Overview on photovoltaic technology...........................................................37

1.2 Why investigate a new photovoltaic technology?.........................................40

1.3 Natural processes of solar energy storage.....................................................41

ORGANIC SEMICONDUCTORS.........................................................................43

CHAPTER 2............................................................................................................44

ORGANIC SEMICONDUCTORS.........................................................................44

2.1 Materials and their chemical properties........................................................45

2.2 Basic working principles...............................................................................54

2.3 Optical properties..........................................................................................73

2.4 Materials investigated in this work................................................................77

Applications on Organic semiconductors:...........................................................85

2.5 Organic field-effect transistor........................................................................85

2.6 Organic laser..................................................................................................89

2.7 Organic light-emitting diode (OLED)...........................................................90

2.8 Organic solar cell.........................................................................................102

TECHNOLOGICAL ASPECTS...........................................................................105

for...........................................................................................................................105

ORGANIC DEVICE.............................................................................................105

CHAPTER 3..........................................................................................................107

TECHNOLOGICAL ASPECTS...........................................................................107

3.1 Doping mechanisms....................................................................................107

3.2 Current generation in an organic solar cell..................................................111

INORGANIC SEMICONDUCTORS...................................................................114

CHAPTER 4..........................................................................................................115

INORGANIC SEMICONDUCTORS...................................................................115

4.1 Inorganic semiconductors (iSC’s)...............................................................115

4.2 Bottom-up approaches.................................................................................119

4.3 Top-down approaches..................................................................................123

4.4 Mechanics....................................................................................................128

4.5 Epidermal electronics..................................................................................132

METAMATERIALS.............................................................................................136

CHAPTER 5..........................................................................................................137

METAMATERIALS.............................................................................................137

5.1 Metamaterials: usage and definition......................................................137

5.1 Electromagnetic metamaterials....................................................................138

5.2 Basic Structures...........................................................................................142

5.3 Potential Applications..................................................................................148

5.3.1 Subwavelength Imaging..........................................................................148

5.5.2 Circuit Applications..................................................................................151

5.3.3 Antenna Applications...............................................................................152

5.3.4 Biosensing................................................................................................152

...............................................................................................................................154

MICROWAVES CIRCUITS APPLICATIONS...................................................154

CHAPTER 6..........................................................................................................155

MICROWAVES CIRCUITS APPLICATIONS...................................................155

 6.1 Introduction on Microwaves Circuits Applications...............................155

6.2 Phase Noise............................................................................................156

6.3 . Phase Noise and System Performance.................................................162

OSCILLATORS....................................................................................................165

CHAPTER 7..........................................................................................................166

OSCILLATORS....................................................................................................166

7.1 Chip Scale Atomic Clock Oscillator...........................................................166

7.2 Local Oscillator for Chip Scale Atomic Clocks....................................168

7.3 Oscillator Design....................................................................................171

7.4 Oscillator Simulation, Construction and Measurements.......................182

NANOMATERIALS.............................................................................................191

CHAPTER 8..........................................................................................................192

NANOMATERIALS.............................................................................................192

8.1 Background on nanomaterials.........................................................................192

8.2 Applications of nanomaterials for critical technologies.................................194

8.3 Classification of Nanomaterials:.....................................................................195

8.4 Examples of Nanomaterials:...........................................................................198

8.5 Nano Materials Synthesis and Processing:.....................................................198

8.5 Methods for creating nanostructures:.............................................................199

8.6 Gas Phase synthesis of nanomaterials:...........................................................202

8.7 Selected Application of nanomaterials............................................................206

POLYMERS..........................................................................................................208

POLYMERS..........................................................................................................209
 CHAPTER 9..........................................................................................................210

POLYMERS..........................................................................................................210

9.1 Polymer types and Polymer synthesis & processing.......................................210

9.2 Crystallization, melting and glass transition...................................................218

9.3 Mechanical behavior of polymers..................................................................219

Abstract:
 There is no doubt that semiconductors changed the world beyond
anything that could have been imagined before them. Although people
have probably always needed to communicate and process data, it is
thanks to the semiconductors that these two important tasks have
become easy and take up infinitely less time than, e.g., at the time of
vacuum tubes. Semiconductor materials are the building blocks of the
entire electronics and computer industry. Small, lightweight, high speed,
and low power consumption devices would not be possible without
integrated circuits (chips), which consist of semiconductor materials.
This paper provides a general discussion of semiconductor materials,
their history, classification and the temperature effects in
semiconductors. In this report, we will illustrate the fundamentals of
periodic table, matter states, solid state elements, organic, inorganic
materials, metamaterials, micro-electromechanical system (MEMS),
micro-electromechanical system (NEMS), and finally the applications of
nanomaterials. We will show the differences between them by studying
there properties. Our target is to illustrate the different types of
semiconductor materials and their applications.
 C
ha
pte
r1
OVERVIE
W ON
PERIODIC
TABLE
 CHAPTER 1
OVERVIEW ON PERIODIC TABLE

Introduction
The periodic table, also known as the periodic table of elements, is a tabular
display of the chemical elements, which are arranged by atomic number, electron
configuration, and recurring chemical properties. The structure of the table in Fig.1
shows periodic trends. The seven rows of the table, called periods, generally have
metals on the left and nonmetals on the right. The columns, called groups, contain
elements with similar chemical behaviors. Six groups have accepted names as well
as assigned numbers: for example, group 17 elements are the halogens; and group
18 is the noble gases. Also displayed are four simple rectangular areas or blocks
associated with the filling of different atomic orbitals.
The elements from atomic numbers 1 (hydrogen) through 118 (oganesson) have
all been discovered or synthesized, completing seven full rows of the periodic
table. The first 94 elements, hydrogen through plutonium, all occur naturally,
though some are found only in trace amounts and a few were discovered in nature
only after having first been synthesized Elements 95 to 118 have only been
synthesized in laboratories, nuclear reactors, or nuclear explosions. The synthesis
of elements having higher atomic numbers is currently being pursued: these
elements would begin an eighth row, and theoretical work has been done to
suggest possible candidates for this extension. Numerous synthetic radioisotopes of
naturally occurring elements have also been produced in laboratories.
 Fig.1 periodic table

1. Development of the Periodic Table

The organization of the periodic table can be used to derive relationships
between the various element properties, and also to predict chemical properties and
behaviors of undiscovered or newly synthesized elements.

1.1 Law of Octaves

English chemist John Newlands (1837-1898), having arranged the 62 known
elements in order of increasing atomic weights, noted that after interval of eight
elements similar physical/chemical properties reappeared.  In the Law of Octaves -
elements exhibit similar behavior to the eighth element following it in the table.
Newlands was the first to formulate the concept of periodicity in the properties of
the chemical elements.

1.2.1 Problem of law of octaves

1. The positions of some pairs of elements are reversed when ordered by mass
(K and Ar).
2. Not all elements had been discovered at the time and Newlands left no
spaces for undiscovered ones.
 3. Some groups contained elements with differing properties.

1.2 Henry Moseley

Using atomic number instead of atomic mass as the organizing principle was
first proposed by the British chemist Henry Moseley in 1913 as in Fig.2 . It
explained why Mendeleev needed to change the order of some of the elements in
his table.

Fig.2 Moseley’s periodic table

1.3 Mendeleev's Periodic Table

Russian chemist Dmitri Mendeleev published the first recognizable periodic
table in 1869, developed mainly to illustrate periodic trends of the then-known
elements. He also predicted some properties of unidentified elements that were
expected to fill gaps within the table. Most of his forecasts proved to be correct.
Mendeleev's idea has been slowly expanded and refined with the discovery or
synthesis of further new elements and the development of new theoretical models
to explain chemical behaviour. The modern periodic table now provides a useful
framework for analyzing chemical reactions, and continues to be widely used in
chemistry, nuclear physics and other sciences. Mendeleev’s ordered the elements
by their relative atomic mass.
 In order to make similar elements line up in the same group:
1. He swapped the positions of certain pairs of elements (e.g. Ar and K, I
and Te).
2. He also had to leave gaps in certain places, e.g. between gallium and
arsenic
3. He predicted the properties of the missing elements and was proved
correct in each case.
Arranging the elements according to increasing atomic numbers and not atomic
masses eliminated some of the inconsistencies associated with Mendeleev's table.
The list of elements was originally conceived in order of “atomic weight”.
Mendeleev – He made the table two-dimensional rather than a list. He arranged
the elements in order of atomic weight but had the Newlands Octave elements
underneath each other.

1.3 The modern periodic table

Dmitri Mendeleev’s early periodic table was further refined in the early 20th
century in light of the discovery of protons, neutrons and electrons. This allowed
elements to be placed in appropriate groups according to atomic numbers instead
of atomic masses, which produced the periodic table we use today.
This modern periodic table as in Fig.3 lists elements according to their atomic
number, if they were arranged according to atomic mass potassium and argon
would be the wrong way round.
Elements having the same number of electrons in their outermost shell are
placed in vertical columns called groups. They have similar chemical properties.
 From left to right, across each horizontal row (period) of the periodic table, a
particular energy level is gradually filled up with electrons; in the next period, the
next energy level is filled with electrons.

Fig.3 modern periodic table

1.3.1 Columns in the table - groups
The elements in a vertical column are in the same group. The main groups are
labeled groups 1-7, with the noble gases in group 0. All elements in a group
have similar chemical properties.
The elements in a group all have the same number of electrons in their highest
occupied energy level (also referred to as the outer shell). This is why they have
similar chemical properties.
An element’s group number is the same as the number of electrons in its highest
occupied energy level (outer shell). For example, all the metals in Group 2 have 2
electrons in their highest occupied energy level (outer shell).
1.3.2 Rows in the table - periods
Elements in a horizontal row are in the same period. The periods are numbered
from top to bottom.
The period number is the same as the number of occupied energy levels
(shells). For example, magnesium is in period 3 – its atoms have three occupied
energy levels. Calcium is in period 4 – its atoms have four occupied energy levels.
Elements within different groups within the periodic table have different
physical and chemical properties. This determines the kinds of reactions these
elements have. Different groups also show different trends, in terms of reactivity,
as you move down a group. This can also determine how violently a reaction
occurs - or whether it happens at all.

1.4 Group 1 Elements

The elements in group 1 are called the alkali metals. They belong to the left-
hand column in the periodic table as in Fig. 4. They are very reactive and must be
stored in oil to avoid contact with air or water.

Fig.4 Periodic table Group 1

The alkali metals are soft, reactive metals. They react vigorously with water and
become more reactive as you go down the group.
1.4.1 Common properties
The alkali metals have the following properties in common:
 they are very soft and can be cut easily with a knife
 they have low densities (lithium, sodium and potassium will float on water)
 they react quickly with water - producing hydroxides and hydrogen gas
 their hydroxides dissolve in water to form alkaline solutions
In general:
group 1 metal + water → group 1 metal hydroxide + hydrogen
2M9(s) + 2H2O(l) → 2MOH(aq) + H2(g)
(M stands for the symbol of a Group 1 metal)

1.4.2 Physical and chemical trends in Group 1

1.4.2.1 Melting and boiling points

The alkali metals all have low melting points and boiling points compared to
other metals. The melting points and boiling points decrease as you go down the
group.
1.4.2.2 Reactivity

As you go down the group, the metals become more reactive. Lithium (at the
top) is the least reactive, while francium (which is at the bottom) is the most
reactive.
You will probably see lithium, sodium and potassium at school, but rubidium
and cesium are considered to be too reactive to use in the classroom. Francium
is radioactive and very rare - there are only a few grams of it in the whole of the
Earth's crust at any time.
1.4.2.3 Reactions

Group 1 metals react with non-metals to form ionic compounds. In these

reactions, the metal atom loses its outer electron and becomes a metal ion with a
charge of +1. The ionic compounds produced are white solids which form colorless
solutions when they dissolve.
For example, sodium reacts vigorously with chlorine as in Fig. 5:
 sodium + chlorine → sodium chloride
2Na(s) + Cl2(g) → 2NaCl(s)

Fig. 5 sodium reacts vigorously with chlorine

In the formation of sodium chloride, the electron from the highest energy level
of a sodium atom transfers to the highest energy level of a chlorine atom
Sodium burns in oxygen to form a metal oxide:
sodium + oxygen → sodium oxide
4Na(s) + O2(g) → 2Na2O(s)

1.5 The transition metals

The elements in the center of the periodic table - between groups 2 and 3 - are
called the transition elements as in Fig.6. They are all metals. They include most
of the commonly-used metals, such as iron, copper, silver and gold.
 Fig.6 transition metals

  Group 1 elements Transition elements

Melting Low High (except mercury, which is
points liquid at room temperature)

Reactivity High (react vigorously Low (do not react so vigorously

with water or oxygen) with water or oxygen)
Strength Soft or liquid so cannot Strong and hard
withstand force
Density Low High

Compounds White or colourless Coloured

Table1: Comparing the properties of the transition elements with the Group 1 elements
1.5.1 properties of transition metals with this activity:
1.5.1.1 Chemical Reactions

Most transition metals form coloured compounds.

Many transition metals act as catalysts in useful processes. For example, iron is
the catalyst used catalyst in the Haber process when Making ammonia:
 hydrogen + nitrogen   ammonia
3H2(g) + N2(g)   2NH3(g)
Many transition elements form ions with different charges. For example, iron
forms iron(II) ions, Fe2+, and iron(III) ions, Fe3+. This means that iron oxide can
exist in two forms, iron(II) oxide, FeO, and iron(III) oxide, Fe2O3.

1.6 Group 7 elements

The elements in Group 7 as in Fig. 7 are called the halogens. They belong to the
column second from the right in the periodic table.
The halogens are all toxic, but this can be a useful property. Chlorine is used
to sterilize drinking water and water in swimming pools. Iodine is used
in antiseptics to treat wounds.

Fig. 7 Periodic table Group 7

1.6.1 Common properties
The halogens have the following properties in common:
 they are non-metals
 they have low melting and low boiling points
 they are brittle when solid
 they are poor conductors of heat and electricity
 they have coloured vapours
 their molecules are diatomic (each contain two atoms) - eg chlorine, Cl2

1.6.2 Physical and Chemical trends in Group 7

1.6.2.1 Melting point and boiling point
The halogens have low melting points and low boiling points. You can see from
the Fig.8 that fluorine, at the top of Group 7, has the lowest melting point and
lowest boiling point in the group. The melting points and boiling points
then increase as you go down the group.

Fig.8 melting and boiling points of halogens

1.6.2.2 Colour

The halogens become darker as you go down the group. Fluorine is very pale
yellow, chlorine is yellow-green and bromine is red-brown. Iodine crystals are
shiny purple-black but easily turn into a dark purple vapour when they are warmed
up.
1.6.2.3 Reactivity

The halogens become less reactive as you more down the group. Fluorine (at
the top of the group) is the most reactive, while astatine (at the bottom) is the least
reactive.
1.6.2.4 Reactions

Halogens react with metals to form ionic compounds. In these reactions, the

halogen atoms each gain one electron to form ions with a charge of –1.
 C
ha
pte
r2
STATES
OF
MATTER
 CHAPTER 2
STATES OF MATTER
1. Introduction
What is your body made of? Your first thought might be that it is made up
of different organs—such as your heart, lungs, and stomach—that work
together to keep your body going. Or you might zoom in a level and say that
your body is made up of many different types of cells. However, at the most
basic level, your body—and, in fact, all of life, as well as the nonliving world
—is made up of atoms, often organized into larger structures called
molecules.
Atoms and molecules follow the rules of chemistry and physics, even
when they're part of a complex, living, breathing being. If you learned in
chemistry that some atoms tend to gain or lose electrons or form bonds with
each other, those facts remain true even when the atoms or molecules are part
of a living thing. In fact, simple interactions between atoms—played out
many times and in many different combinations, in a single cell or a larger
organism—are what make life possible. One could argue that everything you
are, including your consciousness, is the byproduct of chemical and electrical
interactions between a very, very large numbers of nonliving atoms!
2. Matter and elements
The term matter refers to anything that occupies space and has mass. All
matter is made up of substances called elements, which have specific
chemical and physical properties and cannot be broken down into other
substances through ordinary chemical reactions. Gold, for instance, is an
element, and so is carbon. There are 118 elements, but only 92 occur
naturally. The remaining elements have only been made in laboratories and
are unstable.
Each element is designated by its chemical symbol, which is a single
capital letter or, when the first letter is already “taken” by another element, a
combination of two letters. Some elements follow the English term for the
element, such as C for carbon and Ca for calcium. Other elements’ chemical
symbols come from their Latin names; for example, the symbol for sodium is
Na, which is a short form of natrium, the Latin word for sodium.
The four elements common to all living organisms are oxygen (O), carbon
(C), hydrogen (H), and nitrogen (N), which together make up about 96% of
the human body. In the nonliving world, elements are found in different
proportions, and some elements common to living organisms are relatively
rare on the earth as a whole. All elements and the chemical reactions between
them obey the same chemical and physical laws, regardless of whether they
are a part of the living or nonliving world.
 3. Structure of the atom
An atom is the smallest unit of matter that retains all of the chemical
properties of an element. For example, a gold coin is simply a very large
number of gold atoms molded into the shape of a coin, with small amounts of
other, contaminating elements. Gold atoms cannot be broken down into
anything smaller while still retaining the properties of gold. A gold atom gets
its properties from the tiny subatomic particles it's made up of.
An atom consists of two regions as in Fig.9. The first is the tiny atomic
nucleus, which is in the center of the atom and contains positively charged
particles called protons and neutral, uncharged, particles called neutrons.
The second, much larger, region of the atom is a “cloud” of electrons,
negatively charged particles that orbit around the nucleus. The attraction
between the positively charged protons and negatively charged electrons
holds the atom together. Most atoms contain all three of these types
of subatomic particles—protons, electrons, and neutrons. Hydrogen (H) is
an exception because it typically has one proton and one electron, but no
neutrons. The number of protons in the nucleus determines which element an
atom is, while the number of electrons surrounding the nucleus determines
which kind of reactions the atom will undergo. The three types of subatomic
particles are illustrated below for an atom of helium—which, by definition,
contains two protons.
 Fig.9 Structure of an atom.
The protons (positive charge) and neutrons (neutral charge) are found
together in the tiny nucleus at the center of the atom. The electrons (negative
charge) occupy a large, spherical cloud surrounding the nucleus. The atom
shown in this particular image is helium, with two protons, two neutrons, and
two electrons.
Protons and neutrons do not have the same charge, but they do have
approximately the same mass, about 1.67 × 10^{-24} grams. Since grams are
not a very convenient unit for measuring masses that tiny, scientists chose to
define an alternative measure, the atomic mass unit (amu). A single neutron
or proton has a weight very close to 1 amu. Electrons are much smaller in
mass than protons, only about 1/1800 of an atomic mass unit, so they do not
contribute much to an element’s overall atomic mass. On the other hand,
electrons do greatly affect an atom’s charge, as each electron has a negative
charge equal to the positive charge of a proton. In uncharged, neutral atoms,
the number of electrons orbiting the nucleus is equal to the number of protons
inside the nucleus. The positive and negative charges cancel out, leading to
an atom with no net charge. Protons, neutrons, and electrons are very small,
and most of the volume of an atom—greater than 99 percent—is actually
empty space. With all this empty space, you might ask why so-called solid
objects don’t just pass through one another. The answer is that the negatively
charged electron clouds of the atoms will repel each other if they get too
close together, resulting in our perception of solidity.

Example: The simplified structure of a Lithium atom is shown in Fig.9 below:

Fig.10 structure of a Lithium atom

Atoms have no overall electrical charge; however the particles contain specific
charge, listed below:

Protons --- Positive (+) charge

Neutron --- Neutral (0) no charge

Electron --- Negative (–) charge

4. Atomic structure diagram
The atomic structure is drawn as in Fig.10 with the nucleus in the center, and
electrons arranged outside in circles called energy levels or shells. The electrons
in an atom occupy the innermost available shells, i.e. the lowest available energy
levels.
The innermost shell, or the first shell, can hold only 2 electrons.
The second and third shells can hold up to 8 electrons each.

Fig.11 atomic structure

5. Atomic Number
Each atom of a specific element contains the same number of protons. For
example, all the atoms of carbon contain 6 protons in their nucleus.

The number of protons in an atom of an element is called Atomic

number.
 Each element has a unique atomic number, which is also used to arrange the
elements in the Periodic Table.

6. Atomic Mass
As we already know that nucleus of an atom contains protons and neutrons.

The number of protons and neutrons in an atom of an element is called

Atomic mass, or Mass number

Protons and neutrons have the same mass of 1 unit, while electrons are very light
and their mass can be ignored and taken as zero.

 Calculating sub-atomic particles from atomic number and mass number

We can calculate the number of sub-atomic particles (i.e. electrons, protons,

neutrons) if the atomic mass or atomic number is provided for an element.
Similarly, the atomic number and mass number can be calculated for any element
if the number of subatomic particles is known.

From the definitions of Atomic number and Atomic mass, we know that:

Atomic number = the number of protons

Mass number    = the number of protons + the number of neutrons
From these, we can deduct:

Number of neutrons = Mass number – Atomic number

Atom has no overall charge, which means that there are equal number of
negatively charged electrons and positively charged protons. If we know the
number of protons (or atomic number) of an atom, this will be equal to the number
of electrons of that atom.
Number of electrons = Number of protons
7. Isotopes
All the atoms of a particular element have the same number of protons. This
proton number or atomic number determines the chemical properties of an atom.
However, the number of neutrons may vary within the atoms of an element.

Atoms of the same element that have the same number of protons but
different number of neutrons are called isotopes of that element.

 Or in other words,

Atoms of the same element with the same atomic number but different
atomic masses are called isotopes of that element.

8. Relative Atomic mass

Different types of atoms have different masses. This mass is too small to
measure using a conventional scale; therefore we compare their masses to each
other. A carbon atom having a mass number 12, i.e. ( 12C) is taken as standard for
this comparison and its relative atomic mass is 12.
The relative atomic mass of an element compares the mass of atoms of
the element with the 12C isotope.

It is written as Ar or R.A.M.
Some of the elements exist in nature as a mixture of their isotopes in specific
proportions. The R.A.M of such elements is the average mass of the different
proportions of each isotope in the mixture.
 

9. State of matter
In physics, a state of matter is one of the distinct forms that matter takes on.
Four states of matter as in Fig.12 are observable in everyday
life: solid, liquid, gas, and plasma. Many other states are known, such as Bose–
Einstein condensates and neutron-degenerate matter, but these only occur in
extreme situations such as ultra cold or ultra dense matter. Other states, such
as quark–gluon plasmas, are believed to be possible but remain theoretical for
now.
Historically, the distinction is made based on qualitative differences in
properties. Matter in the solid state maintains a fixed volume and shape, with
component particles (atoms, molecules or ions) close together and fixed into
place. Matter in the liquid state maintains a fixed volume, but has a variable
shape that adapts to fit its container. Its particles are still close together but
move freely. Matter in the gaseous state has both variable volume and shape,
adapting both to fit its container. Its particles are neither close together nor
fixed in place. Matter in the plasma state has variable volume and shape, but as
well as neutral atoms, it contains a significant number of ions and electrons,
both of which can move around freely. Plasma is the most common form of
visible matter in the universe.

Fig.12: four fundamental states of matter.

 Clockwise from top left, they are solid, liquid, plasma, and gas, represented by
an ice sculpture, a drop of water, electrical arcing from a tesla coil, and the air
around clouds, respectively.
The term phase is sometimes used as a synonym for state of matter, but a
system can contain several immiscible phases of the same state of matter
(see Phase (matter) for more discussion of the difference between the two
terms).

9.1 Four fundamental states

9.1.1 Solid
A crystalline solid as in Fig.13: atomic resolution image of strontium titanate.
Brighter atoms are Sr and darker ones are Ti.
In a solid the particles (ions, atoms or molecules) are closely packed together.
The forces between particles are strong so that the particles cannot move freely
but can only vibrate. As a result, a solid has a stable, definite shape, and a
definite volume. Solids can only change their shape by force, as when broken or
cut.

Fig.13: crystalline solid

In crystalline solids, the particles (atoms, molecules, or ions) are packed in a
regularly ordered, repeating pattern. There are various different crystal
 structures, and the same substance can have more than one structure (or solid
phase). For example, iron has a body-centered cubic structure at temperatures
below 912 °C, and a face-centered cubic structure between 912 and
1394 °C. Ice has fifteen known crystal structures, or fifteen solid phases, which
exist at various temperatures and pressures.
Glasses and other non-crystalline, amorphous solids without long-range
order are not thermal equilibrium ground states; therefore they are described
below as nonclassical states of matter.
Solids can be transformed into liquids by melting, and liquids can be
transformed into solids by freezing. Solids can also change directly into gases
through the process ofsublimation, and gases can likewise change directly into
solids through deposition.

9.1.2 Liquid
Atoms have many nearest neighbors in contact, yet no long-range order is
present as in Fig.14.
A liquid is a nearly incompressible fluid that conforms to the shape of its
container but retains a (nearly) constant volume independent of pressure. The
volume is definite if the temperature and pressure are constant. When a solid is
heated above its melting point, it becomes liquid, given that the pressure is
higher than the triple point of the substance. Intermolecular (or interatomic or
interionic) forces are still important, but the molecules have enough energy to
move relative to each other and the structure is mobile. This means that the
shape of a liquid is not definite but is determined by its container. The volume
is usually greater than that of the corresponding solid, the best known exception
 being water, H2O. The highest temperature at which a given liquid can exist is
its critical temperature.

Fig.14: Structure of a classical monatomic liquid.

9.1.3 Gas
The spaces between gas molecules are very big. Gas molecules have very weak
or no bonds at all. The molecules in "gas" can move freely and fast.
A gas is a compressible fluid as in Fig.15. Not only will a gas conform to the
shape of its container but it will also expand to fill the container.
In a gas, the molecules have enough kinetic energy so that the effect of
intermolecular forces is small (or zero for an ideal gas), and the typical distance
between neighboring molecules is much greater than the molecular size. A gas
has no definite shape or volume, but occupies the entire container in which it is
confined. A liquid may be converted to a gas by heating at constant pressure to
the boiling point, or else by reducing the pressure at constant temperature.
At temperatures below its critical temperature, a gas is also called a vapor, and
can be liquefied by compression alone without cooling. A vapor can exist in
equilibrium with a liquid (or solid), in which case the gas pressure equals
the vapor pressure of the liquid (or solid).
 Fig.15: Structure of a classical monatomic gas
A supercritical fluid (SCF) is a gas whose temperature and pressure are above
the critical temperature and critical pressure respectively. In this state, the
distinction between liquid and gas disappears. A supercritical fluid has the
physical properties of a gas, but its high density confers solvent properties in
some cases, which leads to useful applications. For example, supercritical
carbon dioxide is used to extract caffeine in the manufacture
of decaffeinated coffee.
9.1.4 Plasma
In a plasma as in Fig.16, electrons are ripped away from their nuclei, forming
an electron "sea". This gives it the ability to conduct electricity.
Like a gas, plasma does not have definite shape or volume. Unlike gases,
plasmas are electrically conductive, produce magnetic fields and electric
currents, and respond strongly to electromagnetic forces. Positively charged
nuclei swim in a "sea" of freely-moving disassociated electrons, similar to the
way such charges exist in conductive metal. In fact it is this electron "sea" that
allows matter in the plasma state to conduct electricity.
The plasma state is often misunderstood, but it is actually quite common on
Earth, and the majority of people observe it on a regular basis without even
realizing it. Lightning, electric sparks, fluorescent lights, neon lights, plasma
televisions, some types of flame and the stars are all examples of illuminated
matter in the plasma state.

Fig.16: Structure of classical monatomic plasma

A gas is usually converted to a plasma in one of two ways, either from a huge
voltage difference between two points, or by exposing it to extremely high
temperatures.
Heating matter to high temperatures causes electrons to leave the atoms,
resulting in the presence of free electrons. At very high temperatures, such as
those present in stars, it is assumed that essentially all electrons are "free", and
that a very high-energy plasma is essentially bare nuclei swimming in a sea of
electrons.

10. Phase transitions

Fig.17 illustrates transitions between the four fundamental states of matter.
A state of matter is also characterized by phase transitions. A phase transition
indicates a change in structure and can be recognized by an abrupt change in
properties. A distinct state of matter can be defined as any set
of states distinguished from any other set of states by a phase transition. Water
can be said to have several distinct solid states. The appearance of
superconductivity is associated with a phase transition, so there
are superconductive states. Likewise, ferromagnetic states are demarcated by
phase transitions and have distinctive properties. When the change of state
occurs in stages the intermediate steps are called mesophases. Such phases have
been exploited by the introduction of liquid crystal technology. 

Fig.17: transitions between the four fundamental states of matter.

The state or phase of a given set of matter can change depending

on pressure and temperature conditions, transitioning to other phases as these
conditions change to favor their existence; for example, solid transitions to
liquid with an increase in temperature. Near absolute zero, a substance exists as
a solid. As heat is added to this substance it melts into a liquid at its melting
point, boils into a gas at its boiling point, and if heated high enough would enter
a plasma state in which the electrons are so energized that they leave their
parent atoms.
Forms of matter that are not composed of molecules and are organized by
different forces can also be considered different states of
matter. Superfluids (like Fermionic condensate) and the quark–gluon
plasma are examples.
In a chemical equation, the state of matter of the chemicals may be shown as (s)
for solid, (l) for liquid, and (g) for gas. An aqueous solution is denoted (aq).
Matter in the plasma state is seldom used (if at all) in chemical equations, so
there is no standard symbol to denote it. In the rare equations that plasma is
used in plasma is symbolized as (p).

11. High-energy states

Under extremely high pressure, ordinary matter undergoes a transition to a
series of exotic states of matter collectively known as degenerate matter. In
these conditions, the structure of matter is supported by the Pauli Exclusion
Principle. These are of great interest to astrophysicists, because these high-
pressure conditions are believed to exist inside stars that have used up
their nuclear fusion "fuel", such as the white dwarfs and neutron stars.
Electron-degenerate matter is found inside white dwarf stars. Electrons remain
bound to atoms but are able to transfer to adjacent atoms. Neutron-degenerate
matter is found in neutron. Vast gravitational pressure compresses atoms so
strongly that the electrons are forced to combine with protons via inverse beta-
decay, resulting in a super dense conglomeration of neutrons. (Normally free
neutrons outside an atomic nucleus will decay with a half-life of just under 15
minutes, but in a neutron star, as in the nucleus of an atom, other effects
stabilize the neutrons.)
 12. Very high energy states
The gravitational singularity predicted by general relativity to exist at the center
of a black hole is not a phase of matter; it is not a material object at all
(although the mass-energy of matter contributed to its creation) but rather a
property of spacetime at a location. It could be argued, of course, that all
particles are properties of spacetime at a location, leaving a half-note of
controversy on the subject.

\
 C
ha
pte
r3
SOLID
STATE
ELEMENT
S AND
COMPOU
NDS
 CHAPTER 3
SOLID STATE ELEMENTS AND COMPOUNDS