2.

LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 Introduction
The beginning of road construction could be dated to the time of Romans.With the
advancement of technology from carriages pulled by horses to vehicles with power
equivalent to 100 horses, road development had to follow suit.The construction of modern
highways did not begin until the late 19 th to 20th century.The first research dedicated to
highway engineering was initiated in the United Kingdom with the introduction of the
Transport Research Laboratory (TRL), in 1930.
Nepal is a small and among the least developed countries situated roughly in East-West
direction.Over 75% of its landmass is in hilly and mountainous ranges that spread North-
South within a small horizontal distance of 195km between 50m to over 8880 meters above
sea level and expanding about 900km from East to West. The history of road development in
Nepal is not very long. The first motorable road was constructed in the Kathmandu valley in
1924. In the 1950s the road length of the country was only 376km. Currently 18828 km
including District and Urban Roads. The Government of Nepal (GON) has been giving high
priority to the development of roads since the beginning of planned development programmes
in 1956. Linking of Kathmandu with the southern border was taken up in 1953 with Indian
assistance and was opened for traffic in 1956. The Government of China constructed the
Kathmandu Kodari (Northern Border) road in 1966. The same time, the Government of
Nepal initiated to construct the east-west highway (1028Km) with the support of bilateral and
multilateral agencies. The national highways together with the feeder roads constitute the
Strategic Road Network (SRN) of the country. The district roads together with the village
roads constitute the District Road Network. At present, the SRN consists of 15 national
highways and 51 feeder roads totaling 7917Km. The government plans to extend SRN to
9900Km by 2016. The principal agencies involved in planning stages of a project are the
Ministry of Finance and National Planning Commission.

Agencies involved in road development

1. Departments of roads
2. DoLIDAR
3. Municipalities
Historical Background of Roads in Nepal DOR
History of road in Nepal can be divided into three periods.
1. During Rana Regime or before Democracy of 2007 B.S.
2. Between 2007 B.S. to 2027 B.S.
3. After 2027 B.S. (formulation and continuation of road development strategy)
During Rana regime before Democracy of 2007 B.S. Construction and Maintenance of Roads
in Kathmandu were carried out. Towards the end of the Rana Regime, a new office named
Naya Batokaj Adda was created constructing new roads and it had begun survey for
connecting Kathmandu to Hetauda in 2007 B.S. Single lane macadam Bhimphedi-
Amlekhgunj stone/brick paved all weather road, Butwal-Bhairawaha road were constructed.
There was no blacktop road in the country. After Democracy in 2007 B.S. public works
Departments. India built, by their army engineers, the Tribhuvan Rajpath connecting
Kathmandu to Bhainse thus opening B.S. the 77Km.Hetauda-Narayangadh an all weather two
lane gravel road was taken up and completed in 2015B.S. An organization called the road
transport organization (RTO) was created with three chief engineers to plan and built a
number of north-south roads. The project did not work satisfactorily and was wound up in
2018B.S. An earth track along the length of the country was built from 2018 to 2026B.S. The
kodari highway, which connected Kathmandu to China in the north had been undertaken.
Through a unified department in 2022 B.S. The first long term road development plan was
formulated with the involvement of several Advisors in 2024B.S.

According to Institute of Transportation Engineering (ITE), transportation system can be

defined as the "Application of technology and scientific principles to the planning, functional
design, operation and management of facilities for any mode of transportation to provide the
safe, rapid, comfortable, convenient, economical and environmentally compatible movement
of people and goods".

Different mode of Transportation classified by S.K. Khanna and C.E.G. Justo in highway
engineering book 9th edition 2010 are as follows:

 Roadways or Highways
 Railways
 Waterways
 Airways

Among the above roadways is the best option for the transportation system in Nepal due to
geological, topographical and economical condition. Government mainly focuses on highway
development because it is economically feasible since its initial cost is lower in comparison
with other.
According to Nepal Road Standard NRs - 2070 roads in our country shall be classified as
follows:
 National Highway
 Feeder Roads
 District Roads
 Urban Roads
Furthermore, according to Nepal Urban Roads Standard 2071, Urban Roads are categorized
into the following broad classification:
 Path
 Sadak
  Marg
 Galli
 Padyatru Kshetra
 Cycle Lane
For assigning various geometric and technical parameters for design, roads are categorized
into classes as follows:
 Class -I
 Class - II
 Class - III
 Class - IV
Mountainous and steep terrain Plain and Rolling terrain
National Highway I,II II,III
Feeder Roads II,III III,IV
Table :1 Approximate Correlation between administrative and functional classification

2.2 Geometric Design

The geometric design of the highway deals with the dimensions and layout of visible features
of way such as alignment, sight distance and intersections. The geometric of highway should
be design to provide optimum efficiency in traffic operations with reasonable cost. The most
appropriate location,alignment, and shape of a highway are selected during the design
stage.Highway design involves the considerations of three major factors (human,vehicular,
and roadway) and how these factors interact to provide safe highway.Highway engineers who
design the geometry of highways must also consider environmental and social effects of the
design on the surrounding infrastructure. A well designed Road has to be consistent with
economy. Too liberal standards may not fit with the available resources, whereas if the
standards are too low, the cost of operation may mount up. Factors affecting the geometric
design of road.
Design speed
The design speed is the most important factors controlling the geometric design elements of
roads. The design speed is decided taking into account of the highway. Different speed
standards have been assigned depending upon the importance or class of Road.
Topography
The topography or the terrain conditions influence the geometric design of highway. The
terrain is classified based on the general slope of the country across the alignment, as plain,
rolling, mountainous and steep terrains.
Traffic Factors
The factors associated with the traffic that affects geometric design of Roads are the vehicular
characteristics and human characteristics of the Road users.
Design Hourly Volume and Capacity
The traffic flow or volume keeps fluctuating with time, from a low value during off-peak
hours to the highest value during the peak hours. It will be uneconomical to design the
roadway facilities for peak traffic flow. So reasonable value of traffic volume is decided for
the design and this is call designed hourly volume.
Environmental and other factors
The environmental factors such as aesthetics, landscaping, air pollution, noise pollution, and
other local condition should be given due consideration in the design on Road geometrics.

2.2.1 Geometric Design Standards

The design standards of various geometric parameters of a road are to be fixed in road project
as a major work. The geometry of a highway should be designed to provide optimum
efficiency in traffic operation with maximum safety at reasonable cost. While fixing the
standard of parameters, one should consider static and dynamic factors including government
plans and road policies. Without considering these policies and plans it may lead to the
obstruction in road in the future. Volume of traffic, type of traffic, probable load of traffic
can be considered as the dynamic factors whereas the other forces which may affect the life
of road as static factors can be attributed to soil properties, rock types, topography of land,
meteorological and hydrological factors, ground water and construction materials. Based on
the above stated factors, the major considerations for the fixation of standards are:
 Width of formation, carriageway and shoulder
 Dimension of side drain
 Right of way
 Camber
 Gradient
 Design speed
 Sight distance (SD, SSD, OSD etc)
 Design of horizontal and vertical curves
 Passing zone
 Super elevation
 Extra widening
 Vertical elevation
 Minimum radius of curvature
2.2.2 Geometric parameters of Road

2.2.2.1 Design Speed

The design speed is the main factor in which geometric design elements depend. The sight
distance, radius of horizontal curve (R), super elevation (e) extra widening of pavement,
length of summit and valley curve are all dependent on design speed. The design speed of
road depends on:
 Class of road
 Terrain
As per the Dolidar, the design speed based on above classification is taken 15 km per hour.

2.2.2.2 Right of way

It is the area of land acquired for the road along its alignment. The width of this acquired land
is known as land width and it depends on the importance of the road and possible future
developments.

2.2.2.3 Ground Level

The existing surface of the earth at the site is called ground level where rise and fall of the
gradient is expected.

2.2.2.4 Formation Level

The level of the ground where actually we construct the road is called formation level. Thus it
is the final level that we have to achieve.

2.2.2.5 Sight Distance

The safe and efficient operation of vehicles on roads depends, among other factors on the
road length at which an obstruction, if any becomes visible to the drivers in the direction of
travel. The following are the three sight distance situations considered in the design of a
highway:
 Stopping or absolute minimum sight distance
 Safe overtaking or passing sight distance
 Safe sight distance for entering into controlled intersection
The standards for sight distance should satisfy the following three conditions:
 Driver traveling at the design speed has sufficient sight distance or length of road
visible ahead to stop the vehicle, in case of any obstruction on the road ahead, without
collision.
 Driver traveling at the design speed should be able to safely overtake, at the
reasonable intervals, the slower vehicles without causing obstruction or hazard to
traffic of opposite direction.
 Driver entering an uncontrolled intersection has sufficient visibility to enable him to
take control of his vehicle and to avoid collision with another vehicle.
2.2.2.6 Stopping Sight Distance (SSD):
The stopping sight distance is the clear distance needed by a driver to bring his vehicle to
stop before collision. This is calculated as the sum of braking distance required by the vehicle
during perception and brake reaction time. Minimum stopping sight distances shall be as
follows:

Table 2:Minimum stopping sight distance with design speed

Design Speed (km/hr.) Minimum stopping sight distance(m)

15 15
20 20
25 25
30 30
40 45
50 60
nd
(Source: NRRS 2071,2 Revision)

2.2.2.7 Overtaking Sight Distance (OSD):

Overtaking distance is the minimum distance that should be available to the driver to
overtake another vehicle safely. Overtaking distance is the sum of distance travel by
overtaking vehicles, Overtaken vehicles and the distance travel by the vehicles comes from
opposite direction and calculated as follows:

OSD=d1+d2+d3

(Vb*t+Vb*T+2S+v*T)

Where,

Vb= Speed of overtaking vehicle, kmph

T= Reaction time of driver= 2sec

T=√(4*3.6S/A)

S= Spacing of vehicles

A= Acceleration

2.3 Horizontal Alignment:

When centerline of the road deviates from its position, the horizontal curve should be
introduced to counteract the safe and smooth movement of vehicles. Horizontal curves are
designed during field survey and are survey accordingly. The curves are designed as a
circular curve.

2.3.1 Simple circular curve

Simple circular curves are provided for smooth change in the direction of road. the basic
equation for radius of curve is
v2
R=
127 ( e +f )
R=Radius of horizontal curve, m
V=Design speed in km/h
e=super elevation provided
f=co-efficient of lateral friction

IP Δ

CL
EC
BC

Fig 1: Simple circular curve

(Source: NRRS 2071, 2nd Revision)
2.3.2 Super elevation:
It is the transverse slope provided throughout the length of horizontal curve by raising the
outer edge of road to counteract the centrifugal force acting on the vehicle.

Table 3: Minimum Radius

Design Speed(km/hr) Recommended Minimum Radius, m

(for e=10%)
15 10
20 12.5
25 20
(Source: NRRS 2071,2nd Revision)

2.3.3 Extra widening of curve

At sharp horizontal curves, it is necessary to widen the carriageway to provide safe passage
of vehicles. Widening has two components:

(i) Mechanical widening to compensate for the extra width occupied by the vehicle
on the curve due to tracing of the rear wheels.
Wm=nl2/2R
(ii) Psychological Widening for more clearance for the crossing and overtaking
operations on curves

Wp= v/9.5√R

Therefore, total widening needed at a horizontal curve, We=Wm+Wp=(nl2/2R)+

(v/9.5√R)

2.3.4 Transition Curve

Transition curve is introduced between a straight line and circular curve. The function of
transition curves are as follows:

i) To introduce gradually the centrifugal force between the tangent point and the
beginning of the circular curve, avoiding a sudden jerk on vehicle.
ii) To enable the drivers to turn the steering gradually for his own comfort and
security.
iii) To enable gradual introduction of the designed super elevation and extra widening
of the pavement at the start of the circular curve.
According to IRC standards, the length of transition curve (Ls) should be highest of the three
values given by the following equation,

Ls= 0.0215v3/CR……………………………….. (1)

Where C= 80/(75+v) in m/sec3

Ls= (eN/2) *(w+we) ………………………. (2)

Where W= pavement width

We= extra widening

Ls=v2/R………………………………. (3)

2.4 Vertical Alignment:

Till today, the vertical curve in rural road seems to be provided without proper survey for
change in grade, OSD, SSD etc. So proper survey should be done for the smooth transition of
the grade. Types of vertical curves are:

i) Summit curve

ii) Valley curve

2.4.1 Length of vertical curve

Length of vertical curve is the length of the curve in the vertical alignment. Vertical curve is
introduced where the gradient of the road change. Length of vertical curve is the function of
the stopping sight distance and overtaking sight distance. Length of vertical curve is different
for summit curve and valley curve.

Summit Curve
The summit curve is introduced when an ascending gradient meets with descending gradient
in the alignment. The maximum permissible gradient is taken as 12% and maximum average
gradient is 8 % (NRS2070). During the design, the minimum value of stopping sight distance
is considered as 50m for the design speed 40 Km/hr. according to NRS 2070.

Table 4: Length of summit curve

Case Length of summit curve (m)
For safe stopping sight distance
When the length of curve exceeds the required L=(NS2)/4.4
Sight distance(i.e. L>S)
When the length of curve exceeds the required L=2S-(4.4)/N
 Sight distance(i.e. L<S)
(Source: NRRS 2071,2ndRevision)

Valley curve
In the alignment, the valley curve is introduced when descending gradient meets with an
ascending gradient. The length of valley transition curve is designed based on the two
criteria: (i) the allowable rate of change of centrifugal acceleration (ii) the head light sight
distance, and the higher of the two values is adopted. Usually the second criterion of head
light sight distance is higher and therefore governs the design. During design, sight distance
is considered and according to NRS2070, which consist that the headlight sight distance will
be the stopping sight distance, minimum value of stopping sight distance is 50mand that the
centrifugal acceleration will be of 0.6m/sec2.
Table 5: Length of valley curve
Case Length of valley curve (m)
For safe stopping sight distance
When the length of curve exceeds the required L=(NS2)(1.5+0.035)
Sight distance(i.e. L>S)
When the length of curve exceeds the required L=2S-(1.5-0.035S)/N
Sight distance(i.e. L<S)
(Source: NRRS 2071,2ndRevision)

2.4.2 Gradient
Gradient is the slope of the road with horizontal. It is the RL difference express in 100m
horizontal length. If the gradient is maximum, it is difficult to moves the vehicles. On the
other hand, if gradient is very low then there is problem of drainage. Therefore, as mention in
Nepal Rural Road Standard 2071 the Maximum gradient of 12% and average gradient of 7%
is taken in design for Ruler Road.

Table 6 : Recommended Gradients for different terrain condition

S.No. Design Standard District Road Village Road

Hill Terai Hill Terai
1 Ruling gradient (%) 7 5 7 5
2 Limiting 10 6 10 6
gradient (%
3 Exceptional gradient (% 12 7 12 7
4 Limitation of 300 - 300 -
gradient length (m) above
average gradient of 7%
5 Maximum recovery gradient 4 - 4 -
(%) to be applied after
 gradient
in excess of 7% for a
minimum
recovery length of 150m
6 Maximum gradient at bridge 6 5 6 5
approach (%)
7 Maximum gradient on hill 0.5(max - 0.5( max -
roads( for better drainage)% 1%) 1%)
(Source: NRRS 2071,2ndRevision)

2.5 Pavement Design:

In order to provide a stable and even surface for the traffic, the roadway is provided with a
suitably design and constructed pavement surface. Pavements are of two types.

They are:

1. Flexible pavements: The pavements which have very low flexural strength and are
flexible in their structural behavior under the load are called flexible pavements. The
pavement thickness is designed that the stresses on the sub-grade soil are kept within
its bearing power and the subgrade is prevented from excessive deformation. The
Various approaches of Flexible pavement design may be classified into three broad
groups; these are:
 Empirical methods- California Bearing Ratio (CBR), Stabilometer, McLeod & Group
Index methods
 Semi Empirical or Semi Theoretical methods- Triaxial method
 Theoretical methods- Burmister method
2. Rigid pavements: The pavements which possess considerable flexural strength are
called rigid pavement. The rigid pavements are made up of cement concrete which
may be either plain. Reinforced, or pre-stressed. Usually the rigid pavement structure
consists of a cement concrete slab, below which a granular base or sub base or sub
base course may be provided. The Rigid pavements may of following types:
  Jointed Plain Concrete Pavement (JPCP)
 Jointed Reinforced Concrete Pavement (JRCP)
 Continuous Reinforced Concrete Pavement (CRCP)
 Pre stressed Concrete Pavement (PCP)

Determination of pavement thickness

The CBR value of the sub grade soil sample from the site is found out in the lab. The
appropriate design curve is chosen on the basis of no of commercial vehicles. The total
thickness of flexible pavement needed to cover the subgrade of the known CBR value is
obtained.

Thus CBR method of flexible pavement design is based on strength parameter of sub grade
soil and subsequent pavement materials.

CBR test is performed for the soil samples collected at the fields. Load vs penetration curve
is plotted for different load and penetration combinations. Thus the load for 2.5mm and 5.0
mm penetration on the soil sample is found out. CBR value is obtained as:

Load∨pressure for 2.5 mm penetration on soil sample

CBR2.5= ∗100%
Load∨pressure for 2.5 mm penetration on standard aggregate

Load∨pressure for 5.0 mm penetration on soil sample

CBR5.0= ∗100%
Load∨pressure for 5.0 mm penetration on standard aggregate

Normally CBR value of 2.5mm penetration which is higher than that of 5.0mm is reported as
the CBR value of the sample.The higher value obtained is adopted as CBR value of the
sample.The thickness of the pavement is given by any of the seven curves from the graph.The
future traffic is estimated on the basis of existing traffic and probable growth rate and it is
given by :

P=N(1+r)n+10

Where, P=future traffic per day

N= present vehicle no. per day

r=probable growth rate

n= construction project
2.6 Plan
Plan is the top view of project in a map.Plan of proposed road is plotted along the surveyed
and selected alignment in 1:2000 both in horizontal scale and vertical scale on longitudinal
profile sheet by showing details such as benchmark, chainage, drain etc. It consist of:
 North view.
 Location of IPs and BMs with references.
 Location of road centerline,formation width and right of way.

2.7 Cross Section

The cross section of road consists, the section of road along right angle to the centerline of
road. Under cross section elements, the considerations for the width of pavement, formation
and land, the surface characteristics and cross slope of pavement are included. Cross-sections
provide the data for estimating quantities of earthwork and for other purposes. The scale
selected for plotting is equal in both the axes. Cross-sections are plotted for each elements of
curve.Cross section elements consists of :
 Pavement Surface
 Cross slope or Camber
 Width of pavement or carriageway
 Kerbs
 Width of roadway or formation
 Right of way of land width
 Shoulder

Fig 2: Cross section elements of the road

Pavement Surface
The pavement surface depends on the pavement type which is decided based on the
availability of materials and funds, volume and composition of traffic, sub grade and climatic
conditions,construction facilities and cost consideration. The important surface characteristics
of the pavement are the friction, pavement unevenness, light reflecting characteristics and
drainage of surface water.

Cross slope or Camber

Cross slope or camber is the slope provided to the road surface in transverse direction to drain
off the rain water from the road surface. The required camber of a pavement depends on the
type of pavement surface and the amount of rainfall. But too steep cross slope is not desirable
because of transverse tilt of vehicles and discomfort.
Types of camber are:-
 Straight
 Parabolic
 Combined
As the road construction is of bituminous type and no any sharp bends and curves lie, 3%
both site consideration of the road.While designing, the standard value has been considered.

Table7: Recommended Camber Cross slope for different terrain condition

Camber Hill Terai Hill Terai

Carriag Earthen 5 5 5 5
Gravel 4 4 4 4
e way
Bituminous 3 3 - -
Cross
seal coat
slope
(%)
(Source: NRRS 2071,2nd Revision)

Width of Pavement or Carriageway

The pavement or carriageway width depends on the width of traffic lane and number of lanes.
The carriageway intended for one line of traffic movements may be called a traffic lane. The
lane width is determined on the basis of width of vehicle and the minimum side clearance
which may be provided for safety.In case of single lane roads it is recommended to have two
treated shoulders on either side to make a total width of 5.5m of treated surface.
Table 8: Width of Carriageways,m
Single lane road Intermediate lane Multilane pavements width
per lane
3.75 (upto 3.0 m in difficult 5.5 3.5
terrain)
(Source: NRRS 2071,2nd Revision)
Kerbs
Kerb indicates the boundary between the pavement and shoulder or sometimes islands or foot
path or kerb parking space. Kerbs provide lateral confinement and stability to the granular
base course and flexible pavements. Kerbs may be mainly divided into three groups based on
their functions:
 Low or mountable type kerb
 Semi-barrier type kerb
 Barrier type kerb

Width of Roadway or Formation

Width of the formation or roadway is the sum of widths of pavement or carriageway
including separators if any, and the shoulder excluding side drains.

Right of way
Right of way is the area of land acquired for the road along its alignment. The width of this
acquired land is known as land width and it depends on the importance of the road and
possible future development. Recommended total right of way and Building line for different
types of road are below:

Types of road Total Right of Setback distance Comment

way(m) from road land
boundary(ROW) to
building line on
either side(m)
District road 20 6 10m ROW in either
side from road center
line
Village road 15 3 7.5m ROW in either
side from road center
line
Table 9: Recommended total ROW and Building line for different types of road

(Source: NRRS 2071,2nd Revision)

Shoulder
Shoulders are strips provided along the road edge and are intended for accommodation of
stopped vehicles, serve as an emergency lane for vehicle and provide lateral support for base
and surface courses. The shoulder should be strong enough to bear the weight of a fully
loaded truck even in wet conditions.

2.8 Longitudinal Section

A section taken through the lengthwise dimension of a structure. It can also be termed as the
Side Elevation of a structure. Longitudinal sections of Roads, Canals, Bridges, etc are very
useful in determining the theoretical gradient of the proposed structure based on the existing
surface conditions.

2.9 Highway Drainage

The process of removing and controlling excess surface and sub-surface water within the
right of way can be termed as highway drainages. This includes interception and diversion of
water from the road surface and sub-grade. Highway drainage is achieved by two methods as
given below:
a) Surface Drainage
b) Sub-Surface Drainage
 Lowering of water table.
 Control of seepage flow.
 Control of capillary rise.
 Drainage of infiltration water.

2.9.1 Importance of Highway Drainage

 It maintains the bearing capacity of soil.
 It removes water from flowing or standing on the carriageway.
 It prevents from failure of pavement.
 It reduces necessity of maintenance cost.
 It provides safety travel in place of freezing temperature.
 No chances of mud pumping pavement failure.

2.9.2 Side Drains

Side drains are for the drainage of the surface water. These are provided on the both side of
the road to drain off the surface water from the Carriageway. The longitudinal slope of drain
is made parallel to the longitudinal slope of the alignment.

Surface drainage system

This deals with disposal of water from the road way due to precipitation of rain or snow on
the surface of road, flow of water from adjoining land this type of water is disposed off from
the road by cambering the road surface, slopping the shoulder and providing side drains and
disposed off safely in existing natural waterway.

2.9.3 Cross-Drainage Structure

Whenever stream has to cross the road, facility for cross drainage is to be provided. There are
numbers of cross drainage structure to be constructed in order to drain off the water from the
side drain. Depending upon the road site condition, cross drainage structures are adopted.
Pipe culverts are mostly adopted as cross drainage structure. In some places causeways are
also used.

Culvert:
A culvert is a closed conduit placed under the embankment to carry water across the
roadway. Culvert is preferred than a minor bridge because it is more hydraulically efficient
according to Nepal Road Standard 2070; bridge structure of span less than 6 m are preferred
as culverts.

Slab culverts:
A slab is placed over abutments made of masonry, sometimes called box culverts if the span
is below two meter.

Pipe culverts:
Pipe of minimum diameter 60 cm and made of steel or pre-cast RCC is used when the
discharge is low. But, pipe culverts of diameter 75 cm, 90 cm, 120 cm are available in the
market.

2.10 Retaining Structure

Retaining structure is that type of wall, which is used to resist the vertical mass of the soil.
The primary function of which is to resist the lateral thrust of a mass of earth on one side and
sometime the pressure of sub soil; water and in many cases the wall may also be required to
support vertical loads from the structure above call sub charge.
Dry rubble masonry retaining structures are provided to support the road side from being
slipped. Dry rubble wall are provided up to the retaining height 3m and greater than this
gabion retaining structure is provided. The retaining structures will be provided as per the site
condition. Three types of retaining structures are provided to support the road side from being
slipped, dry rubble wall, gabion wall & masonry wall is provided according to site condition.

2.10.1 Functional requirements of retaining wall:

Retaining walls constructed parallel to the centerline of the road must essentially possess the
following requirements:
 Strength and stability
 Durability
The retaining wall must not
 Slide
 Overturn
 Overstress the materials of which the wall are constructed
 Overstress the soils in which the wall rest

2.10.2 Types of retaining walls

 Gravity retaining wall
 Semi-gravity retaining wall
 Cantilever retaining wall
 Counter fort retaining wall
Active Earth Pressure: Lateral pressure, which tends to move or overturn the wall at all,
times and this result of the earth wedge being retained together with any hydrostatic pressure
caused by the pressure of ground water.
Passive Earth Pressure: Reactionary pressure that builds up to resist any forward movement
will compromise the soil in front and relation to counteract this movement.
Angle of repose: It is the natural slope taken by any soil and it is given in terms of the angle
to horizontal base line. Angle of repose varies from 45 to 0 degree for wet clay but for most
of soil angle is nearly about 30 degree.
Wedge of Soil: It is the mass of soil resting on the upper plane of the angle of repose.
Surcharge Load: The part of the material or load supported by a retaining wall at a level
above the top level of the wall may be by the virtue of its.

2.11 Rate Analysis

Rate analysis is the method of determining the rate of an item considering the cost of
quantities of materials, cost of labourers, hire of tools and plants, supervision charges or
overhead charges, contractor’s profit, etc.Analysis gives clear picture of the various types of
labours and materials required for completing the particular work as well as settles the
disputes between contractor and client about the item not included in original estimate.
The rate analysis is done on the basis of the prevailing district rates of Fiscal Year 2074/075
and the standard norms of Department of Road (DoR). Entire transportation cost by Truck
and Tractor and collection of construction materials, leading distances are calculated in detail.

2.12 Cost Estimation:

Estimating is the most important of the practical aspects of construction management. The
quantity of different construction material can be determined. The costs are estimated in the
basis of rate analysis and norms available. There is several method of estimation, but for
more accuracy we would apply detailed estimate method.

In this method the material required for unit length of road is calculated with the help
prepared map of cross section of road and then multiplied by the total length of the road.