LECTURE NOTE

COURSE CODE- CEng 3201

HIGHWAYE ENGINEERING-FOR COTM
 SYLLABUS

Chapter-1

Introduction road planning & design, historical perspective, purpose of roads and
route Selection
.

Chapter 2

Consideration in geometric design of roads, functional classification

, design controls and elements

Chapter -3

Geometric design of road alignments, horizontal alignments and vertical alignments, road safety
designs, superelevation, sight distance and road widening

Chapter -4

Earth work quantity, computation of areas & volumes-Prismoidal & Trapezoidal methods and
mass haul diagram

Chapter -5
Introduction of drainage design and bridge

Books for Reference:

Perniciples & Practice of Highway Engineering – By Dr. L.R. Kadiyalli (Khanna publisher)
 CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

HIGHWAY DEVELOPMENT AND PLANNING

1.1 Overview
Road network provides the arterial network to facilitate trade, transport, social
integration and economic development. It facilitates specialization, extension of
markets and exploitation of economies of scale. It is used for the smooth conveyance
of both people and goods. Transportation by road has the advantage over other means
of transport because of its easy accessibility, flexibility of operations, door-to-door
service and reliability.

1.2 History of highway engineering

The history of highway engineering gives us an idea about the roads of ancient times.
Roads in Rome were constructed in a large scale and it radiated in many directions
helping them in military operations. Thus they are considered to be pioneers in road
construction. In this section we will see in detail about Ancient roads, Roman roads,
British roads, French roads etc.

1.2.1 Ancient Roads

The most primitive mode of transport was by foot. These human pathways would
have been developed for specific purposes leading to camp sites, food, streams for
drinking water etc. The invention of wheel in Mesopotamian civilization led to the
development of animal drawn vehicles. To provide adequate strength to carry the
wheels, the new ways tended to follow the sunny drier side of a path. After the
invention of wheel, animal drawn vehicles were developed and the need for hard
surface road emerged. Traces of such hard roads were obtained from various ancient
civilization dated as old as 3500 BC. The earliest authentic record of road was found
from Assyrian empire constructed about 1900 BC.

1.2.2 Roman roads

The earliest large scale road construction is attributed to Romans who constructed
an extensive system of roads radiating in many directions from Rome. Romans
recognized that the fundamentals of good road construction were to provide good
drainage, good material and good workmanship. Their roads were very durable, and
some still exist. The roads were bordered on both sides by longitudinal drains. A
typical cross section is shown in Fig.1.1. This was a raised formation up to a 1-meter-
high and 15 m wide and was constructed with materials excavated during the side
drain construction. This was then topped with a sand leveling course. In the case of
heavy traffic, a surface course of large 250 mm thick hexagonal ag stones were
provided They mixed lime and volcanic puzzling to make mortar and they added
gravel to this mortar to make concrete. Thus concrete was a major Roman road
making innovation.

Fig.1.1 Roman roads

1.2.3 French roads

The significant contributions were given by Tresaguet in 1764 and a typical cross
section of this road is given in Figure 1.2. He developed a cheaper method of
construction than the lavish and locally unsuccessful revival of Roman practice. The
pavement used 200 mm pieces of quarried stone of a more compact form and shaped
such that they had at least one at side which was placed on a compact formation.
Smaller pieces of broken stones were then compacted into the spaces between larger
stones to provide a level surface. Finally, the running layer was made with a layer of
25 mm sized broken stone. All this structure was placed in a trench in order to keep
the running surface level with the surrounding country side. This created major
drainage problems which were counteracted by making the surface as impervious as
possible, cambering the surface and providing deep side ditches.
 Fig. 1.2. French roads

1.2.4 British roads

The British government also gave importance to road construction. The British
engineer John Macadam introduced what can be considered as the first scientific road
construction method. Stone size was an important element of Macadam recipe. By
empirical observation of many roads, he came to realize that 250 mm layers of well
compacted broken angular stone would provide the same strength a better running
surface than an expensive pavement founded on large stone blocks. Thus he
introduced an economical method of road construction. A typical cross section of
British roads is given in Fig. 1.3.

Fig. 1.3. British roads

1.2.5 Modern roads

The modern roads by and large follow Macadam's construction method. Use of
bituminous concrete and cement concrete are the most important developments.
Development of new equipment helps in the faster construction of roads. Many
easily and locally available materials are tested in the laboratories and then
implemented on roads for making economical and durable pavements.
1.6 Current Scenario
About 60 per cent of freight and 87 per cent passenger traffic is carried by road.
Although National Highways constitute only about 2 per cent of the road network, it
carries 40 per cent of the total road traffic. Easy availability, adaptability to individual
needs and cost savings are some of the factors which go in favor of road transport.
Road transport also acts as a feeder service to railway, shipping and air traffic. The
number of vehicles has been growing at an average pace of around 10 per cent per
annum. The share of road traffic in total traffic has grown from 13.8 per cent of
freight traffic and 15.4 per cent of passenger traffic in 1950-51 to an estimated 62.9
per cent of freight traffic and 90.2 per cent of passenger traffic by the end of 2009-
10. The rapid expansion and strengthening of the road network, therefore, is
imperative, to provide for both present and future traffic and for improved
accessibility to the hinterland.

HIGHWAY PLANNING
1.7 Overview
Highway design is only one element in the overall highway development process.
Historically, detailed design occurs in the middle of the process, linking the preceding
phases of planning and project development with the subsequent phases of right-of-
way acquisition, construction, and maintenance. It is during the first three stages,
planning, project development, and design, that designers and communities, working
together, can have the greatest impact on the final design features of the project. In
fact, the flexibility available for highway design during the detailed design phase is
limited a great deal by the decisions made at the earlier stages of planning and project
development.

1.7.1 The Stages of Highway Development

Although the names may vary by State, the five basic stages in the highway
development process are: planning, project development (preliminary design), final
design, right of way, and construction. After construction is completed, ongoing
operation and maintenance activities continue throughout the life of the facility.
 Fig.1.4 Process of Highway Planning

 Planning
The initial definition of the need for any highway or bridge improvement project
takes place during the planning stage. This problem definition occurs at the State,
regional, or local level, depending on the scale of the proposed improvement. This
is the key time to get the public involved and provide input into the decision making
process. The problems identified usually fall into one or more of the following four
categories:
1. The existing physical structure needs major repair/replacement (structure
repair).
2. Existing or projected future travel demands exceed available capacity, and
access to transportation and mobility need to be increased (capacity).
3. The route is experiencing an inordinate number of safety and accident problems
that can only be resolved through physical, geometric changes (safety).
4. Developmental pressures along the route make a reexamination of the number,
location, and physical design of access points necessary (access).

Factors to Consider During Planning

It is important to look ahead during the planning stage and consider the potential
impact that a proposed facility or improvement may have while the project is still in
the conceptual phase. During planning, key decisions are made that will affect and
limit the design options in subsequent phases.
 Fig. 1.5 Factors to consider in planning.

Project Development
After a project has been planned and programmed for implementation, it moves into
the project development phase. At this stage, the environmental analysis intensifies.
The level of environmental review varies widely, depending on the scale and impact
of the project. It can range from a multiyear effort to prepare an Environmental
Impact Statement (a comprehensive document that analyzes the potential impact of
proposed alternatives) to a modest environmental review completed in a matter of
weeks. Regardless of the level of detail or duration, the product of the project
development process generally includes a description of the location and major
design features of the recommended project that is to be further designed and
constructed, while continually trying to avoid, minimize, and mitigate
environmental impact.
Final Design
After a preferred alternative has been selected and the project description agreed
upon as stated in the environmental document, a project can move into the final
design stage. The product of this stage is a complete set of plans, specifications,
and estimates (PS&Es) of required quantities of materials ready for the solicitation
of construction bids and subsequent construction. Depending on the scale and
complexity of the project, the final design process may take from a few months to
several years.
The following paragraphs discuss some important considerations of design,
including:
• Developing a concept
• Considering scale and
• Detailing the design.

Developing a Concept

A design concept gives the project a focus and helps to move it toward a specific
direction. There are many elements in a highway, and each involves a number of
separate but interrelated design decisions. Integrating all these elements to achieve
a common goal or concept helps the designer in making design decisions.

Some of the many elements of highway design are

a. Number and width of travel lanes, median type and width, and
shoulders
b. Traffic barriers
c. Overpasses/bridges
d. Horizontal and vertical alignment and affiliated landscape.
Considering Scale

People driving in a car see the world at a much different scale than people walking
on the street. This large discrepancy in the design scale for a car versus the design
scale for people has changed the overall planning of our communities. For example,
it has become common in many suburban commercial areas that a shopper must get
in the car and drive from one store to the next.
The design element with the greatest effect on the scale of the roadway is its width,
or cross section. The cross section can include a clear zone, shoulder, parking lanes,
travel lanes, and/or median. The wider the overall roadway, the larger its scale;
however, there are some design techniques that can help to reduce the perceived
width and, thus, the perceived scale of the roadway. Limiting the width of pavement
or breaking up the pavement is one option.
In some instances, four lane roadways may look less imposing by designing a grass
or planted median in the center.
 Detailing the Design

Particularly during the final design phase, it is the details associated with the project
that are important. Employing a multidisciplinary design team ensures that
important design details are considered and those they are compatible with
community values. Often it is the details of the project that are most recognizable
to the public. A multidisciplinary design team can produce an aesthetic and
functional product when the members work together and are flexible in applying
guidelines.
Right-of-way, Construction, And Maintenance

Once the final designs have been prepared and needed right-of-way is purchased,
construction bid packages are made available, a contractor is selected, and
construction is initiated. During the right-of-way acquisition and construction
stages, minor adjustments in the design may be necessary; therefore, there should
be continuous involvement of the design team throughout these stages.
Construction may be simple or complex and may require a few months to several
years. Once construction has been completed, the facility is ready to begin its
normal sequence of operations and maintenance.
Even after the completion of construction, the character of a road can be changed
by inappropriate maintenance actions. For example, the replacement of sections
of guardrail damaged or destroyed in crashes commonly utilizes whatever spare
guardrail sections may be available to the local highway maintenance personnel at
the time
 Stages of Highway Development
Summaries of the five basic stages in highway planning and development.

Stages Description of Activity

Planning Identification of transportation needs and program project to be
built Within financial constraints.

Project The transportation project is more clearly defined. Alternative

Development locations and design features are developed and an alternative
is selected.
Design The design team develops detailed design and specification.
Right-of-way Land needed for the project is acquired.
construction Selection of contractor, who then builds the project.

1.8 Highway alignment

The position or the layout of the central line of the highway on the ground is called
the alignment.

 Horizontal alignment includes straight and curved paths.

 Vertical alignment includes level and gradients.

Bad alignment results in:

Alignment decision is important because a bad alignment will enhance the
construction, maintenance and vehicle operating cost. Once an alignment is fixed
and constructed, it is not easy to change it due to increase in cost of adjoining
land and construction of costly structures by the roadside.

Requirements for an alignment

 The alignment between two terminal stations should be short

and as far as possible be straight, but due to some practical
considerations deviations may be needed.
 The alignment should be easy to construct and maintain. It
should be easy for the operation of vehicles. So to the maximum
extend easy gradients and curves should be provided.
 It should be safe both from the construction and operating point
of view especially at slopes, embankments, and cutting. It should
have safe geometric features.
  The alignment should be economical and it can be considered so
only when the initial cost, maintenance cost, and operating cost is
minimum

1. Obligatory points these are the control points governing the highway
alignment.
These points are classified into two categories. Points through which it should pass
and points through which it should not pass. Some of the examples are:

 Bridge site: The bridge can be located only where the river has straight and
permanent path and also where the abutment and pier can be strongly founded.
The road approach to the bridge should not be curved and skew crossing
should be avoided as possible. Thus to locate a bridge the highway alignment
may be changed.

 Mountain: While the alignment passes through a mountain, the various

alternatives are to either Construct a tunnel or to go round the hills. The
suitability of the alternative depends on factors like topography, site
conditions and construction and operation cost.
 Intermediate town: The alignment may be slightly deviated to
connect an intermediate town or village nearby. These were some of
the obligatory points through which the alignment should pass.

Coming to the second category, that is the points through which the
alignment should not pass are:

Religious places: These have been protected by the law from being
acquired for any purpose. Therefore, these points should be avoided
while aligning.

Very costly structures: Acquiring such structures means heavy

compensation which would result in an increase in initial cost. So
the alignment may be deviated not to pass through that point.

Lakes/ponds etc.: The presence of a lake or pond on the alignment path

would also necessitate deviation of the alignment.

2.Traffic: The alignment should suit the traffic requirements. Based on the
origin destination data of the area, the desire lines should be drawn.
The new alignment should be drawn keeping in view the desire lines,
traffic flow pattern etc.

3.Geometric design: Geometric design factors such as gradient, radius of

curve, sight distance etc. also governs the alignment of the highway.
To keep the radius of curve minimum, it may be required to change
the alignment of the highway. The alignments should be finalized such
that the obstructions to visibility do not restrict the minimum
requirements of sight distance. The design standards vary with the
class of road and the terrain and accordingly the highway should be
aligned.

4.Economy: The alignment finalized should be economical. All the three

costs i.e. construction, maintenance, and operating cost should be
minimum. The construction cost can be decreased much if it is possible
to maintain a balance between cutting and filling. Also try to avoid
very high embankments and very deep cuttings as the construction cost
will be very higher in these cases.
5.Other considerations: Various other factors that govern the alignment
are drainage considerations, political factors and monotony.
ENGINEERING SURVEY

Map study: In most areas of the world, medium- and small-scale maps
either have not yet been produced, or are outdated and inaccurate. The
ability to extract a wide variety of information, and to locate features at
1: 25,000 scale without ground control, provides an unprecedented
opportunity to produce accurate, relatively inexpensive maps of entire
countries, including areas previously inaccessible due to terrain.
Frequent satellite coverage offered by Digital Globe can make such
areas easily accessible and inexpensive to update.

Reconnaissance
A reconnaissance survey is defined as “an examination of all or part of
an area accomplished in sufficient detail to make generalizations about
the types and distributions of historic properties that may be present”
within a given project area. Reconnaissance surveys represent a type of
field survey that is often used to gather initial information regarding the
presence or absence of historic properties within a project area.
Reconnaissance surveys generally include limited shovel testing in areas
that are likely to contain archaeological resources.
 Preliminary survey and Final location of alignment

The main objective of the preliminary survey is:

 To survey the various alternate alignments proposed after the

reconnaissance and to collect all the necessary physical information
and details of topography, drainage and soil

 To compare the different proposals in view of the

requirements of a good alignment

 To estimate quantity of earthwork material and other

construction aspects and to work out the cost of alternate proposals

 To finalize the best alignment from all considerations

The alignment finalized at the design office after the preliminary survey
is to be first located on the field by establishing the centerline. The
detailed survey is to be carried out for collecting the information
necessary for the preparation of plans and construction details for
highway project.
EXAMPLE
 CHAPTER TWO

INTRODUCTION TO GEOMETRIC DESIGN

2.1. Overview
Geometric design for transportation facilities includes the design of geometric cross
sections, horizontal alignment, vertical alignment, intersections, and various design
details. These basic elements are common to all linear facilities, such as roadways,
railways, and airport runways and taxiways. Although the details of design standards
vary with the mode and the class of facility, most of the issues involved in geometric
design are similar for all modes. In all cases, the goals of geometric design are to
maximize the comfort, safety, and economy of facilities, while minimizing them
environ-mental impacts. This chapter focuses on the fundamentals of geometric
design, and presents standards and examples from different modes.

The geometric design of highways deals with the dimensions and layout of visible
features of the highway. The features normally considered are the cross section
elements, sight distance consideration, horizontal curvature, gradients, and
intersection.

Geometric design is the process whereby the layout of the road in the terrain is
designed to meet the needs of the road users.
o The main feature considered in geometric design includes:
 Cross-section
 Sight distance
 Horizontal alignment
 Vertical alignment.
 Intersection etc…
A good geometric design is the one with maximum safety and optimum
vehicle and construction cost
2.2Deign control and criteria
 Functional classification
 Design hourly traffic volume and vehicle mix
 Design speed
 Design vehicle
 Cross section of the highway, such as lanes, shoulders, and medians
  Presence of heavy vehicles on steep grades
 Topography of the area that the highway traverses
 Level of service
 Available funds
 Safety
 Social and environmental factors

A FUNCTIONAL CLASFICATION

Road can be classified in many ways for instance

1 traffic volume
2 surface condition
3 level of service, etc…

However, classification based on the speed and accessibility is the most generic one.
Mobility and accessibility are the two most important element of highway efficiency
however; they are inversely related

The first step in the design process is to define the function that the facility is to serve.
The level of service required to fulfill this function for the anticipated volume and
composition of traffic provides a rational and cost-effective basis for the selection of
design speed and geometric criteria within the range of values available to the
designer (for the specified functional classification).
The use of functional classification as a design type should appropriately integrate
the highway planning and design process.
 Design Speed Horizontal/Vertical
Alignment
Functional
Classification

Cross Section

Road functional classification (ERA)

 Trunk Roads (Class I)

Centers of international importance and roads terminating at
international boundaries are linked with Addis Ababa by trunk roads.
 II. Link Roads (Class II)
Centres of national or international importance, such as principal towns
and urban centres, must be linked between each other by link roads
 III. Main Access Roads (Class III)
Centres of provincial importance must be linked between each other by
main access roads
 IV. Collector Roads (Class IV)
Roads linking locally important centres to each other, to a more
important centre, or to higher class roads must be linked by a collector
road.
 V. Feeder Roads (Class V)
Any road link to a minor centre such as market and local locations is
served by feeder road
 Design standard, AADT and road function

B.Design Hourly Volume and Capacity: The general unit for measuring traffic
on highway is the Annual Average Daily Traffic volume, abbreviated as AADT. The
traffic flow (or) volume keeps fluctuating with time, from a low value during off peak
hours to the highest value during the peak hour. It will be uneconomical to design the
roadway facilities for the peak traffic flow.
C. Environmental and other factors: - The environmental factors like air pollution,
noise pollution, landscaping, aesthetics and other global conditions should be given
due considerations in the geometric design of roads.

D. Terrain Classification

 The geometric design elements of a road depend on the transverse

terrain through which the road passes.
 FLAT: slope from 0 – 5%
 ROLLING: slope from 5% - 25%
 MOUNTAINOUS: slope from 25% - 50%
 ESCARPMENT: slope in excess of 50%

E. Design speed
 is used as an index which links road function, traffic flow and terrain to
the design parameters of sight distance and curvature
 design elements such as lane and shoulder widths, horizontal radius,
superelevation, sight distance and gradient are directly related to, and
vary, with design speed.

Design speed standard I (source from ERA manual)

F. Design vehicle
 Vehicle characteristics and dimensions affecting design include power to
weight ratio, minimum turning radius and travel path during a turn, and
vehicle height and width.
 The road elements affected include the selection of maximum gradient,
lane width, horizontal curve widening, and junction design.
Some class of road depend on accessibility and mobility are defined below

 Freeways: Freeways are access controlled divided highways. Most

freeways are four lanes, two lanes each direction, but many freeways widen
to incorporate more lanes as they enter urban areas. Access is controlled
through the use of interchanges, and the type of interchange depends upon the
kind of intersecting road way (rural roads, another freeway etc.)

 Expressways: They are superior type of highways and are designed for high

speeds, high traffic volume and safety.

 Highways: They represent the superior type of roads in the country.

Highways are of two types - rural highways and urban highways. Rural
highways are those passing through rural areas (villages) and urban highways
are those passing through large cities and towns, i.e. urban areas.

 Arterials: It is a general term denoting a street primarily meant for through

traffic usually on a continuous route. They are generally divided highways
with fully or partially controlled access. Parking, loading and unloading
activities are usually restricted and regulated. Pedestrians are allowed to cross
only at intersections/designated pedestrian crossings.

 Local streets: A local street is the one which is primarily intended for access

to residence, business or abutting property. It does not normally carry large

volume of traffic and also it allows unrestricted parking and pedestrian
movements.

 Collectors streets: These are streets intended for collecting and distributing

traffic to and from local streets and also for providing access to arterial streets.
Normally full access is provided on these streets. There are few parking
restrictions except during peak hours.
 Fig.2.1. Speed vs accessibility
Roads can be classified based on some other criteria. They are given in detail below.

Based on usage

This classified is based on whether the roads can be used during seasons of the year.

 All-weather roads: Those roads which are negotiable during all

weathers, except at major river crossings where interruption of track is
permissible up to a certain extent are called all weather roads.
 Fair-weather roads: Roads which are negotiable only during fair weather
are called fair weather roads.

Based on carriage way

This classification is based on the type of the carriage way or the road pavement.

 Paved roads with hard surface: If they are provided with a hard pavement
course such roads are called paved roads. (eg: stones, Water bound
macadam (WBM), Bituminous macadam (BM), concrete roads)

 Unpaved roads: Roads which are not provided with a hard course of at
least a WBM layer they is called unpaved roads. Thus earth and gravel
roads come under this category.
Based on pavement surface

Based on the type of pavement surfacing provided, they are classified as surfaced and
unsurfaced roads.
 Surfaced roads (BM, concrete): Roads which are provided with a
bituminous or cement concreting surface are called surfaced roads.
 Unsurfaced roads (soil/gravel): Roads which are not provided with a
bituminous or cement concreting surface are called unsurfaced roads.
Other criteria
Roads may also be classified based on the traffic volume in that road, load transported
through that road, or location and function of that road.
 Traffic volume: Based on the traffic volume, they are classified as heavy,
medium and light track roads. These terms are relative and so the limits
under each class may be expressed as vehicles per day.

 Load transported: Based on the load carried by these roads, they can be
classified as class I, class II, etc. or class A, class B etc. and the limits
may be expressed as tone per day.
 Location and function: The classification based on location and function
should be a more acceptable classification since they may be defined
clearly.

Cross sectional elements

Overview
Highway cross sections consist of traveled way, shoulders (or parking lanes), and
drainage channels. Shoulders are intended primarily as a safety feature. They
provide for accommodation of stopped vehicles, emergency use, and lateral support
of the pavement. Shoulders may be either paved or unpaved. Drainage channels may
consist of ditches (usually grassed swales) or of paved shoulders with berms or curbs
and gutter. Cross section of various roads are given bellow.
Fig.2.2. Two-lane highway cross section, with ditches.
 CHAPTER TREE
Geometric design of highway
Some major elements of road geometry
 Horizontal alignment,
 Vertical alignment,
 Sight distances
Horizontal Alignment
Horizontal alignment is one of the most important features influencing the
efficiency and safety of a highway. The horizontal curve design elements include
design of super elevation, extra widening at horizontal curves, design of transition
curve, and set back distance.
• It concerns with the design of the road section as it is seen from bird’s eye view –
a straight section or a road bend.

Horizontal Alignment consists of:

-Straight lines
-Curve:-
 Simple circular curves
 Compound Curves
 Reverse Curves
 Transitional Spirals
Straight section
 They provide better visibility and more passing opportunities
 However, long tangent sections increase the danger from headlight
glare and usually lead to excessive speeding.
 In hot climate areas, long tangents have been shown to increase driver
fatigue and hence cause accidents.
The circular curve

 There is centrifugal force on the vehicle

 This is balanced by super-elevation and friction between the tyre and
the road
 For particular design speed, the minimum radius of the curve is
determined below
 2
(mV /R)cos = mgsin + Nf
2
R = V /127(e+f)
where Vd =is the deisgn speed
e =super elevation in%
f =friction ceofficient
 Lecture note

Elements of simple circular curve

∆=deflection angle
L=Length of Curve
C=Chord Length
R=Radius of
Curvature
M=Middle Ordinate
E=External Distance
T=Length of Tangent

P.I.=Point of
Intersection
TC=Tangent to Circle
CT=Circle to Tangent
 Degree of curvature

Arc Definition
20 2R
 D
1145.92
20m
D 360 R

R
R
Chord Definition D
D = 10 / Sin (R/2)

20m

D
 Lecture note

SIMPLE CIRCULAR CRVE ELEMENT

EXAMPLE 1

THE POINT OF INTERSECTION (P.I.) OF TWO TANGENT LINES IS

STATION 15+20. THE RADIUS OF CURVATURE IS 275 M, AND THE
ANGLE OF DEFLECTION IS 52O. FIND THE LENGTH OF THE CURVE, THE
STATION FOR THE P.C. AND P.T., AND ALL OTHER RELEVANT
CHARACTERISTICS OF THE CURVE (L.C., M, E).
Solution
 Lecture note

Exercise
A curve has a deflection angle of Δ = 230 18’02’’, and a radius of 1432.6
m. The point of intersection (PI) is 5+053.87. Calculate the tangent
distance T, external distance E, curve length L, point of curvature PC, and
point of tangent PT.
SUPERELEVATION RATE (E)
• Is the raising of the outer edge of the road along a curve in-order to
counteract the effect of radial centrifugal force in combination with the
friction between the surface and tyres developed in the lateral direction.
• Maximum value is controlled by:
– Climatic conditions: frequency & amount of snow/icing
– Terrain condition: flat vs. mountainous
– Area type: rural vs. urban
– Frequency of very slow moving vehicles
• 0.1m/m is a logical maximum super-elevation
• Minimum super-elevation rate is determined by drainage requirements
• UK emax: 0.07 (rural) & 0.05 (urban)

Application of superelevation
Is done in two stages:
1. Neutralizing the camber of the road gradually, bringing it in to a
straight line slope
2. Increasing the slope gradually until design super-elevation is
attained

WIDENING OF HIGHWAY CURVES

Need :
- Rear wheels don’t follow front wheels,
-Trailers fitted on trucks, don’t follow path of trucks wheels
- To have adequate sight-distances
-Drivers tend to keep greater clearances with vehicles coming from the
opposite direction and might thus move out of a lane when traversing a
curve
Amount of extra widening
Let
R1=radius of inner rear-wheel on a curved truck (m)
R2=radius of outer front-wheel (m)
B=width of vehicle
f=widening (m)
 Lecture note

L=length of the vehicle

R1  B  R2  L2  R2  f
2

R2  L2  R2  f
2

 R2  L2  R2  f   R2  2 R2 f  f 2
2 2 2

2 2
 L2  f (2 R2  f )  f  L L
L
R2 2 R2  f 2 R2
B R1
f

EMPIRICALFORMULAS
FOR AMT. OF WIDENING
SIGHT DISTANCE
Overview
• Sight Distance is the distance visible to the driver of a vehicle ahead of
him
• Stopping sight distance
• Passing sight distance
• For highway safety, the designer must provide sight distances of
sufficient length so that drivers can control the operation of their
vehicles. They must be able to avoid striking an unexpected object on
the traveled way.
• Two-lane highways should also have sufficient sight distance to enable
drivers to occupy the opposing traffic lane for passing maneuvers,
without risk of accident.
• Two-lane rural highways should generally provide such passing sight
distance at frequent intervals and for substantial portions of their length.
.

Stopping sigh distance

 A vehicle travelling at the design speed to stop before reaching a
stationary object in its path.


where
 d is distance in meters
 t driver’s reaction time (=2.5 sec)
 V is initial speed (in Km/h)
 f is coefficient of friction b/n the tyre and road
Control of sight distance
 Sight distances should be checked during design, and adjustments made
to meet the minimum requirements.
Driver's eye height: 1.07 meters
Object height for stopping sight distance: 0.15 meters
 Lecture note

Object height for passing sight distance: 1.30 meters

Table 3.1 control of sight distance (source ERA manual)

Passing Sight Distance (PSD)

 This is the minimum sight distance on two-way single roadway roads

that must be available to enable the driver of one vehicle to pass another
vehicle safely without interfering with the speed of an oncoming vehicle
travelling at the design speed.

Where D=passing sight distance

d1 = initial maneuver distance, including a time for perception and reaction

d2 = distance during which passing vehicle is in the opposing lane
d3 = clearance distance between vehicles at the end of the manoeuvre
d4 = distance traversed by the opposing vehicle
 where
t1 = time of initial manoeuvre, s
a = average acceleration, km/h/s
v = average speed of passing vehicle, km/h
m = difference in speed of passed vehicle and passing vehicle, km/h

where
t2 = time passing vehicle occupies left lane, s
v = average speed of passing vehicle, km/h
d3 = clearnace distance taken from table below

d4 = distance traversed by the opposing vehicle, which is approximately equal to d2 less the portion
of d2 whereby the passing vehicle is entering the left lane, estimated at:

Vertical alignment
 Consists of straight sections of the highway known as grades, or tangents,
connected by vertical curves.
 The design involves the selection of suitable GRADES for the tangent
sections and the design of the VERTICAL CURVES.
 The topography of the area through which the road traverses has a significant
impact on the design of the vertical alignment
 Lecture note

Vertical curve
The parabolic curve is used almost exclusively in connecting profile grade
tangents. The primary reason for the use of this type of curve in vertical
highway alignments is the convenient manner in which the vertical offsets can
be computed and the smooth transitions created from tangent to curve and
then back to tangent.

Vertical curve consists of:

 Crest vertical curves – the entry tangent grade is greater than the exit tangent
grade
 Sag vertical curves - the entry tangent grade is lower than the exit tangent
grade.

 The grades are expressed in [m/m]. Let the difference in grades be (A =

G2 - G1)
 The difference in grades is positive for sag curves and negative for crest
curves
Elements of Vertical Curves
VPC - Point of vertical curvature; the place where the curve begins .

VPI - Point of vertical intersection; where the grade tangents intersect.

PVT - Point of vertical tangency;

where the curve ends.

G1: grade of back tangent

G2: grade of forward tangent

X: Horizontal distance from PVC to

point on curve

Y: tangent offset :

R: Rate of change of grade

PROPERTIES OF A PARABOLA

The geometric curve used in vertical curve alignment design is the vertical axis
parabola .The parabola has the desirable characterstics of
 Lecture note

1 A constant rate of change of slope ,which contributes to

smooth alignment transtion.
2 Ease of comptition of vertical offset which permits easily
computed vertical elevation
The general equation of parabola is given by :

Y=ax2+bx+c

b=G

The slope of this curve at any point is given by the first

derivative
dy/dx=2ax+b
The rate change of slope is given by the second derivative ,

d2y/dx2=2a is constant

2a also writen as A/L

Lecture note
Lecture note
 Lecture note

Example
 Lecture note

Exresise

A vertical curve of 300m is designed to connect a grade of +4% to a grade of -5%.

The PVI. is located at station 15+55 and has a known elevation of 150m. Find the
following:

(a) the station of the PVC. and the PVT.

(b) the elevation of the PVC. and the PVT.

(c) the location and elevation of the high point on the curve.
 CHAPTER FOUR
EARTH WORK AND MASS HAUL DIAGRAM
Earthwork is excavation of material from cutting and/or construction of
embankments which is required to convert right of way from natural condition and
configuration to a level that is ready for pavement works as prescribed in the design
of the road

Key terms and definitions associated with this process include:

Borrow - material not obtained from roadway excavation but secured by widening
cuts, flattening back slopes, excavating from sources adjacent to the road within the
right-of-way, or from selected borrow pits as may be noted on the plans

Waste - material excavated from roadway cuts but not required for making the
embankment

Free Haul - the maximum distance through which excavated material may be
transported without the added cost above the unit bid price

Overhaul - excavated material transported to a distance beyond the free haul

distance
Economic Limit of Haul - distance through which it is more economical to haul
excavated material than to waste and borrow The careful attentions to limiting
earthwork quantities through the preparation of a mass haul diagram are essential
elements in providing the best-combined horizontal, vertical, and cross-sectional
design

Earth work includes:

• Clearing
• Grubbing - clear off roots
• Excavation of drainage channels & trenches
• Excavation of structures
• Borrows
• Haul & Overhaul
• Grading
• Preparation of Side Slopes
• Reconditioning of roadway
 Earthwork quantity
3
• Quantity and Cost are calculated in m either in its original form or by
allowing for shrinkage and swell
• The rate of payment generally includes full compensation for
excavation, formation of embankment, preparing of side slopes,
disposal or borrowing with in the free-haul distance, and the preparation
and completion of the subgrade and the shoulders
• For borrowing or disposal involving more than the free haul distance

Classification of excavated material

Usually the classification is into three categories:

1. Solid Rock: hard rock and boulders; Volume > 1m3; best removed
by blasting
2. Loose Rock: detached masses or rock – 0.025<V<1m3; could easily
be removed
3. Common/Ordinary Excavation: all others

Shrinkage & Swell Factors

• The process of excavation breaks up earth and makes it take up more
space afterwards – Swelling (e.g. excavated rock occupies a larger
volume in fill)
• After placing the excavated earth in a fill and compacting, volume will
become less than the original. Difference b/n original volume in cut and
final volume in fill – Shrinkage
• Shrinkage depends on:
– the material’s characteristics and moisture content; climatic
conditions; and method of placing
• Shrinkage & Swell must be taken into consideration
 Material % of shrinkage

Light excavated soil 10 – 20%

(on ordinary ground)

Light excavated soil 20 – 40%

(on swampy ground)
•
Heavy Excavated soil Up to 10%

Excavated Rock (Swell) 5 – 25%

Amount of excavation required to make a given fill may be arrived at by:

Shrinkage: multiply the fill quantity by 1+ %sh
Swelling: divide the fill quantity by 1 + %sw
A road bed section
• A highway sub-grade is usually formed with shoulders and a trench
section upon which the pavement will be constructed, the finished
surface being crowned to facilitate drainage
• Ditches are provided on embankment sections to transfer water down
the fill slops into pipes or paved gutters to protect the embankment
against erosion
o
• On curves of 5 or sharper subgrade is banked and widened. Width of
road bed in cut is wider than on fills to allow for side-ditches.
 Fig 4.1 Typical section

Material Ht. of Side Slope Back Slope

Slope
Cut Fill

Soil 0–1 1:4 1:4

1–2 1:3 1:3
Over 2 1:2 1:2

Rock Any ht. See standard details

Black Cotton 0–2 - 1:6

Soil Over 2 1:4

Table 4.1 Side slopes of X-sections

Earth work analysis

-Take average cross-sections along the alignment

-Plot natural ground level and proposed grade profile and indicate areas of cut and
fill

-Calculate volume of earthwork between cross-sections

Areas of Cross-sections
• For the purpose of calculating the quantity of earth work, the areas
of cross-sections and the distance between them must be known
• Methods
– For regular/level ground  simple geometry
– For irregular ground, two methods
1. Graphical or planimeter method
2. Coordinate or other approximate method
Area calculation for irregular section
Volume calculation

Solution
 Mass Diagram
• Is a continuous curve showing the accumulated algebraic sum of the
cuts (+ve) and fills (-ve) from some initial station to any succeeding
station
• Ordinates of the mass curve are plotted with reference to a horizontal
scale of distances
• It is convenient to tabulate the cumulative sum of cuts and fills at a
station before drawing a Mass diagram

Drawing a mass-haul diagram

Procedures
1. Calculate areas at cross-sections
2. Calculate the volume of fill and cut; cut is +ve and fill –ve.
3. Correct the volume calculated by shrinkage and swell factors
4. Tabulate the corrected aggregate volume
5. Plot the mass haul diagram
3
(scale: 1:2000 H and 1:500 or 1:1000 (cm:m )V)
6. Join points by a straight line or curves

Example Calculate Mass Diagram Assuming Shrinkage = 25%

Finally, mass diagram
 Characteristics of Mass Curve
 1-Rising sections of the mass curve indicates areas where excavating
exceeds fill, whereas falling sections indicate where fill exceeds
excavation.
 2-Steep slopes reflect heavy cuts & Fills, while flat slopes indicate
areas fro small amount of earthwork.
 3-The difference in ordinates between any two points indicate net
excess of excavation over embankment or vise versa.
 4-Any horizontal line dawn to intersect two points within the same
curve indicates a balance of excavation (cut) and embankment (fill)
quantities between the two points.
 5-Points of zero slope represent points where roadway goes from cut to
fill or from fill to cut.
 6-The highest or the lowest points of the mass haul diagram represents
the crossing points between the grade line (roadway level) and natural
ground level. ``
 CHAPTER FIVE
HIGHWAY DRAINAGE

1. Introduction
Provision of adequate drainage is an essential part of pavement design.
 Protection of pavement structure
 Improves road safety
Can be categorically studied in:
 Surface Drainage
 Drainage on the adjoining land and roadway
surface
 Side Drainage and Cross Drainage
 Sub-surface Drainage

Effects of water on the pavement structure

Presence of moisture causes:
o reduction in the stability of the soil mass.
o considerable variation in volume of subgrade in clayey soils.
o Waves and corrugations failure in flexible pavements.
o Stripping failure in flexible pavements.
o Mud pumping failure in rigid pavements.
 Fig 5.1 Effects of water on the pavement structure

2. DESIGN OF SURFACE DRAINAGE SYSTEMS

 Can be divided into three phases:
i. Estimation of the quantity of water that can reach any
element of the system.
ii. Hydraulic design of each element of the system.
iii. Comparison of alternative systems and materials
 Criteria-Lowest annual cost alternative

1. Rainfall Intensity
• Runoff is obtained by considering expected sever storm.
 Return period of 5, 10, 20, 25, 50, and 100 years
• Quantity of runoff depends on intensity and duration.
• Duration= Time of Concentration
 The time required for water from the remotest place to reach a
specific point on the drainage system.
 =T +T
1 2
• T = over land flow time
1
• T = time of flow in the longitudinal drain
2
 Source: ERA Manual, 2002

2. Computation of Runoff

 Rain water expelled from the road surface

i. Infiltration
ii. Runoff
iii. Evaporation- insignificant

• Infiltration depends on:

• Type and gradation of soil
• Soil covers, moisture content of the soil
• Presence of impervious layers near the surface.
• Runoff depends on:
• Nature of the ground, degree of saturation, and slope of the
surface
• Rate of runoff greater on smooth surfaces.
2
• Rational Formula- accurate way of estimating runoff up to areas of 0.5 km

Q  0.00278 CIA
 C1 A1  C 2 A2   • If the water shade is made up of
C  different surfaces
A1  A2  

• Q= runoff (m3/sec)
• C=coefficient, representing ratio of runoff to rainfall
• I= intensity of rainfall (mm/hr) for a duration equal to the time of
concentration
• A= catchment area tributary to the design location, ha
DESIGN OF SIDE DITCHES AND OPEN CHANNELS
• Once the quantity of runoff is known, the design of ditches and similar
structures is based on the principles of open channel flow.
• Mannings’s formula assumes steady flow in a uniform channel.

1 2 / 3 1/ 2
V  R S
n Q V  A
Where:
• V= mean velocity (m/sec)
• R= hydraulic radius (m)= Area/wetted perimeter
• S=slope of the channel (m/m)
• n=Manning’s roughness coefficient
Best hydraulic sections
Please refer best hydraulic section for trapezoidal

• Fig 5.1 Capacity of a Trapezoidal Channel chart

•
• Fig 5.2 Nomograph for normal depth
• Examples:
The drainage area which contributes runoff to a proposed culvert
installation is 1.30 km2 in extent. The rainfall intensity of the area is
57 mm/hr. The area has an average slope of about 4%. Assuming a
runoff coefficient of 0.25, determine the quantity of flow and design
the size of the culvert. [NB: If slope of culvert is not given, use S =
10% as a default value]
Exercise
1. The maximum quantity of water expected in one of the open longitudinal
drains on clayey soil is 0.9 m3/sec. Design the cross section and longitudinal
slope of trapezoidal drain assuming the bottom width of the trapezoidal
section to be 1.0 m and cross slopes to be 1V:1.5H. The allowable velocity of
flow in the drain is 1.2 m/sec and Manning’s roughness coefficient is 0.02.

3. SUBSURFACE DRAINAGE
• Highest level of water table should be below the subgrade.
• Practically 1.0 to 1.2 m below subgrade
• Relatively permeable soil-
• Longitudinal drains are mainly used
• Impermeable soils-
• Transverse drains may be necessary in addition to longitudinal
drains
1. Lowering of Water Table

Fig5.2 . Symmetrical longitudinal drains used to lower the groundwater table and
to collect water infiltrating the pavement.
 •
• Lowering of Water Table

Longitudin
al Drain

Transverse
Drains

Fig5.3 Lowering of water table using

Transverse Drains (Plan View)

2. Seepage Control
• If seepage zone is at a depth less than 0.6 to 0.9 m below subgrade level,
• Use longitudinal pipe drain in trench with filter material to
intercept the seepage flow.
• This phenomenon can be explained using figures.
Fig 5.4 Longitudinal interceptor drain used to cut off seepage and lower the
groundwater table.

Fig.5.5 Longitudinal collector drain used to remove water seeping into the
pavement structural section.

3. Control of Capillary Rise

• Capillary rise can be controlled by

 Using a layer of granular material of suitable thickness.
 Using a layer of impermeable capillary cutoff.
 Capillary water should not rise above the thickness of the granular
layer
 Granular material

Capillary rise

Highest water
table
Fig 5.6 Granular capillary cutoff

• Bituminous layer or other geo-textiles can be used as an impermeable layer.

Impermeable layer

Capillary rise

Highest water table

Fig 5.7. Impermeable layer capillary cutoff

4. Design of Filter Material

• Proper filter material should be used for:

 Subsurface drainage system and backfilling the drainage
trenches and
 Criteria:
 Permeability and Piping
 DP=size of perforation in drain pipe
 D85 Filter = 2DP
5.3.2 Cross Drainage Structures
 Whenever the streams, rivers or water courses have to cross by the roadway
facilities, cross drainage structures are to be properly provided.
 Sometimes these structures are used to divert the waterway from the road
side drain to a water course or valley
Types of Cross Drainage Structures
• Culvert – when the linear waterway ≤ 6 m

• Bridge – when the linear waterway > 6m

• Causeways – allow the water to flow over the roadway

Culverts

• Culverts lead the water from the side drains under the road to the other (lower)
side.
• Fitted with aprons, head and wing walls and installed with a similar backfill.

Functions of Culverts

-To collect and carry the water across the road so as not to cause damage to road

bank or the stream bed by scouring.

-To allow sufficient waterway to prevent heading up of water above the road
surface.
Types of Culverts

1. Pipe Culvert

2. Box Culvert
 3. Slab Culvert

4. Arch Culvert

Pipe Culverts

• When the stream carries low discharge and alignment has high embankment,
pipe culverts are considered more suitable.
• Pipe is laid slightly inclined.
• Minimum diameter of the pipe culvert is limited to 600 mm to facilitate
cleaning and avoid blocking.
• The standard length of the RCC pipe is fixed at 2.5 m, jointed by collar or
tongue and groove.
• Pipes may be made of stoneware, concrete, RCC, etc.
The standard size of pipe culverts are 0.5 m, 0.75 m, 1 m, 1.25 m and 2 m in
diameter.

Fig 5.9 pipe culvert

Fig 5.10. Pipe culvert
Box Culverts
• Box culvert of square or rectangular shape is made of RCC.
• Rectangular shaped culverts – referred to as box culverts - are commonly used
to cater for larger crossings.
Fig 5.11. Box culvert

Slab Culverts
• RCC slab is placed over abutments made of masonry and the span is generally
limited to 3 m.

Fig 5.12. RCC slab culvert

Arch Culverts
• Generally built using brick or stone masonry, plain cement concrete may
also be used

Fig 5.13. Arch culvert

Aqueduct
• Open or closed conduit sufficiently above the roadway to drain water across the
road.

Fig 5.14. Aqueduct culvert

 Bridges
• Structure constructed over water course to carry traffic over it.
• When clear span is more than 6 m, the cross drainage structures are called
bridges.
• According to Span Length:
• Minor Bridge: Span Length up to 30 m
• Major Bridge: Span Length > 30 m
Long Bridge: Span Length > 120 m
Classification of Bridges

a. According to alignment
b. According to materials used
c. According to usage
a. According to alignment
1. Normal Bridge – a transverse structure perpendicular to the banks
of the river or creek.
2. Skew Bridge – a transverse structure having an angle of less than
90º from the bank of the river.
1. ERA Manual: Not more than 20º
b. According to materials used
1. Timber Bridge- timber is used because of its low cost. However, it
has a short life span because of its exposure to wet and dry season.
2. Concrete Bridge:
 Reinforced Concrete – concrete containing adequate
reinforcement, pre-stressed or non-pre-stressed, designed on the
assumption that the two materials act together in resisting
forces.
 Pre-stressed Concrete – reinforced concrete in which
internal stresses have been introduced to reduce potential tensile
stresses in concrete resulting from loads.

3. Steel Bridge: Steel Plate Girder – heavy loads must be carried for
spans above 12.19 meters & nearly all spans over 18.288 meters
c. According to usage

1. Temporary Bridge – a bridge with short life span which needs replacements
of members every after 3 years.
2. Permanent Bridge – a bridge with life span of 50 years or more before it is
completely replaced.
Example: Concrete & Steel Bridges

Most economical bridge site & potentially the longest service life is
located at:
» on a straight reach of the river
» beyond the disturbing influence of larger tributaries
» has well defined banks
» reasonably straight approach roads
» permits as perpendicular a crossing as possible
» on a good foundation condition.