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 Introduction to Programming Design for Controllers
James Vogel P.E.

Introduction to Programming
The modern concept of the computer originated in the mid 1940’s. In 1945, John Von
Neumann proposed a computer architecture that included storing instructions and
data in the computer. This is the computer architecture of most computers today, and
is referred to as the “Von Neumann” computer architecture. The programming of early
computers involved preparing a sequence of machine coded instructions. In 1954,
John Backus invented the first popular high level programming language, Fortran
(Formula Translator). Fortran is oriented to scientific programming and allowed one to
write programs that could run on different computers. Fortran facilitated writing
programs such as Finite Element Analysis programs that aided the engineering analysis
of structures and mechanical components.

The number of computing devices has grown from several research computers to over
a billion computers today. In addition to the computer and programmable logic
controllers (PLC), embedded computers are very popular, especially in hand-held
devices. The demand for programming has been driven by the need to program the
many computing devices currently available. An international standard, IEC 61131-3
was published in 1993 for standardization of programmable controller programming.
The purpose of the standard was to make programming more consistent among PLC
systems.

Program Development

A program is defined as a set of coded instructions for insertion into a machine, which
then performs the desired sequence of operations. Creating a program can be divided
into seven steps:
1. Define the problem. Specify inputs, outputs and the processing task.
2. Analyze the requirements. Divide the processing task into subtasks. Create a
hierarchical chart
3. Logic design of the program. Prepare flowcharts, pseudocode, and state
diagrams as required.
4. Code the program. Convert the design into a formal programming language.
Write source code.
5. Compile and run. Convert the source code to a machine executable code. Run
the program.
6. Test the program. Run test scenarios to verify outputs are correct. Correct
programming errors.
7. Document and maintain. Prepare user manuals and maintain the program.

Defining the Inputs and Outputs

Specifying the program’s inputs and outputs is an essential part of defining the
programming problem. All inputs have to be converted into a data type before
processing. The basic unit of data is the bit, a binary digit. The bit has a value of 0 or 1.
This can represent the state of a switch, relay, or sensor. A bit can also represent an
output control signal that can turn on lights, motors, valves and pumps. It is often
referred to as a Boolean (BOOL) data type. This is a common data type for inputs and

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 Introduction to Programming Design for Controllers
James Vogel P.E.

outputs of programmable controllers. It is also common to group 16 bits in a word. A bit

input can be identified as I:3/0 or PowerOn. Examples of outputs are O:4/2 and
RedLight. Using locations to reference data is referred to as addressing. A symbolic
address is a way to reference input and output data using descriptive words. For
example, “PowerOn” is a symbolic address for a Power On switch input. Giving input
and output addresses descriptive names makes the program more understandable.

There are a number of other useful data types. A sixteen bit signed number is often
referred to as an integer (INT). An integer can represent positive and negative numbers
of up to 32,767. This data type is useful for counting. Decimal representation of numbers
is useful to represent the output of sensors such as weight, pressure and temperature.
Decimal numbers require 32 bits and are referred to as a float or REAL data type. Eight
bits is called a byte and is sufficient to code a character. The ASCII code refers to a
binary coding scheme for coding characters. Textual data is usually longer than one
character and requires more than one byte. The string of characters is a text or STRING
data type. This data type is useful for messages. There are also DATE and TIME data
types. Strong data typing can prevent mismatching data which can have
unpredictable results. Data typing is common to most high level programming
languages.

Defining the Processing Tasks

IEC 61131 International Standard provides methodologies for organizing programmable

controller programs. Programmable controllers are used to automate a variety of
systems: HVAC, alarm, traffic control, process control, water distribution, assembly lines,
and robots. The programming components are organized in a hierarchical manner.
Programs are built from function blocks. Function blocks are sequences of code or
graphical components to accomplish a specific task. Most programming languages
allow a program to be divided into functional parts; other names for these are
subroutine, function, procedure and method. The following hierarchical chart shows the
organization of a traffic light program showing the individual function blocks. PowerOn
controls startup, and the others control the lights.

TrafficLight

PowerOn GreenLight YellowLight RedLightX

Logic Design

A flow chart is a common design tool to graphically organize the sequence of

instructions. Flow charts have been used for designing programs since the development
of the modern computer. The following shows the common flowchart symbols.
Start/stop symbols indicate the beginning and ending of an instruction sequence. Most
programs require inputs and outputs. These are shown using a parallelogram. An
operation symbol commonly indicates actions, value assignments, and calculations.

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 Introduction to Programming Design for Controllers
James Vogel P.E.

The decision symbol indicates a test or condition that will result in two possible paths:
one for when the condition is true, “yes”; and one for when the condition is false, “no”.

Start/Stop
Operation
Subroutine*

Input/Output Decision Connector showing flow

Basic Flowchart Symbols

Using flow charts, programs can be divided into subroutines. Subroutines break a large
program into smaller sections. In the following Traffic Light program, it is desired to
sequence through red, green, and yellow lights. In this program, each subroutine turns
on a different color light. The flowchart of the following Traffic Light program shows the
fundamental flow control structures. All computer programs can be created using three
fundamental control structures: sequence, selection, and iteration. In this program, the
sequence of subroutines turns on each light. A consecutive series of steps is a sequence
control structure. The connecting line returns to the start of the sequence to show
repetition. A repetition of steps is a loop or iteration control structure. In the RedLightX
subroutine, if the remote signal is on (the condition),the red light is on 5 seconds;
otherwise, the red light is on 30 seconds. This is a selection or decision control structure.
A selection control structure bases the next step on a condition that is true or false.
TrafficLight RedLightX

PowerOn Turn off yellow light

Set Yellow light on and Turn on red light
other lights to off

RedLightX
Change light to red Is remote
Set wait time based on signal on?
Yes No
remote signal

GreenLight Wait 5 seconds Wait 30 seconds

Turn on green light
Turn off red light
Wait 25 seconds

YellowLight
Turn on yellow light
Turn off green light
Wait 5 seconds Return

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James Vogel P.E.

Pseudocode is a design tool that describes the instructions in an outline fashion.

Pseudocode is similar to programming languages, so coding into a computer language
can be easier. The following pseudocode is an example of a simple vending machine
program design that dispenses coffee or coke and calculates the change. In the
beginning of a pseudocode program, one defines the variables used in the program.

VARIABLES
price $0.50, $1.00
change $0.00, $0.25, $0.50
quarter = $0.25
selection = “coffee”, “coke”
dollarReader = True, False

Pseudocode programs include words and symbols that describe computer operations
such as input, output, AND, OR, add (+), subtract (-), multiply (*) and divide (/). The “=”
can mean a comparison of two values, or an assignment of a value to a variable.
Pseudocode can implement the fundamental control structures: series of instructions
(sequence);“if…then...else” statements (selection); “do while” statements for repeating
instructions based on a condition being true(iteration). These are shown below.

START:
output "Make A Selection"
input selection
if selection = “coffee” then
price = $0.50
else
price = $1.00
endif
if dollarReader = True
change = $1.00 – price
dowhile change is greater than or equal to $0.25
dispense a quarter
change = change - $0.25
endwhile
dispense selection
output "Thank You"
endif
END

State diagrams define a system using states and transitions between states. States are
written in the circles and directional lines show the transitions to the next state. Only one
state is active at one time. A state diagram for a simple coffee machine is given below.
Here we can see that when powered up, the machine will start in an idle state. The
transitions are based on the inputs of sensors in the coffee machine. The states can
indicate the operations that need to be further defined in detail.

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James Vogel P.E.

Coding the program

Coding is the conversion of the program design into a formal programming language.
The programming language used can depend on whether the language is available
for the controller or computing device. It can also depend on the skills of the personnel
available for the programming task. The following includes examples of programs using
the IEC standard controller programming languages. The end result of coding of the
program is referred to as source code.

Ladder Diagram (LD) language is a graphical language based on relay ladder logic.
This is the popular method of programming controllers. Ladder Diagrams are based on
relay and switching logic. It is more intuitive and easy for electricians and electrical
technicians to understand. Program instructions are entered on “rungs”. Input
components are inserted on the left side and the outputs on the right. Common input
components are Normally Open and Normally Closed contacts. Common outputs are
relay solenoids, motors, valves and lights. Ladder diagrams can also include advanced
functions such as timers like the one shown below. A Traffic Light sequencing program is
shown below:

The diagram looks complicated, but it is simple. Each light has a timer and the timer
turns on the light. After a preset wait time, the timer turns off the light and starts the next
timer in the sequence. The diagram shows the timer enable (EN) output turning on the
light by closing normally open (EN) contacts. After the preset wait time, the timer done
(DN) output turns off the light by opening normally closed (DN) contacts and starts the
next timer by closing the normally open RedLight.DN contacts.

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 Introduction to Programming Design for Controllers
James Vogel P.E.

PowerOn TIMER ON DELAY EN

Rung 01 Timer RedLight
Delay 30 seconds DN
YellowLight.DN

RedLight.DN TIMER ON DELAY EN

Rung 02 Timer GreenLight
Delay 25 seconds DN

GreenLight.DN TIMER ON DELAY EN

Rung 03 Timer YellowLight
Delay 5 seconds DN

RedLight.EN RedLight.DN Red Light

Rung 04 R
GreenLight.EN GreenLight.DN Green Light
Rung 05 G
YellowLight.EN YellowLight.DN Yellow Light
Rung 06 Y

Ladder diagram programs can also include calculations, counting, control loops and
subroutines. The ladder diagram strength is in performing switching and relay logic.

Instruction list (IL) language is more closely related to the instructions that the computer
executes. Mnemonics designate computer operations. A computer programmer is
more familiar with this approach. The following program reduces the voltage if a motor
speed is greater than 1000. It also turns on a green light.

LD speed (* Load speed into storage register *)

GT 1000 (* Is speed greater than 1000 *)
JMPCN Volts_OK (* If speed is NOT greater than 1000, go to Volts_OK *)
LD volts (* Load voltage value into storage register *)
SUB 10 (* Subtract 10 from voltage value*)
ST volts (* Store new voltage output value *)
Volts_OK LD 1 (* Load 1 in storage register *)
ST Green_Light (* Store 1 at Green_Light to turn on green light *)

The IL language can perform logical operations (AND, OR, NOT) ; calculations using
ADD, SUB, MUL, DIV instructions; selections and loops. This IL program uses instructions for
a conditional test (GT) and a conditional jump (JMPCN) to code the selection structure.
The IL language can also include subroutines and functions such as timers. Although
this is not as intuitive as ladder logic, it is easier to have the instruction list language
implemented on a programmable controller. Programming using the Instruction List
language is similar to using assembler code and can result in fast executing code.

Structured Text (ST) is a structured high-level programming language that is similar to the
Pascal programming language. The language is designed for easier coding of control
structures. This programming is more suited for an engineer with a programming

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James Vogel P.E.

background or a computer programmer. ST programs require identifying the data

types used in the program. The variables used for inputs, outputs and calculations are
“declared” at the beginning of the program and their data type are identified. For
example, the Run_Motor function uses six variables: start, stop, current, volts, motor, and
mpower. Each variable has an associated data type. This program is used to turn on a
motor when the start button is pressed, and calculate the electrical power. The motor
output variable represents the relay that applies power to the motor. The mpower
output variable represents the value of electrical power. The “*” is the multiply
operation to calculate the power from current and volts. Other mathematic operations
used in structured text are add (+), subtract (-), and divide (/).

(* Switching Logic and Calculation Example *)

FUNCTION Run_Motor
INPUT_VAR
start : BOOL; (* A Normally Open start input *)
stop : BOOL; (* A Normally Closed stop input *)
current, volts: REAL;
END_VAR
OUTPUT_VAR
motor : BOOL;(* Motor control relay output *)
mpower: REAL;(* Motor power *)
END_VAR
motor := (motor OR start) AND stop;(* Run motor *)
mpower := current * volts;(* Power calculation *)
END_FUNCTION

Structure Text also includes “IF… THEN… ELSE” statements for implementing the selection
structure and “WHILE...DO” statements for iterations. The “WHILE…DO” statement is
useful for checking whether a sensor is on, or a setting is reached, like a time setting,
temperature setting or tank level. The “FOR…DO” statements are used for a fixed
number of repetitions. This is useful for situations involving a fixed count. ST strength is in
performing complex calculations and it is easy to read and understand.

Function Block Diagram (FDB) is a graphical language that uses function blocks and
connections that show data and signal flow. The FBD is more common in the process
industries. The following compares a function block and structured text. This shows a
divide function block. A divide by zero can cause serious errors for a computer and can
halt operations. This function block checks to be sure “b” is not zero, before
proceeding. If b is 0, it provides a 0 output.

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 Introduction to Programming Design for Controllers
James Vogel P.E.

FUNCTION_BLOCK divide
VAR_INPUT
a: INT;
divide b: INT;
END_VAR
a VAR_OUTPUT
c c: INT;
b END_VAR
IF b <> 0 THEN
c := a / b;
ELSE
c := 0;
END_IF;
END_FUNCTION_BLOCK

Sequential Function Chart (SFC) is a charting methodology that is also a graphical

programming language. The SFC is a design tool that is focused on describing the
sequential behavior of a control program. The basic elements of an SFC diagram are
shown in the Traffic Light program below:

Initialization

(Transition Condition) PowerSwitch = 1

(Start simultaneous operations)

Turn red Light on Turn on WALK Light

Start 30 second timer Start 10 second timer

30 second timer done 10 second timer done

Turn green light on Turn on CAUTION Light

Start 25 second timer Start 10 second timer

25 second timer done 10 second timer done

Turn yellow light on Turn on DON’T WALK Light

Start 5 second timer Start 40 second timer

(End simultaneous operations)

5 second Traffic Light timer AND 40 second Crosswalk timer done

In this example, the program sequences traffic lights through red, green and yellow and
also sequences a crosswalk (WALK/DON’T WALK) sign, simultaneously. Each step shown
has actions and a transition condition (bar). The transition condition needs to be met
before proceeding to the next step. The transition condition for this case is that the timer
must complete the set time. Unlike other languages, the SFC allows simultaneous
execution of steps in parallel branches. SFC also allows steps to be programmed in
other languages. The strength of SFC is the capability for synchronization of steps. It is
also suited for complex control problems.

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 Introduction to Programming Design for Controllers
James Vogel P.E.

Other High Level Languages and Programs. In addition to the previously mentioned
standard languages, controllers can be programmed in higher level languages like the
C programming language. C is an ANSI standard language; however, it is not included
in the controller programming language standard. Another language that is not a
standard controller language is Visual Basic. The programming of visual display
interfaces does not usually require the precision timing of controller programs. Visual
Basic is a programming language that includes many features that can allow one to
create visual displays of processes.

The previous examples show traffic light sequencing, a motor control, and calculations
in the different programming languages. There are many systems that use computing
devices that require programming: process control, alarm systems, HVAC, robots,
assembly lines, motion control, gas monitoring, and power generation. The programs
can involve many lines of code and can be in different languages. This has provided
an overview of the different programming languages and code one could see.

Compiling, Testing and Maintenance

Compiling is the process of converting the instructions in the programming language to

machine code instructions. The closer the language is to the machine instructions, the
less complicated the compiler needs to be. Compilers check the source instructions for
common errors. If the compiler can not convert the source code to machine code, it
usually indicates that it can’t, so corrections to the program can be made. Once the
program is converted to machine code it can be executed or run. PLC’s have
programming software for creating, compiling and running programs. RSlogix software
for the Allen Bradley PC-5 controllers is an example. Microsoft Visual Studio is an
integrated program development system that allows one to create, compile and run
programs in a number of languages. Testing is the process of running scenarios or test
cases to verify that the program provides the intended outputs and operates as
expected. When there is confidence that all errors are corrected, the program is made
available for users. This is the last step in which final documentation is prepared and
maintenance is performed. Even though testing can eliminate most errors, some errors
will occur through program usage. Maintenance involves the correcting of the errors
that users discover.

Conclusion

Programming design can involve a number of methodologies for designing and

implementing a program. Hierarchical charts, flowcharts and pseudocode are good
tools for designing programs. State diagrams are oriented on detailed digital logic and
Sequential Function Charts are oriented for more complex control systems design.
Similarly one can have a variety of programming languages for implementing the
design: Ladder Diagrams, Instruction Lists, Structured Text, Function Blocks, and other
programming languages like C and Visual Basic. The references below provide web
sites that include more details in programming, demonstrations and evaluation software
to explore programming further.

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James Vogel P.E.

Bibliography

Farrell, Joyce, Programming Logic and Design, Course Technology, Boston, Mass 2002
Kernighan, Brian W. and Pike, Rob, The Practice of Programming, Addison-Wesley,
Reading, Mass, 1999
Lewis, R. W., Programming Industrial Control Systems using IEC 1131-3 Revised Edition,
Institute of Electrical Engineers, UK, 1998

Petruzella, Frank D., Programmable Logic Controllers, McGraw-Hill, N.Y.N.Y., 2005

Robertson, Lesley Anne, Simple Program Design, Fourth Edition, Course Technology,
Boston, Mass 2004
Tucker, Allen B. et al, Fundamentals of Computing I, Logic Problem Solving, Programs
and Computers, McGraw-Hill, N.Y.N.Y, 1995

Web Sites

Hugh Jack. Automated Manufacturing Systems; PLCs, GNU Free Document License
1996-2007 http://claymore.engineer.gvsu.edu/~jackh/books/plcs/

PLCopen for efficiency in automation. PLCopen.org. 2004. http://plcopen.org

Tim Young. Tools for PLC Programming. 2007. http://www.plcdev.com/

LogixPro 500. The Learning Pit Dot Com. 2007.

http://www.thelearningpit.com/lp/logixpro.html

Hardware Development – Projects you can build. Microsoft MSDN. 2007.

http://msdn.microsoft.com/vstudio/express/hardware/

Bjarne Stroustrup. The C++ Programming Language. AT&T labs, Inc and TAMU. 2007.
http://www.research.att.com/~bs/C++.html

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