VIJAYA COLLEGE OF NURSING

COURSE–IIND YEAR M.SC (N)

SUBJECT : NURSING MANAGEMENT

UNIT : UNIT II

TOPIC : THEORIES AND MODELS

NAME OF THE STUDENT : MRS MERIN SOLOMON

NAME OF THE HOD : PROF. SUBHASH

INDRAKUMAR

NAME OF THE EVALUATOR : MRS SMITHA MOHAN

HOURS ALLOTTED : 2 HRS

SUBMITTED TO : MRS SMITHA MOHAN

DATE OF SUBMISSION : 30-MAR-2020

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 NURSING MANAGEMENT

SEMINAR ON THEORIES AND MODELS OF NURSING MANAGEMENT

SL.N CONTENT

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I. INTRODUCTION
II. ADMINISRTATION & MANAGEMENT

(Definition, Importance, Concepts, Functions, & Principles)

 Definition

A. SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT THEORY

1) Frederick W. Taylor (1856-1915)

2) Gantt Henry I. Gantt (1861-1910)

3) Emerson (1853-1936)

4) Charles Babbage (1792-1871)

B. CLASSIC ORGANIZATIONAL THEORY

1) Henry Fayol (1841-1925)

2) Max Webber Theory (1864-1920)

3) James Mooney Theory (1884-1957)

C. HUMAN RELATIONS THEORY

1). Follett theory(1868-1933):

2). Lewin theory(1890-1947):

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 D. BEHAVIOURAL SCIENCE THEORY

1) Douglas McGregor’s Theory (1932)

2).Rensis Likert’s theory

E. MODERN MANAGEMENT THEORIES

1. Quantitative approach

2. System approach-open system model.

3. Contingency approach

4. critical theory versus critical thinking

 Abraham Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs motivational model.

 Herzberg’s two factor theory.

 Implications of management theories in nursing.

MODELS

 Definition

(A) LEADER PARTICIPATION MODEL

(B) DECISION MAKING MODEL

A.ADMINISTRATION

I. INTRODUCTION

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 Administration is involved in all fields of human endeavour where there is a

planned effort. It is a force, which lays down the objectives which an organization and

its management are to strive for and the broad policies under which to operate.

Administration provides the means whereby the most effective use can be made of the

knowledge and skills of those giving the service. It is the way of conceptual thinking

for attaining predetermined goals through group efforts.

Administration means overall determination of policies, setting of major

objectives, the identification of general purposes and laying down of broad

programmes and projects”. It refers to the activities of higher level. It lays down basic

principles of the enterprise. According to Newman, “Administration means guidance,

leadership & control of the efforts of the groups towards some common goal. Simply

put, management can be understood as the skill of getting the work done from others.

It is not exactly same as administration, which alludes to a process of effectively

administering the entire organization.

II. MEANING

The word “administer” is derived from the Latin word “ad and ministraire” means

“ to care for” or “to look after people to manage affairs”.

Administer means “serve” then meaning is sluggish enough, as it consists on the

administrator to regard himself as servant, not that the master to look after, perform

all functions.

III. DEFINITION

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  Administration may be defined as ‘all the actions rationally performed by one

person or a number of persons in context to fulfil a common purpose set by them

or set by someone else for their accomplishment.

Finer Herman

 Administration is the organization and direction of human and material resources

to achieve desired end.

Pfiffner and Presthur

 Administration may be defined as the management of affairs with the use of well

thought out principles and practices and rationalized techniques to achieve certain

objectives.

Goal

IV. NATURE OF ADMINISTRATION

Administration process is intellectual, social, dynamic and creative and continuous. In

fact it is multidimensional.

1) It is universal

The principles of administration are applicable in all types of set up, in every

organization for their effective achievement of goals. Because irrespective of nature

and objectives of the organization, all basic elements of administration such as

planning, organizing, staffing, directing, coordinating, reporting, budgeting can apply

for its effective achievement of goals.

2) It is holistic

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 The whole process of administration embraces the organization and its

functions ; the whole process of administration embraces the organization and its

function in entirely, i.e. involve total activities of the organizations.

3) It is intangible

The administration is visualized in abstract but its concepts are applicable in

smooth running of organization since administration is visualized as abstract. It cannot

be transferable to anywhere. So, every organization has to develop its own

administrative style within the contect of functional elements of administration.

4) It is continues and ongoing process

The cycle of administration is ongoing process and it is continuous. The cycle

of administration goes on continuously.

5) It is based on objectives

Administration is basically for the achievement of organizational objectives by

utilizing the resources effectively, hence it is goal oriented, administration is always

struggling to achieve the laid down goals and objectives of the organization.

6) It is social and human

In administration, all the efforts are directed towards the achievement of

common goal. It is the environment which is important to bring the team effort and

pool potentials of all to meet the objectives of the organization. . It is social and

human; usually administration, there will be group of people are there to achieve the

objective, it needs goal social and interpersonal contact or relationship to achieve the

goal.

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 7) It is dynamic

The administration is not rigid though work under rules, regulation to maintain

discipline. But it has flexibility according to the needs and demands of a situation.

Administration has the elements of flexibility and adaptability and adjustability rising

to the needs and demands of different situations.

8) It is creative and innovative

Administration provides a great scope to invite the creative idea to bring about the

changes in the organization to have an effective administration existed administration

provides innovation, offers and invites creative ideas to its organizational teams.

Administration consists of a structure or an organization of various institutions

essential for its functioning, the processes, procedures and in reaction of various

constituents; and the techniques and skills of human relation. It is the management of

human affairs concerned with the needs of carrying out specific objectives.

The nature of administration cooperated with two broad views, i.e. integral and

managerial.

Integral views would have to count the work of all persons, ranging from lowest to

the highest, for example Group "D" officials to the top level officials work in the

setup. There the administration consists of all those operations, having for their

purposes the fulfilment of enforcement of public policy. For example, treating patient

requires efforts of whole health/Medical team including Nurses, Doctors, and Para

medicals and Group "ID" officials.

Managerial views regard the work of only those persons engaged in performing,

managerial functions in an enter-prise/institutional organization as constituting

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 administration. The activities concerning management units, control and coordinate all

those operations undertaken in the institution/enterprise.

V. PRINCIPLES OF ADMINISTRATION

The science of administration attempts to discover and impart, principles of

administration. Principles can mean either of two things, i.e. ethical nature and

generalization of behaviour.

There is a relationship between ethical principles and the principles as

generalization of cause and effect. The principle, as ethics may set the purpose;

the generalization may assist in identifying the means whereby the purpose may

be achieved. According to Finer, following are the principles of administration.

a. Principle of Oneness

From the apprehension of purpose, from its absorption, flows directly the

oneness of leadership that gives form to the whole aggregate of people whose

skills are needed for its fulfilment. Leadership may take the form of a single

executive they are numerous forms of collective administrative bodies. One

may be final leader to take ultimate decisions. Oneness implies that all the

personnel are members. The first requirement is that the right of people to have

positions of authority, or in other words, the representatives of the authority of

the situation. This returns to the problem mentioned, that is to say, the selection

and promotion methods leading to high places. However, there are persons

involved in all the techniques of persuasion and command; orientation periods,

manuals of policy, periodical conferences, social festivities; the administrator

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rounds in the manner appropriate to the personality of the particular collection

and human beings )n the staff and individual counselling. It would be idle to

protract that list of the techniques of association of the art, as it were, of making

love to other people, getting them wed purpose or to achieve conversions. This

would involve us in all the sociological and psychological technique.

b. Principle of Specialism and the Whole

The principle of oneness offers guidance in an endemic problem in

administration. The relationship of the specialist or expert to the total plan. In

the administration, each one should become an expert. The contribution that

expertness make to a whole organization is the sure mastery of part of clinical

or administrative practice, a mastery that others need as an ingredient of their

service, and must take on the authority of the person who is expert. Failure to do

this means either a loss of effectiveness or the need to neglect other work in

order to immerse oneself in the specialism, e.g. expert in sweeping, so the

expertness of the specialist is indispensable and mast be preserved and

encouraged.

c. Principle of Hierarchy and Regimentation

Administration has accepted the idea of hierarchy to denote authority

coming downwards from above, but not in the sense of chastising dogmatic

rule. It accepts it in the sense only of functional superordination subordination.

When the administrative scientists talk of hierarchy, they mean not

regimentation (Properly applied to the urgencies of obedience of military forces

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under fire or training against the day when they will be) but the pervasion of

whole organization with the notion of its oneness, and the fitting together of all

the members vertically (downwards) in the line authority, and horizontally

(across) of teams and colleagues in specialist skill.

d. Principle of Morale

Morale is the spirit of active devotion to the persons working together for a

common purpose. When it is high, the subjective burdens of the work, its hours, its

routines, the patience it demands, the submissions of personal interesting and values,

are lightly carried, and there is an easy and cheerful demeanour on the part of those

who take and give order. When it is low, the work and purpose looses value, and

personality frustrates them. When against, personal tensions, individual and

interpersonal, rise is high and rebelliously more endangered. To buy morale, all

aspects of employees are taken into confidence at all levels.

e. Principles of Bureaucracy

Bureaucracy is diseased administration, the disease may be defined deficiency in

the spirit that created its purpose, that caused organization to be created, so that either

cooperation has fallen apart or activities are executed without any interest in the object

originally assigned to them. Bureaucracy is administration, without purpose, ethos,

oneness, or morale; it is the organizational form of personality equal to the individual

person called the "Hollo-wmen" (TS Eliot).

f. Principle of Self-administration

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 Administration begins with the self in relationship to the fulfilment of a purpose.

The administrator begins with self-administration, the adaptation of his own stubborn,

passive, incompetent or dissentient self to the purpose, even if no one else is at work

with him on the job. Every professional worker—singer, actor, boxer, author,

scientist, nurse is obliged to administer himself or herself, they must retain their

caprices, harness their energies and abate spiritual and mental rebellion in their

natures for the successful and most economical mastery of purpose. This is self

administration.

In addition to the above, the following principles should be maintained in the

administration, To some extent centralization of authority and clear cut

responsibility is needed for intelligent operational work, Supervisors should use

proper knowledge and skills while directing their subordinates for smooth and

efficient programs. Power supply/communicating information to all officials or

units prevents conflicts and avoids many problems. Proper delegation of

authority with some power helps to have efficiency in an organization. Close

supervision needed to carrying out. Alertness or responsibilities of employees

must be maintained through repetition. Complacency and procrastination should

be avoided while taking quick decisions. Competent officials must insure

coordination during stress by intelligent evaluation of events.

VI. SCOPE OF ADMINISTRATION

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 The scope of administration is very wide. It is not only restricted to public

administration that deals with three functionaries,i.e. legislative, executive and

judiciary. As administration is universal in nature, its scope is wide. It covers all the

areas like school, hospital, business etc., all the managerial activities and functional

areas of management and administration like personnel, financial, material and

production are covered. In fact, it is considered as a process of planning, staffing,

organizing, coordinating and controlling the resources available to get the things done

or to accomplish the goals, then it can be applicable in any of the institution public or

private.

VII. IMPORTANCE OF ADMINISTRATION

a) It is life blood of organization, Administration department is backbone of an

organization. An effective administrator is an asset to an organization. It is

shoulder of an organization

b) Its main function is to achieve the objectives, Administration they provide

motivation to the work force and make them realize the goals of

the organization. Without good administration, organization is a house built on

sand or castle in the air

c) There is no substitute of good administration, that is nothing else is good or

useful enough to replace something in a good administration. 

d) Administration brings out the organizational growth , A good administration

brings out the organisation growth by effective and efficient performance

e) Good administration brings team together to work, A good teamwork is the

collaborative effort of a team to achieve a common goal or to complete a task

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 in the most effective and efficient way. This concept is seen within the greater

framework of a team, which is a group of interdependent individuals who work

together towards a common goal.

f) It gives new ideas, Administration gives some new ideas through imagination,

vision to an organization.

g) It is considered as a brain of organization, Administration is to establish a set of

principles that can help the organization

VIII. FUNCTIONS OF ADMINISTRATION

Professor Luther Gullick summed up certain principles or elements in the

word “POSDCORB”. POSDCORB is made up of initials and stands for the following

activities;

a) “P” stands for Planning

To plan is one of the basic and prime functions of nursing management. It

involves selecting the objectives. policies, strategies, programmes for the nursing

services. Inputs and resources for the processes needed for achieving the objectives

need to be forecasted. The objectives are set, policies are made, strategies are

determined and time scheduling is done. Tasks are defined and resources are planned.

It is decision making process. since it involves selecting from among alternatives. It

involves deciding in advance what to do, when to do, where to do, how to do, who is

going to do, and how the results are to be evaluated. It is the responsibility of nursing

manager of all level in the organization; the intensity and nature of planning differ.

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That is working out a broad outline, the things that need to be done and the methods

for doing them to accomplish the purpose set for the enterprises or of the purpose in

hand.

b) “O” stands for Organizing

It means developing a system. It is the process of developing physical

resources, informational resources, and human resources as per plan. Various

activities are carried out as to identify work activities, preparing job descriptions and

job responsibilities; assigning and identifying job roles, and developing rationales to

organize those activities. It involves totality of activities and authority relationship that

constitute organizing functions. According to Allen 'organization involves

identification and grouping the activities to be performed and dividing them among

the individuals and creating authority and responsibility relationship among them for

the accomplishment of organizational objectives. That is the establishment of the

formal structure of authority through which work of subdivisions are arranged,

defined and co-ordinated for the defined objectives. In other words building up the

structure of authority through which the entire work to be done is arranged into well-

defined subdivisions and co-ordination.

c) “S” stands for Staffing

That is the whole personnel function of bringing in and training the staff

and maintaining favourable conditions of work. In other words, staffing is appointing

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suitable persons to the various posts under the organisation and the whole of personnel

management. It involves manning the organizational structure through proper and

effective selection, appraisal, and development of nursing personnel. This process

includes setting recruitment procedures, selecting personnel, deploying them in proper

positions and organizing orientation and other skill training programme, appraising

them.

d) “D” stands for Directing

That is the continuous task of making decision and embodying them, in

specific and general orders and instructions and serving as leader of the enterprise.

Making decisions and issuing orders and instructions embodying them for the

guidance of the staff. Directing and leading is very important managerial function to

implement the system effectively. It is concerned with inspiring and encouraging staff,

creating understanding among them. Supervision, communication, exhibiting

leadership and motivating the staff are important ingredients for getting the maximum

output and to achieve the organizational objectives from them. According to Koontz

and O'Donnell, 'Direction embraces those activities which are related to guiding and

supervising subordinates'.

e) “CO” stands for Co-ordinating

That is all important duty of interrelating the various parts of the work and

eliminating of overlapping and conflict.

f) “R” stands for Reporting

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 That is keeping those to whom the executive is responsible informed as to

what is going on, which thus includes keeping himself and his subordinates informed

through records, research and inspection.

g) “B” stands for Budgeting

With all that goes with budgeting in the form of fiscal planning, accounting

and control. In American phraseology, budget stands for the whole of financial

administration.

IX. ADMINISTRATION Vs MANAGEMENT

There is a controversy on the use of these terms. Some authors say that

administration and management are the same thing and there is no difference

between two words while others feel that they are different functions. There are

persons who feel that administration is a part of management Various view points are

discussed such as

1. Administration Is different from management:

As per this views administration is a higher level activity while management is a

lower leve1activity. Administration is concerned with the determination of overall

objectives and policies of an enterprise while management is concerned with planning,

co-ordinating and controlling of business activities for attaining the enterprise

objectives. Ordway Tead has distinguished administration from management as

follows :

“Administration is the process and agency which is responsible for the

determination of the aim or which an organisation and management are to operate, and

which gives general oversight to the continuing of effectiveness of the total operation

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 in reaching the objectives sought. Management is the process and agency which

directs and guides the operations of an organisation in the realising of established

aims." Some other authors like Oliver Sheldon, Florance, Lansburg, Haiman are also

if the view that administration involves decision making and policy formulation while

management deals with execution and supervisory work. So American authors take

administration as a wider term than management.

2.Administration is a part of management: Another view is that administration

and organisation are ,a part of management Brech has propounded this view. In his

words, "Management is the generic term for the total process of executive control

involving responsibility for effective planning and guidance of the operations of an

enterprise.

B. MANAGEMENT

I. INTRODUCTION

Management is the art of getting things done through and with people

informally organised groups. It is the art of creating an environment in which people

can perform as individuals and yet co-operate towards the attainment of group goals.

It is the art of removing blocks to such performance, and a way of optimizing

efficiency in reaching goals. Management involves a set of activities directed at the

efficient and effective utilization of resources- human, financial and physical through

planning, organizing, leading and controlling functions. It is based on economic

resources, goals, processes and authority.

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 Management is all about plans and actions, but the administration is concerned

with framing policies and setting objectives. The manager looks after the

management of the organization, whereas administrator is responsible for

the administration of the organization. Management focuses on managing people and

their work.

II. DEFINITION OF MANAGEMENT

 Management is simply the process of decision making and control over the actions

of human beings for the express purpose of attaining predetermined goals.

Stanley Vane-

 Management is the distinct process consisting of planning, organizing, actuating

and controlling performance to determine and accomplish objectives by the use of

people and resources.

George.R.Terry

 Management has been defined as the creation and maintenance of internal

environment in an enterprise where individuals working together in groups, can

perform efficiently and towards the attainment of group goals.

Koontz and O Donell

III. CONCEPT OF MANAGEMENT

The term management is not so easy to define as different authors defined it

differently and used it in a variety of ways. Being a new discipline, it has drawn

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concepts and principles from a number of disciplines such as sociology, psychology,

anthropology, statistics and economics and so on. And each group contributor has

treated management differently. For example sociologists point of it is treated as a

class or croup of persons, practitioners have treated it as a process comprising

different activities. Traditional authors defile, it as an art of getting things clone and

modern authors viewed management as a process to achieve certain objectives

through utilization of human and other resources. Today.' the management can be

viewed with different concepts.

Traditional Concept Management is viewed as an art of getting the thing done.

Mary Parker Follett defines `management is the art to getting things done through

people' and according to George management Consists of getting things done through

others. A manager is one who accomplishes organizational objectives by directing the

efforts of others'.

A. Traditional concept

Management is viewed as an art of getting the thing done. Many Parker Follett

defines ‘management is the art of getting things done through people’ and according

to George ‘management consists of getting things done through others. A manager is

one who accomplishes organizational objectives by directing the efforts of others’.

A. Modern concept

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 Managing not only limited to directing the efforts of others to accomplish the goals

of organization but also involves creating an environment or climate in the

organization whereby the individuals are motivated to work efficiently to achieve

specific objectives of organization.

B. Functional Concept

According to this concept 'management is what a manager does'. The man

followers of this concept are Louis Allen, George R. Terry, Henry Fayol, E.F.L.

Brech, James L. Lundy, Koontz and O. Donnel, G.E Milward, mcfarland etc. The

functional concept as given by some of the authors is given below.

Louis Allen, -Management is what a manager does."

James L. Lundy, Management is principally the task of planning, coordinating,

motivating and controlling the effort of others towards a specific objective.

Management is what management does. It is the task of planning, executing and

controlling."

George R. Terry, "Management is a distinct process consisting of planning,

organizing, activating and controlling performed to determine and accomplish the

objective by the use of human beings and other resources."

Howard M. Carlisle, "Management is defined as the process by which the elements of

a group are integrated, coordinated and/or utilized so as to effectively and efficiently

achieve organizational objectives."

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 Henry Fayol, "To manage is to forecast, and plan, to organize, to command, to

coordinate and to control."

C. Management is for effective utilization of resources

Management is considered as a process of utilizing the resources effectively in

order to achieve the organizational objectives. Management involves planning,

organizing, staffing, coordinating, directing and controlling the activities of the

organization. According to Richman BM ‘ management entails the utilization of

human efforts and material resources towards the achievement of organizational

objectives’. ‘Sisk HL viewed that management is the effective utilization of all

resources through the process of planning, organizing, staffing, coordinating, directing

and controlling in order to attain stated objectives.

The term management conveys different meanings depend up on the context in which

it is used. The view of Theo Haimann in his popular book, ‘Professional management,

theory and practice, he is used the word management in four different senses.

1. Management as a discipline

When we talk about management as a discipline, we consider that it should be dealt

with concepts and principles as characteristics of discipline and these principles can be

applied in managing the related organizations. Management is multidisciplinary

discipline. It has been drawn from other related discipline like sociology, psychology

etc. It can also be treated as both art and science. It is recognized as a science as it has

developed principles and techniques that has universal application and also as an art as

skills are required by the manager to manage.

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 2. Management as an activity

In this context management is considered as any organized group activity that is

directed towards the particular goal. In order to achieve the goal, various managerial

activities are carried out; decisions are being taken and implemented. Efforts are made

to get the maximum output by utilizing the resources in an effective way. So the

management is what a manager does or performs activities.

3. Management as a group of people

In this particular concept, the management is referred to a group of all these persons,

who are involved in managerial functions in organization. Other group of people in

the organization is termed as non-managerial operational personnel, who are not

involved in manual or technical work.

4. Management a process

A process can simply be defined as a method that includes a series of actions leading

towards a goal, or as a systematic method of handling activities. Where as in

management also a number of interrelated activities e.g planning organizing, staffing,

directing or leading and controlling, are carried out in sequential manner to achieve

certain objectives hence termed as a process. It is also a process of decision making

and control over the action of human being for the existing purpose of attaining

predetermined goal.

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IV. IMPORTANCE OF MANAGEMENT

Management is the art of securing maximum prosperity with a minimum of effort.

d Wherever there is an organised group of people working towards common goals,

some type of management becomes essential. It has bc5A, rightly said that 'anything

minus management amounts to nothing'. In the words of Koontz and O'Donnel,"

There is no more important area of human activity than management since its task is

that of getting things done through others. Good management is to organization what

health is to the body-for the smooth functioning of all its pads. It highlights priorities,

adapts services to needs and changing situations, makes the most limited resources,

improves the standards and quality of services, and maintains high staff morale. Good

management helps increasing efficiency, to crystallize its nature, improve research

and to attain social goals and in many other ways. Management is the thinking organ

that provides vision to the organization. Peter F Drucker refers management as the

dynamic life-giving element of every business enterprise.

In the case of business enterprise, management is all the more important, because

"no business runs on itself, even on momentum, every business needs repeated

stimulus which can only be provided by management. According to Peter F. Drucker,

"Management is a dynamic life giving element in an organisation. In its absence the

resources of production remain resources and never become production." The

following points further highlight the importance of management:

a. Accomplishment of the organizational goal:

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 Management determines and accomplishes the goals of organization and other

departments. It is the management whereby all the activities are directed towards

the organizational objectives.

b. Provides vision and mission:

Management keeps itself in touch with changing needs of the society at large

and accordingly has the vision for the organization and identify the mission and

objectives of the organization and direct all the activities and strategies in that

light.

c. Increase efficiency:

The managers can become more effective by using established guidelines to

help, solve problems. Even no manager can control without basing them on plans,

that manager should have organizational authority necessary to accomplish the

result expected of them. No manager can develop a meaningful plan Do without a

clear idea of goal to be accomplished and the future environment premised for its

operation.

d. Crystallize nature of management:

Lack of understanding of concepts, principles and techniques of management

makes it difficult to analyze the management job and to train managers.

Management when viewed as human ii will help the managers to understand the

human dynamics and thus dealing in that way can bring the change in them and

can get the maximum output and potentials among them.

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e. Effective utilization of resources:

Management ensures the proper and effective utilization of human and

resources by using principles of management and using management techniques in

order to get the maximum performance.

f. Brings harmony in groups:

It is the management which directs and coordinates the activities of all the

individuals working in any organization in the use of materials, methods and

machines. It brings harmony among the group so that they work together with the

feeling of belongingness to achieve the organizational objectives.

g. To improve research:

Since management deals in for with people and since groups of people are

unpredictable and complex, effective research poses a question mark. It also deals

with planning action, the devising control and grouping of activities, the research

in all areas are slow and costly. Hence managerial techniques can improve upon

research or studies to be conducted and how to conduct to bring about the

evidences to apply in managerial activities to accomplish the organizational goals

and objectives.

h. To attain social goals:

The managing coordinates the efforts of people so that individual objectives can

be translated into social attainment. In fact, the organizations are to fulfill the

needs of community at large. So it the management, that has the vision and

strategies towards that direction.

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V. PRINCIPLES OF MANAGEMENT IN NURSING

Management principles in nursing are statements of fundamental truth related to

nursing field. These principles serve as guidelines for decisions and actions of nurse

managers working at any level in different settings. They are derived through

observation and analysis of events which nurse managers have to face in actual

practice in clinical, educational institutions or in any areas wherever they are working.

The principles of nursing management can be derived and applied from the principles

given by Henry Fayol who is known as the father of functional management or

management process, as he has given more emphasis on functions of managers and

showed regard to human elements with wider perspectives:

a. Division of Work :

This principle implies that every employee should be assigned only one type of

work so as to bring about specialization in every activity. The specialization will help

in creating specific personal and professional development among the nurses and

therefore increasing their efficiency. This principle is applicable to nurses working at

operational, supervisory as well as managerial level. This principle of management is

also called principle of specialization.

b. Authority and Responsibility:

Authority means the right to give order by a superior to het subordinates;

responsibility means the obligation for performance. This principle suggests that there

must be parity between authority and responsibility.. They are coexistent and go

together, and are two sides of the same coin.

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c. Discipline:

This third principle of the 14 principles of management is about obedience. It is

often a part of the core values of a mission and vision in the form of good conduct and

respectful interactions. Discipline refers to getting obedience to the rules and

regulation of the organization, proper conduct in relation to others respect of authority

or for superior, etc. It is essential for the smooth functioning of all organizations. This

management principle is essential and is seen as the oil to make the engine of an

organization run smoothly.

d. Unity of Command:

Every subordinate must receive orders and instructions and be accountable to one

and only to one superior. This will improve the performance of employee. If an

employee receives orders from more than one superior; it is likely to have the

overlapping of orders and instructions and create confusion and conflict. Dual

command generates tension, confusion and conflict, and results diluted responsibility

and blurred communication. It will be very difficult to maintain discipline in the

organization. Unity of Command also makes it easier to fix responsibility for mistakes

and there will be harmonious relationship between the superior and subordinates.

e. Unity of Direction:

This management principle of the 14 principles of management is all about focus

and unity. All employees deliver the same activities that can be linked to the same

objectives. All activities must be carried out by one group that forms a team. These

activities must be described in a plan of action. The manager is ultimately responsible

for this plan and he monitors the progress of the defined and planned activities. Focus

27
areas are the efforts made by the employees and coordination. Unity of direction

means that one head should give the direction. All the activities of a work unit or

group should be directed towards the same goal and those working in the same line of

activity must understand and pursue the same objectives. There should be one plan of

action for them. There will be the focus of 1 efforts and coordination of strength.

f. Subordination of Individual Interest to General Interest :

The management must put aside personal considerations and put organizational

objectives first. Therefore the interests of goals of the organization must reconcilation

over the personal interests of individuals. The general interest can be shown by the

subordinates through collective bargaining.

g. Remuneration:

Motivation and productivity are close to one another as far as the smooth running

of an organization is concerned. This management principle of the 14 principles of

management argues that the remuneration should be sufficient to keep employees

motivated and productive. There are two types of remuneration namely non-monetary

(a compliment, more responsibilities, credits) and monetary (compensation, bonus or

other financial compensation). Ultimately, it is about rewarding the efforts that have

been made. The employee must be just and fair to everyone so that each employee

gets motivated to work. There should be compensation for services by considering

both financial and non financial factors mix.

h. Centralization

It means the extent to which authority is centralized or decentralized. It also means

that concentration of authority rests at one place or at one level in the organization.

28
The amount of power rested with the central management depends on organization

size. Centralization lays the concentration of decision making authority at the top

management. Dispersal of authority with lower levels is called decentralization. There

should be a proper balance. The level of centralization is a matter of proportion as is

the division of labour.

i. Scalar Chain of command or hierarchy:

Scalar Chain is the chain of superiors ranging from top management to the

lowest rank. The principle suggests that there should be a clear line of authority from

top to bottom linking all managers at all levels. It recognizes the necessity of format

authority in the organization.

j. Order:

Social order ensures that there should be a place for everything and everyone.

Material order ensures safety and efficiency in the workplace. Facilities must be tidy,

materials orderly stored and systematically arranged as per the need of the department

and staff selected according to strict procedures and clear job descriptions.

k. Equity:

The management principle of equity often occurs in the core values of an

organization. Equity means fair and impartial treatment. According to Henri Fayol,

employees must be treated kindly and equally. Employees must be in the right place in

the organization to do things right. Managers should supervise and monitor this

process and they should treat employees fairly and impartially. Employees must be

treated with kindness, and justice must be enacted to ensure a just work environment.

29
Managers should be fair and impartial when dealing with employees. They must

constantly apply the correct balance between equity and discipline.

l. Stability of Tenure:

This management principle of the 14 principles of management represents

deployment and managing of personnel and this should be in balance with the service

that is provided from the organization. Management strives to minimize employee

turnover and to have the right staff in the right place. Focus areas such as frequent

change of position and sufficient development must be managed well. The job of

employees should not be too short and they should not be rotated from positions

frequently. An employee cannot render worthwhile service if she is removed before

she got used to the work assigned to her.

m. Initiative:

Subordinates should be given an opportunity to take some initiative in developing

and initiating the plans as it can become a source of strength for the organization

because it provides new and better ideas by the employees. Employees are likely to

take greater interest in the functioning of the organization.

n. Esprit de Corps (Union is strength):

This means sense of belonging, team spirit, the spirit of loyalty, devotion and

cooperation which unites the members of the group. The managers need to ensure and

develop morale in the workplace; individually and communally. Team spirit helps to

develop an atmosphere of mutual trust and understanding. There are two enemies of

Esprit de Corps i.e. divide and rule and abuse of written communication by the

30
 superior that make the organization weak by creating the groups. Good managers

perseveres, however, and never loses sight of basic principles.

VI. ROLE OF A MANAGER

Formal authority and status

Interpersonal roles Informational roles Decisional role

Figure head Monitor Entrepreneur

Leader Disseminator Disturbance handler

Liason Spokesman Resource allocator

Negotiator

In the practice of management, the manager must take number of actions like

planning, organizing, directing, coordinating, controlling, simultaneously and as a part

of continuum.

1. Figure head Role of Manager

Managers perform the duties of a ceremonial and symbolic in nature such as

welcoming official visitors, signing legal documents etc as head of the organization

or strategic business unit or department.

Duties of interpersonal roles include routine, involving little serious

communication and less important decisions. However, they are important for the

smooth functioning of an organization or department.

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2. Leadership Role of Manager

All managers have a leadership role. The manager, as in charge of the

organization/department, coordinates the work of others and leads his subordinates.

This role includes hiring, training, motivating and disciplining employees.

Formal authority and functional authority provides greater potential power to exercise

and get the things done.

3. Liaison Role of Manager

As the leader of the organization or unit, the manager has to perform the

functions of motivation, communication, encouraging team spirit and the like. Further,

he has to coordinate the activities of all his subordinates, which involves the activity

of liaison.

This role also requires the manager to interact with other managers outside the

organization to secure favours and information. In this role, the manager represents his

organization in all matters of formality.

5. Monitor Role of Manager

As a result of the network of contacts, the manager gets the information by

scanning his environment, subordinates, peers and superiors.

The manager seeks and receives information concerning internal and external

events so as to gain understanding of the organization and its environment. Typically

this is done through reading magazines and talking with others to learn the changes in

the public’s tastes, what competitors may be planning, and the like.Managers, mostly

32
collect information in verbal form often as gossip, hearsay, speculation and through

grapevine channels.

5. Disseminator Role of Manager

Manager disseminates the information, he collects from different sources and

through various means. He passes some of the privileged information directly to his

subordinates, peers and superiors who otherwise have no access to it. This information

is gathered by him from his environments and from his own equals in the

organization. The manager will play an important role in disseminating the

information to his subordinates, when they don’t have contact with one another.

6. Spokesman Role of Manager

Managers also perform a spokesperson role when they represent the

organization to outsiders. Manager is required to speak on behalf of the organization

and transmit information on organization’s plan, policies and actions.

The manager has to keep his superior informed of every development in his

unit, who in turn inform the insiders and outsiders. Directors and shareholders must be

informed about the financial performance, customers must be informed about the new

product developments, quality maintenance, government officials about

implementation of law etc.

7. Entrepreneurial Role of Manager

As an entrepreneur, the manager is a creator and innovator. He initiates and

oversees new products that will improve their organization’s performance. He seeks to

33
improve his department, adapt to the changing environmental factors. The manager

would like to have new ideas, initiates new projects and initiates the developmental

projects.

8. Disturbance Handler Role of Manager

As a disturbance handler, managers take corrective action to response to

previously unforeseen problems. Disturbance handler role presents the manager as the

involuntarily responding to pressures. Pressures of the situation are severe and highly

demand the attention of the manager and as such the manager cannot ignore the

situation. For example, worker strike, declining sales, bankruptcy of a major customer

etc. The manager should have enough time in handling disturbance carefully, skilfully

and effectively.

9. Resource Allocator Role of Manager

The most important resource that a manager allocates to his subordinates is his

time. As a resource allocator, managers are responsible for allocating human, physical

and monetary resources. Accordingly, setting up of a time schedule for the completion

of an operation or approval of expenditure on a particular project, etc., are the

functions which the managers perform in the role of a resource allocator.The manager

should have an open-door policy and allow the subordinates to express their opinions

and share their experiences. This process helps both the manager and his subordinates

in making effective decisions. In addition, the manager should empower his

subordinates by delegating his authority and power.

34
 10. Negotiator Role of Manager

In this role, the manager represents the organization in bargaining and

negotiations with outsiders and insiders, in order to gain advantages for his own unit.

He negotiates with the subordinates for improved commitment and loyalty, with the

peers for cooperation, coordination and integration, with workers and their unions

regarding conditions of employment, commitment, productivity, with the government

about providing facilities for business expansion etc. These negotiations are integral

part of the manager’s job for only he has authority to commit organizational resources

and has nerve centre of information

C. THEORIES AND MODELS

THEORIES
I. INTRODUCTION
Theory refers to a set of logically interrelated concepts, statements, propositions

and definitions which have been derived from philosophical beliefs of scientific data

and from which questions or hypotheses can be deducted, tested and verified. It

characterizes some phenomenon. Theory has been described as a systematic

explanation of an event in which the constructs an concepts are identified and

relationships are proposed and predictions made (Strubert-Speziale and Carpenter,

2003). It has been called a set of interpretative assumptions, principles, or propositions

that help explain or guide action (Young, Taylor, and Renpenning, 2001). The

management thought as theory in the curren4 economic situation can best be

understood in the light of its historical growth particularly since 1900. Management

35
 science develops a theory base from many disciplines such as business, Psychology,

sociology and anthropology.

II. DEFINITION OF THEORY

Theory has been described as a systematic explanation of an event in which

the constructs an concepts are identified and relationships are proposed and

predictions made.

Strubert-Speziale and Carpenter 2003

III. EVOLUTION OF MANAGEMENT THEORIES/ TYPES OF THEORIES

During the last 100 years, management has become a more scientific discipline

with certain standardized principles and practices. The evolution of management

thought during this period can be studied in three parts under:

1) The classical theory of management comprising three streams

i) Scientific management

ii) Bureaucracy

iii) Process management theory/ Administrative management theory This is

also known as structural theory of management.

Structural theory

Bureaucracy Scientific management Administrative

management

(Maxlveber) (F.W. Jaylor) (Henrifayal)

36
 2) The Neo-classical theory:- Covered two streams dealing with human factor

i) Human relations and

ii) Behavioural sciences approach

iii) Mc Gregor — Theory X and Theory Y

3) Modern management theories again comprised three stream of thought.

i)Technical and quantitative sciences offering quantitative decisio,1 making through

operations research and with the help of computes and information system.

ii) Systems approach to organization and management and

iii) Contingency approach to organization and management.

IV. THE FOUR IMPORTANT THEORIES FOCUSED FOR NURSE

MANAGERS ARE:

 Scientific management theory

 Classic organizational theory

 Human relations theory

 Behavioural science theory

 Modern management theory

A. SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT THEORY:

Principles: the scientific management focuses on

 Observation

 The measurement of outcome

The pioneers of scientific management are:

37
 1. Frederick W. Taylor (1856-1915)

2. Gantt Henry I. Gantt (1861-1910)

3. Emerson (1853-1936)

1) Frederick W. Taylor (1856-1915):

Taylor is recognized as father of scientific management. He conducted

Time-And- Motion studies to time the workers, Analyze their movements and

set their standards. He used stop watches. He applied the principles of

observation, measurement and scientific comparison to determine the most

effective way to accomplish a task.

Achievements of Taylor:

1. He trained his workers to follow the time to complete the task given. The

most productive workers were hired even when they were paid an

incentive or wage.

2. Labour costs per unit were reduced as a result.

3. Responsibilities of management were separated from the functions of the

workers.

4. Developed systematic approach to determine the most efficient means of

production.

5. He considered management function is to plan.

38
 6. Working conditions and methods to be standardized to maximize the

production.

7. It was the management’s responsibility to select and train the workers

rather than allow them to choose their own jobs and train by themselves.

8. He introduced an incentive plan to pay the workers according to the rate

of production to minimize workers dissent and reduce resistance to

improved methods.

9. Increased production and produce higher profits.

The effect of time- motion study of Taylor:

1. Reduced wasted efforts

2. Set standards of performance

3. Encouraged specialization and stressed on the selection of qualified

workers who could be developed for a particular job.

2) Gantt Henry I. Gantt (1861-1910):

Gantt was concerned with problems related to efficiency. He contributed to

scientific management by refining the previous work of Taylor than introducing

new concepts.

1. He studied the amount of work planned or completed on one axis to the

time needed or taken to complete a task on the other axis.

39
 2. Gantt also developed a task and bonus remuneration plan whereby

workers received a guaranteed day’s wages plus a bonus for production

above the standard to stimulate higher performance.

3. Gantt recommended to select workers scientifically and provided with

detailed instructions for their tasks.

4. He argued for a more Humanitarian approach by management, placing

emphasis on service rather than profit objectives.

5. He recognized useful non –monetary incentives such as job security and

encouraging staff development.

3) Emerson (1853-1936):

His emphasis was on conservation and organizational goals and objectives.

He defined principles of efficiency related to:

1. Interpersonal relations and to system in management.

2. Goals and ideas should be clear and well-defined as the primary objective

is to produce the best product as quickly as possible at minimal expense.

3. Changes should be evaluated-management should not ignore

“commonsense” by assuming that big is necessarily better.

4. “Competent counsel “is essential.

40
His theory explains about

1. Management can strengthen discipline or adherence to the rules by

justice, or equal enforcement on all records, including adequate, reliable

and immediate information about the expenses of equipment and

personnel should be available as a basis for decisions.

2. Dispatching or production scheduling is recommended.

3. Standardized schedules, conditions and written instructions should be

there to facilitate performance.

4. “Efficiency rewards “should be given for successful completion of tasks.

5. Emerson moved further beyond scientific management to classic

organizational theory.

4. Charles Babbage (1792-1871): Charles Babbage ,a scientist mainly

interested in mathematics, contributed to the management theory by developing

the principles of cost accounting and the nature of relationship between various

disciplines. Charles Babbage laid the foundation for much of the work that

later come to be known as scientific management. He concentrated on

production problems and stressed the importance.

1) Division and assignment of work on the basis of skill and

2) The means of determining the feasibility of replacing manual operations with

automatic machinery.

41
 B. CLASSIC ORGANIZATIONAL THEORY:

Importance of classic organization theory:

 The classic administration-organization thinking began to receive

attention in 1930.

 Organization is viewed as whole rather than focusing solely in

production.

 The concepts of scalar levels, span of control, authority, responsibility,

accountability, line staff relationships, decentralization, and

departmentalization become prevalent.

Three pioneers of Classic organizational theory:

1) Henry Fayol (1841-1925):

Fayal was a French industrialist known as father of the management

process school concerned with management of production shops. He studied the

functions of managers and concluded that management is universal.

All the managers regardless of the type of organization or their level in

organization have essentially the same tasks such as planning, organizing,

issuing orders, coordinating and controlling. These six aspects of

42
administration, falling into two main groups related as to process and effect as

follows:

Process effect

1. Forecasting plan

2. Organization coordination

3. Command control

These six aspects of administration follow each other in logical sequences.

The plan needs organization which in turn needs coordination of the effort of

the person involved. In this sense, the schematic representation of the elements

of administration can be shown below,

 Principles- process- objective- effect

 Investigation- forecasting

 Reality- organization- plan- coordination of

control

 Order- command

Functions of management:

1. Planning policies, programs and procedures.

2. Organization based on hierarchy of authority

3. Directing the business in order to gain optimum return from all

workers.
43
 4. Coordination, signifying harmony in activities of the organization and

to facilitate its working

5. Control, the errors of the functionaries of organization and ensure that

such errors do not occurs.

Fayol divided all the work carried out in a business enterprise into the

following categories.

1. Technical activities (production, manufacture, etc)

2. Commercial activities (buying, selling, personnel, and industrial

relations)

3. Financial activities( to have optimum use of capitals)

4. Security activities(production of property and persons)

5. Managerial activities(planning organizing, commanding, directing,

coordination control, communication, motivation .leadership)

He derived general principles of management:

1. Division of work

2. Authority and responsibility

3. Discipline

4. Unity of command

5. Unity of management

6. Subordination of industrial interests to the common good

44
 7. Remunerative

8. Centralization

9. Hierarchy

10.Order of team members justice

11.justice

12.Stability of tenure

13.Initiative

14.Sense of union

The requirements listed above, there, are still more principles by which good

organization can be recognized. They are as follows:

1. The number of organization units should be the minimum needed to

cover the major enterprise functions.

2. All related functions should be combined within one unit.

3. The number of levels of authority should be kept to a minimum.

4. There should be room for initiative with the limit of his assigned

authority.

5. Functions should be assigned so as to minimize cross relations between

organizational units.

6. No more employees should report to a superior than he can effectively

direct and coordinate.

45
 Fayal also stressed that managers should possess physical, mental, moral,

educational and technical qualities to conduct the multifaceted operations of

business enterprise.

Fayol desired that management training should be provided to imbibe the

principle and qualities essential for management. Technical ability is most

important and managerial ability becomes more significant and quality to be

cultivated for top-level executives. Fayol advocated some valuable concepts in

management which can be incorporated usefully in present day analysis of

management science. His emphasis on unity of command and direction, non-

financial incentive, decentralization, coordination has greater relevance even

today.

1. Division of work: there should be division of work and task

specialization than different workers consistently carrying out different

job responsibilities.

2. Authority: each worker should be given authority to commensurate with

the amount of his responsibility.

3. Discipline: each worker and management should maintain proper

discipline, voluntarily according to their placement.

4. Unity of command: each employee should receive orders from one

supervisor only.

46
5. Unity of direction: one person should direct all activities that support a

single objective.

6. Subordination of individual interest to general interest,i.e the interest of

the individual work, should be subordinated to the interest of the total

work group.

7. Remuneration: proper remuneration which includes salaries, allowance

and other incentives to be given to all employees according to their level

of performance and responsibility by the management or employee.

8. Centralization or decentralization: certain power and functions

reserved with top level authorities and other power and functions are

distributed to executives and co –executives and workers also to some

extent.

9. Scalar chain: there should be an unbroken scalar chain/hierarchy of

authority extending from the top executive to the lowest level worker.

10.Order: there should be proper policies, rules and regulations to maintain

an orderly situation in the organization.

11.Equity: All employees should be treated with equity and justice.

12.Stability and tenure: there should be prescribed tenure which is needed

for all employees.

13.Initiative: all employees and management should take proper Initiative to

achieve the objectives of the organization.

47
 14.Esprit de corps: the group spirit and group morale can be cultivated

among employees and employer to accomplish objectives.

Fayol recognized the tentative and flexible nature of these principles,

stressing that effective management result from basing each action on the

appropriate principle.

2) Max Webber theory (1864-1920):

He is German psychologist. He earned the title of father of organizational

theory. His emphasis was on rules instead of individuals and on competencies

over favouritism. His conceptualization was on bureaucracy, structure of

authority that would facilitate the accomplishment of organizational objectives:

The three basis for authority:

1. Traditional authority, which is accepted because it seems things have

always been that way such as the rule of a king in a monarchy.

2. Charisma, having a strong influential personality.

3. Rational legal authority which is considered rational in formal

organizations because the person has demonstrated the knowledge, skills

and ability to fulfil the position.

48
3) James Mooney Theory (1884-1957):

Moony believed that management to be the technique of directing people

and organization the technique of relating functions. Organization is

managements responsibility.

Four universal principles:

1. Coordination and synchronization of activities for the accomplishment of

goal.

2. Functional affects the performance of one’s job description.

3. Scalar process organizes level of commands.

4. Arrange authority in to a higher Archie.

Consequently people get their right to command from their position in the

organization

C. HUMAN RELATION THEORY:

The human relations movement began in 1940s.

 Focused on the effect that the individuals have on the success or failure of

an organization.

 Classic organization and management theory concentrated on the physical

environment fail to analyze the human element.

49
Instead of concentrating on the organizations structure, managers encourage

workers to develop their potentials and help them meet their needs for

 Recognition

 Accomplishment

 Sense of belonging

1). Follett theory(1868-1933):

1. Follett stressed the importance of coordinating the psychological and

sociological aspects of management in 1920s.

2. She perceived the organization s a social system and management as a

social process.

3. Indicated that legitimate power is produced by a circular behaviour where

by superiors and subordinates mutually influence one another.

4. The law of the situation dictates that a person does not take orders from

another person but from the situation.

2). Lewin theory (1890-1947):

1. Lewin focused on the Group dynamics.

2. He maintained that groups have personalities of their own: composites of

the member’s personalities.

3. He showed that group forces can overcome individual interests.

50
D. BEHAVIORAL SCIENCE THEORY:

Emphasis is on:

1. Use of scientific procedures to study the psychological,

2. Sociological,

3. Anthropological aspects of human behaviour in organization.

Behavioural Science Indicated:

1. The importance of maintaining a positive attitude toward people,

2. Training managers,

3. Fitting supervisory actions to the situation,

4. Meeting employees needs.

5. Promoting employees sense of achievement,

6. Obtaining commitment through participation in planning and decision

making.

1) Douglas McGregor’s Theory (1932):

McGregor’s is the father of the classical theory of management which

termed theory. He developed the managerial implications of Maslow’s theory.

He noted that one’s style of management is dependent on ones philosophy of

humans and categorized those assumptions as theory X and theory Y.

51
Theory X

1. The manager’s emphasis is on the goal of organization.

2. The theory assumes that people dislike work and avoid it.

Consequence of theory X

 Workers must be directed

 Controlled

 Coerced

 Threatened

So that organizational goals can be met.

According to theory X

1. Most people want to be directed and to avoid responsibility because they

have little ambition.

2. They desire security.

Managers who accept the assumption of theory X

1. Will do the thinking and planning with little input from staff associates.

2. They will delegate little, supervise closely.

3. Motivate workers through fear ad threats

4. Failing to make use of the workers potentials.

52
Theory Y

It is focuses on goal.

1. People do not inherently dislike the work and that work can be a source

of satisfaction.

2. Workers have the self direction and self control necessary for meeting

their objectives.

3. Will respond to the rewards for the accomplishment of those goals.

Managers who believe in this Y theory:

1. Will allow participation

2. They will delegate

3. Give general supervision than close supervision

4. Support job enlargement

5. Use positive incentives such as praise and recognition.

They believe that under favourable conditions: people seek responsibility and

display imagination, unity and creativity. According to theory Y human

potentials are only partially used.

2).Rensis Likert’s theory:

Dr Rensis Likert has studied human behaviour within many

organisations. After extensive research, Dr. Rensis Likert concluded that there

are four systems of management. According to Likert, the efficiency of an

His theory of management is based on his work at the University of Michigan’s

institute for social research.Likert categorised his four management systems as

follows;

He identified three variables in organizations.

1. The casual variable includes leadership behaviour.

2. The intervening variables are perceptions, attitudes and motivations.

3. The end results variables are measures of profits, costs and productivity.

Likert believes that the managers may act in ways harmful to the organization

because they evaluate end results to the exclusion of intervening variables.

So, he developed a Likert scale questionnaire that includes measures of casual

and intervention variables.

Factors measured by likert scale

The scale measures several factors related to leadership behaviour process:

 Motivation

 Managerial

 Communication

 Decision making process

 Goal setting

 Staff development
54
Four types of management system according to likert.effcets on the

management systems:

a). Exploitive-authoritative:

1. He associates the first system with the least effective in performance.

2. Managers show less confidence in staff associates and ignore their ideas.

3. Consequently staff associates do not feel free to discuss their jobs with

their managers

b). Benevolent- authoritative:

1. Staff associates ideas are sometimes sought, but they do not feel free to

discuss their jobs with the manager.

2. Top and middle management are responsible for setting goals.

3. There is minimal communication. Mostly downward and received with

suspicion.

4. Decisions are made at the top with some delegation.

c). consultative system:

1. The manager has substantial confidence in staff associates.

2. Their ideas are usually sought.

3. They fell free to discuss their job with the manager.

4. Goal setting is fairly general.

5. It has limited accuracy and accepted with some caution.

55
 6. Broad policy is set at the top level.

7. There are decisions making throughout organization.

8. Control functions are delegated to lower level where.

9. Reward and self guidance are used.

10.There is some resistance from informal groups in the organization.

d) Participative group:

Group Participative is the most effective performance. Managers have

complete confidence in their staff associates. Their ideas are always sought, and

they feel completely free to discuss their jobs with the manager. Goals are set at

all levels. There is a great deal communication- upward, downward, and later

that is accurate and received with open mind.

He is strong believer of participative management and supportive

relationships. His linking –pin concept is based on studies about the differences

between good and poor managers a measured by their level of productivity.

Good mangers found to have more influence on their own managers than did

poor managers. Their managerial abilities and procedures were better received

by their staff associates. When middle managers have the opportunity for

interaction with their manager, workers can have input and there is a chance for

the individuals and the organizational goal to become similar.

56
E. MODERN MANAGEMENT THEORIES:

The modern era is characterized by trends in the management through viz:-

1. Microanalysis of human behaviour, motivation, group dynamics

leadership leading to many theories of organization.

2. The macro search for fusion of the many systems in business

organization-economic social technical political and quantitative methods

in decision- making.

Modern management theories era can be father classified as the three streams

viz:

4. Quantitative approach

5. System approach

6. Contingency approach

Indicating further refinement, extension and synthesis of all the classical and

neo- classical approaches to management.

1. Quantitative approach: Management science refers to the application of

Quantitative methods to management. Management science has an

interdisciplinary basis in other words management science is a combination and

interaction of different scientists.

2. System approach:-according to system approach the organization is the

unified, purposeful systems composed of interrelated parts and also interrelated

whole, each manager most interact/ communicate and deal with executives of

other unites and the organization itself must also interact with other

organizations and society as whole

An open system model

Ludwing Von Bertanffy:

Bertanffy, a biology is credited with coining the general system theory. His

contention were that it was possible to develop a theoretical framework for

describing relationship in the real world and different disciplines with

similarities could be developed into a general systems model. The similarities

were:

58
 1. Study of organization

2. State of equilibrium

3. Openness of all systems and their influence o the environment and

environment influence on the system.

4. Contingency approach: The contingency approach can be described as

the behavioural approach.

Luther Gulick:

He was influenced by Taylor and Fayol. He used Fayal’s five elements of

administration viz.Planning,Organizing,Command,Coordination and Control

as a frame work for his neutral principles. He condensed the duties of

administration into a famous acronym”POSDCORB”.Each letter in the

acronym stands for one of the seven activities of the administrator as given

below:

 Planning (P): working out the things that need to be done and the

methods for doing them to accomplish the purpose set for the enterprise.

 Organising (O): establishment of the formal structure of authority through

which work subdivisions are arranged, designed and coordinated for the

defined objective.

 Staffing (S): the whole personnel function of bringing in and training the

staff, and maintaining favourable conditions of work.

59
  Directing (D): continuous task of making decisions and embodying them

in specific and general orders and instructions, and serving as the leader

of the enterprise.

 Coordinating (CO): all important duties of interrelating the various parts

of the work.

 Reporting (R): keeping the executive informed as to what is going on,

which includes keeping himself and his subordinates informed through

records, research and inspection.

 Budgeting (B): all that goes with budgeting in the form of fiscal planning,

accounting and control.

Luther Gulick was very much influenced by Fayal’s 14 basic elements of

administration in expressing his principles of administration as follows:

1. Davison of work or specialization

2. Bases of departmental organization

3. Coordination though hierarchy

4. Deliberate coordination

5. Decentralization

6. Unity of command

7. Staff and line

8. Delegation

9. Span of control

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LYNDAL URWICK:

lyndal urwick also one of the among classical theorist, attached more

important to the structure of organization than the role of the people in the

organization.

lyndal urwick concentrated his efforts on the discovery of principles and

identified eight principles of administration applicable to all organization as

given below:

1. The “principle of objective”-that all organizations should be an

expression of a purpose.

2. The “principle of correspondence”-that authority and responsibility must

be co-equal.

3. The “principle of responsibility”-that the responsibility of higher

authorities of the work of subordinates is absolute.

4. The “scalar principle”-that a paramedical type of structure is build up in

an .

5. The “principle of span control”-

6. The “principle of specialization”-limiting ones work to single function.

7. The “principle of coordination”-

8. The “principle of definition”-clear prescribed of every duty.

4. Critical theory versus critical thinking:

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 Steffy and Grimes note that a strict natural science approach to social

science is native, since subjective or qualitative analysis is important to

quantitative research. This holds true for management and, consequently for

nursing management. The authors suggest a critical theory approach to

organizational science rather than a phenomenological or hermeneutic

approach.

Phenomenological approach uses second order constructs “interpretations

of interpretation. “The nurse manager would interpret the meaning of nursing of

nursing management experience or observations and arrive at a nursing

management theory from aggregate of meanings.

Hermeneutic approach is the art of textual interpretation. She would

consider the specific context and historic dimensions of data collected, and

would reflect on the relationship between theory and history.

Critical theory: Critical theory is an empirical philosophy of social institutions.

It is translated into practice by decision makers, in these case nurse managers. It

includes organizational development, management by objectives or results,

performance appraisal, and other practice- oriented activities performed by

managers.

Aims:

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  To critique the ideology of scientism, “the institutionalized form of

reasoning which accepts the idea that the meaning of knowledge is

defined what the sciences do and thus can be adequately explicated

through analysis of sciencetific producers.

 ‘To develop an organizational science capable of changing organizational

processes. “it is used the practice of clinical nursing and nursing

management.

Critical thinking: Concept analysis is advocated as a strategy for promoting

critical thinking. The rudiments of critical thinking: recalling facts, principles,

theories, and abstractions to make deductions, interpretations, and evaluations in

solving problems, making decisions, and implementing changes. Concept

analysis uses critical thinking to advance the knowledge base of nursing

management as well as nursing practice.

Definition: critical thinking is reflecting on a situation, a plan an event under the

rule of standards and antecedent to making a decision.

(Mackenzie)

Critical thinking is both a philosophical orientation toward thinking and a

cognitive process characterized by reasoned judgment and reflective thinking.

(Jones and brown)

ABRAHAM MASLOW:

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 Abraham Maslow an American psychologist has given best known

classification of human needs as “Need Hierarchy”

Abraham Maslow arranges individual needs in a Hierarchical manner.

1. Physiological needs:-the basic things necessary for human survival e.g.

hunger thirst, shelter etc.

2. Security needs:- include job security or safety and the work place, thus

giving psychological security to human being.

3. Social needs:-represent the relationship between and among groups of

people working in the organization.

4. Self Esteem needs :-represent higher level needs of human being

5. Self –actualization:-is a higher level need represents culmination of all

other needs.

 Abraham Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs motivational model

Abraham Maslow developed the Hierarchy of Needs model in 1940-50s

USA, and the Hierarchy of Needs theory remains valid today for understanding

human motivation, management training, and personal development. Indeed,

Maslow's ideas surrounding the Hierarchy of Needs concerning the

responsibility of employers to provide a workplace environment that encourages

and enables employees to fulfil their own unique potential (self-actualization)

are today more relevant than ever. Abraham Maslow's book Motivation and

Personality, published in 1954 (second edition 1970) introduced the Hierarchy

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of Needs, and Maslow extended his ideas in other work, notably his later book

Toward A Psychology Of Being, a significant and relevant commentary, which

has been revised in recent times by Richard Lowry, who is in his own right a

leading academic in the field of motivational psychology.

Abraham Maslow was born in New York in 1908 and died in 1970,

although various publications appear in Maslow's name in later years. Maslow's

PhD in psychology in 1934 at the University of Wisconsin formed the basis of

his motivational research, initially studying rhesus monkeys. Maslow later

moved to New York's Brooklyn College.

The Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs five-stage model below (structure and

terminology - not the precise pyramid diagram itself) is clearly and directly

attributable to Maslow; later versions of the theory with added motivational

stages are not so clearly attributable to Maslow. These extended models have

instead been inferred by others from Maslow's work. Specifically Maslow refers

to the needs Cognitive, Aesthetic and Transcendence (subsequently shown as

distinct needs levels in some interpretations of his theory) as additional aspects

of motivation, but not as distinct levels in the Hierarchy of Needs.

Where Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs is shown with more than five levels

these models have been extended through interpretation of Maslow's work by

other people. These augmented models and diagrams are shown as the adapted

seven and eight-stage Hierarchy of Needs pyramid diagrams and models below.

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 There have been very many interpretations of Maslow's Hierarchy of

Needs in the form of pyramid diagrams. The diagrams on this page are my own

interpretations and are not offered as Maslow's original work. Interestingly in

Maslow's book Motivation and Personality, which first introduced the Hierarchy

of Needs, there is not a pyramid to be seen.

 HERZBERG’S TWO FACTOR THEORY:

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 This theory was developed in 1959.It is based on realisation that work

motivation and job-satisfaction are two dimensions that influence the

productivity of an employee. Herzberg’s finding that good working conditions,

adequate salary, good physical facilities, good human relation, quality of

supervision might contribute to job satisfaction, of employees, which are”

hygiene” factors. Whereas factors like recognition of work done, status,

opportunities for growth, challenging task, play an important role in creating

work motivation for employees, which are the motivation factors.ltter, many

authors interpreted that all the motivation factors described by Herzberg do not

give equal amount of satisfaction to all employees.

Implications of management theories in nursing:

1. Taylor’s theory can be implemented in nursing to study complexity of

care and determine staffing needs and observe efficiency and nursing

care.

2. Nurses can utilize Emerson’s theory of early notion of the importance of

objectives setting in an organization.

3. Nurses should be aware of the managerial tasks as defined by Fayol:

Planning, Organizing, Directing, Coordinating and Controlling.

4. The theory of human relations of Follett and Lewin emphasise the

importance for nurse managers to develop staff to their full potential and

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 meeting their needs for recognition, accomplishment and sense of

belonging.

5. Mc Gregon and Likert support the benefits of positive attitudes towards

people, development of workers, satisfaction of their needs and

commitment through participation.

MODELS

I. DEFINITION OF MODEL

Models are graphic or symbolic representations of phenomena that

objectify and present certain perspectives or points of view about nature or

function or both.

a) LEADER PARTICIPATION MODEL

This model is based decision tree to guide leaders about when and when not to

include subordinate participation in decision making. It considers 12 contingency

variables

I. Importance of the decision.

A systematic approach to decision making, such as the Vroom-Yetton Decision

Model, allows you to bring consistency and order to a process that might otherwise

feel idiosyncratic and instinctive. It can also help you to determine the most

effective means of reaching a decision.

II. Importance of obtaining follower commitment to the decision.

When associates are involved in the decision making, they feel that people in

ownership and management positions value them as a significant contributor to the

and commitment to ensure the department's or company's success.

III. Whether the leader has sufficient information to make a good decision.

A leader’s ability to make a high percentage of good decisions is fundamental to the

effectiveness of the individual and the success of his or her organization. 

IV. How well structured the problem is.

Well-structured problems are those in which the initial state, goal state, and

constraints are clearly defined. Solving well-structured problems  requires procedural

knowledge that follows a completely defined and step-by-step procedure.

V. Whether an autocratic decision would receive follower commitment.

Autocratic leadership is a management style wherein one person controls all

the decisions and takes very little inputs from other group members.

Autocratic leaders make choices or decisions based on their own beliefs and do not

involve others for their suggestion or advice.

VI. Whether followers “buy into” the organization goal.

 It needs leaders to set clear and ethical goals for themselves and others.

VII. Whether there is likely to be conflict among followers over solution alternative.

Conflict can promote team building skills, critical thinking, new ideas,

and alternative resolutions.

VIII. Whether follower have the necessary information to make a good decision.

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 Followers will be less committed to the team if the leader doubts their decisions. For

instance, choosing the best alternative from many alternatives and making a good

decision

IX. Time constraints

Time constraints on the leader that may limit follower involvement.

X. Whether costs to bring geographically dispersed members together is justified.

 For example, the method used to bring the team members together in working and

travel costs to bring together individuals who are geographically dispersed.

XI. Importance to the leader of minimizing the time it takes to make the decision.

Leaders who don't fail make bad decisions from time-to-time is critically

important when attempting to make prudent decisions. It will minimize the chances

of making a bad decision:.

XII. Importance of using participation as a tool for developing follower decision skills.

Involvement of the members is necessary for specialized set of skills, motivations,

and the power to enhance to make decisions.

b) DECISION MAKING MODEL

1. Herbert A. Simon’ Decision making model

Herbert simon is an eminent American political and social scientist.

According to Simon, decision making is a core of administrative actions that

fills the gap between principles and practice and organization as a structure of

decision makers. He determined decision making premises and create a structure

which will permit and stimulate the transmission of necessary information.

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 There are three phases of decision making;

a) Intelligence activity

a. The first stage involves finding out the condition requiring action.

b) Design activity

a. During second stage, all possible alternative courses of actions are

identified, developed and analyzed.

c) Choice activity

In this phase, the executive select one of the best alternative course of action.

2. Vroom and Jago decision making model

This model originally was created by Vroom and Yetton in 1973 and later

modified by Vroom and Jago. Basically there are five situations for making decisions,

from a single individual making the decision, to an individual making the decision

with varying amounts of input from the rest of the group, to the whole group making

the decision.

a) Autocratic I

Leader solves the problem along using information. Leader makes own decision

using information that is readily available to him or her at the time. This type is

completely autocratic.

b) Autocratic II

Leader obtains additional information from group members, and then makes

decision alone. Leader collects required information from followers, then makes

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decision alone. Problem or decision may or may not be informed to followers. Here,

followers' involvement is just providing information.

c) Consultative I

Leader shares problem to relevant followers individually and seeks their ideas and

suggestions and makes decision alone. Here followers do not meet each other and the

leader’s decision may or may not reflect his followers' influence. So, here followers'

involvement is at the level of providing alternatives individually.

d) Consultative II

Leader shares problem to relevant followers as a group and seeks their ideas and

suggestions and makes decision alone. Here followers meet each other, and through

discussions they understand other alternatives. But the leader’s decision may or may

not reflect the followers' influence. So, here followers involvement is at the level of

helping as a group in decision-making.

e) Group II

Leader meets with group to discuss situation and the focuses and directs

discussions. Leader discusses problem and situation with followers as a group and

seeks their ideas and suggestions through brainstorming. Leader accepts any decision

and does not try to force his or her idea. Decision accepted by the group is the final

one.

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SUMMARY

The knowledge on theories of management for nurse leaders can be

useful in creating and developing their own management styles. One needs to

understand that no single theory can be well fit and guide nursing leaders in

every situation. The important theories developed at different periods of time

are discussed in order to help nurse managers to adapt and function effectively.

The above mentioned topics are, the five important theories, the model and

implication of management theories in nursing

CONCLUSION:

The theories is very important in management of health care setting

.proper planning of work will improve the quality of services provided in the

organization. So the nurse managers should know about types of theories and

model of nursing management. It is a process by which a co –operative group

direct action towards common goals.

BIBLIOGRAPHY:

 Deepak K “ A comprehensive text book nursing management” , 1 st edition(2003)

Emmes medical publishers, Bangalore.

 R.K.Sharma Shashi K.Gupta “Principles of management”, (2004), Kalyani

publishers, New Delhi.

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 Neelam kumari “ A text book of management of nursing services and education”,

3rd edition( 2011), S.Vikas and company medical publishers, India.

 Jogindra vati “ Principles and practice of nursing management and administration

for MSc nursing”, 1st edition(2013), Jaypee medical publishers, Newdelhi.

 Basavanthappa B T “ Nursing administration” , 2 nd edition(2009), Jaypee medical

publishers, Newdelhi

 I.Clement “ Management of nursing services and education”, 2011, Elseiver

publication, Haryana.

INTERNET REFERENCE

1. www.currentnursing.com

2. www.see.ed.a.uk

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