chapter 5 Steps in Quantitative Research (2 of 35)

An Overview of Quantitative and

Qualitative Research • The scientific research process
Comparison of Qualitative and – Identify the research problem.
Quantitative Research (1 of 4) – Determine the purpose of the study.
– Formulate the research question.
• Quantitative Research – Review the literature.
– Systematic empirical approach to – Develop a theoretical/conceptual framework.
understanding phenomena – Identify the study assumptions.
– Numeric, observable, and measurable data – Acknowledge the limitations of the study.
– Not completely unbiased, but provides
a level of objectivity Steps in Quantitative Research (3 of 35)
– Based on:
▪ Concepts of manipulation – Formulate the hypothesis.
▪ Control of phenomena – Define study variables and terms.
▪ Verification of results – Select the research design.
– Identify the population.
Comparison of Qualitative and
Quantitative Research (2 of 4) – Select the sample.
– Conduct a pilot study.
• Qualitative Research – Collect the data.
– Focuses on gaining insight into a – Organize the data for analysis.
phenomenon or understanding about
an individual’s perception of events Steps in Quantitative Research (4 of 35)
– Does not rely on manipulation and control
– Focuses on observing and describing – Analyze the data.
things as they naturally occur – Interpret the findings.
– Communicate the findings.
Comparison of Qualitative and Quantitative – Utilize the findings.
Research (3 of 4)
Quantitative Qualitative Steps in Quantitative Research (5 of 35)
Objective data Subjective data
Explanation Discovery • Identify the Research Problem
Parts are equal to the Whole is greater than – Research problem
whole the parts ▪ Area where knowledge is needed to
One truth Multiple truths advance practice
Large sample sizes Small sample sizes ▪ Generally broad then narrowed to specific
Random samples Deliberately selected problem
samples ▪ Should be of interest to researcher
Participants or Participants or ▪ Should be significant to nursing
subjects informants Steps in Quantitative Research (6 of 35)
Results presented as Results presented as – Terms goals, objectives, problem
numbers/statistics narrative data area, problem statement, purpose,
Researcher separate Researcher part of the and research question sometimes
from the study study used interchangeably
Comparison of Qualitative and – State problem as a question
Quantitative Research (4 of 4) ▪ Interrogative sentence that asks a
specific question about the topic
• Nature of nursing lends itself well to both of interest
quantitative and qualitative research. Steps in Quantitative Research (7 of 35)
• Determine the Purpose of the Study
• Both research methods share some
– Difference between purpose and problem
commonly accepted steps in the research
▪ Problem tells what is studied.
process.
▪ Purpose tells why study is being done.
– Most quantitative studies follow similar steps.
– Studies may have one or both.
Steps in Quantitative Research (1 of 35)
Steps in Quantitative Research (8 of 35)
• First step: Identification of problem • Formulate the Research Question
– Specific question researcher expects to be
• Final step: Communication and utilization
answered
of research findings
– Specify variables and populations
• Some variation in the steps between, ▪ Variables are attributes that differ
same general progression among persons, objects, events, and
• Number varies from author to author. subjects being studied.
• Authors may combine several steps into one
step.
Steps in Quantitative Research (9 of 35) ▪ Predicts relationships between variables
–Independent
• Review the Literature
–Dependent
– Find out what knowledge exists on the topic.
▪ Predicted answer to research question
– Search a variety of sources
▪ Must be testable or verifiable empirically
▪ Indexes Steps in Quantitative Research (17 of 35)
▪ Abstracts
▪ Computer-assisted research – Types of hypothesis
▪ Directional research
Steps in Quantitative Research (10 of 35) –Contains direction of researcher’s
expectations
– Look at theory and framework Preferred for nursing studies Steps in
– Plan study methods
– Continues until time to collect data has ended Quantitative Research (25 of 35)
– Initial review may actually occur before
identification of problem. – Types of samples
Steps in Quantitative Research (11 of 35) ▪ Probability samples
–Random selection process in
• Develop a Theoretical/Conceptual Framework which each member of
– Research helps test, develop, and refine population has a chance
theories. ▪ Nonprobability samples
– Process assists in selection of study variables. –Researcher has less confidence that
– Directs hypothesis and interpreting findings sample is representative
– Answers the “so what” question(s) – Nursing research is generally conducted
– Adds to our nursing body of knowledge with human beings.
– Research without theory provides a set ▪ Voluntary participation
of isolated facts. Steps in Quantitative Research (26 of 35)

Steps in Quantitative Research (12 of 35) – Conduct a Pilot Study

▪ Pilot study
• Identify the Study Assumptions –Miniature trial version of planned study
– Assumptions –Helps examine issues
▪ beliefs held to be true, but not necessarily • Design
proven • Sample size
– Each investigation is based on assumptions. • Data collection procedures
▪ Should be stated explicitly • Data analysis approaches
▪ Often implicit ▪ Revisions made for larger study
Steps in Quantitative Research (13 of 35) after pilot is conducted.
▪ Null hypothesis
– Three types of study assumptions
–Predicts no relationship exists
▪ Universal assumptions
between variables
– Assumed to be true by a large
percentage of society Steps in Quantitative Research (18 of 35)
▪ Assumptions based on theory or research
findings • Define the Study Variables/Terms
▪ Commonsense assumptions – Variables and terms must be clear to
researcher and reader.
Steps in Quantitative Research (14 of 35) ▪ Conceptual definition
–Dictionary definition of an abstract idea
• Acknowledge the Limitations of the Study
▪ Operational definition
– Limitations
–How variable will be observed
▪ Uncontrolled variables
–Allows for replication of study
▪ May affect study results
– Population for study should be defined or
▪ May limit generalization of the findings
narrowed.
Steps in Quantitative Research (15 of 35)
Steps in Quantitative Research (19 of 35)
– Extraneous variables
▪ Researcher either has no control, or • Select the Research Design
chooses not to exercise control
– Plan for how study will be conducted
– Explain limitations at end of study
▪ Type of data collected
Steps in Quantitative Research (16 of 35)
• Formulate the Hypothesis ▪ Means used to obtain data
– Hypothesis
 Steps in Quantitative Research (20 of 35)
Steps in Quantitative Research (29 of 35)
– Varies with the type of study conducted
▪ Quantitative versus qualitative • Organize the Data for Analysis
▪ Experimental versus nonexperimental – Should be planned before data collection
Steps in Quantitative Research (21 of 35) ▪ Decisions will have to be made
about missing data.
▪ Experimental – Consult with statistician.
–True experimental ▪ Determine what data is needed
–Quasi-experimental ▪ Appropriate statistical procedures for
–Pre-experimental designs analysis
–Investigator has more active role/control. Steps in Quantitative Research (30 of 35)

Steps in Quantitative Research (22 of 35) • Analyze the Data

– The process is easier now.
▪ Nonexperimental – Data are placed into computerized
–No active manipulation of variables data analysis programs.
–Sometimes difficult to conduct – Results are analyzed almost instantaneously.
experimental research with human Steps in Quantitative Research (31 of 35)
beings
• Interpret the Findings
Steps in Quantitative Research (23 of 35) – Does data support research hypothesis?
• Identify the Population – Is framework supported?
– Population – Problems encountered should be discussed.
▪ Complete set of subjects Limitations of study design can influence results.
possessing some common Steps in Quantitative Research (32 of 35)
characteristic of interest
– Target population – Results of present study compared with
▪ Also called the universe previous studies that investigated same
or similar variables.
▪ Group of subjects to which the
researcher wishes to generalize – Implications for nursing are indicated.
study findings – Recommended changes to nursing
– Accessible population practice, nursing education, or nursing
administration should be based on
▪ Group available for study
findings.
– Two populations must be similar for study to
– Recommendations for future research are
be applicable.
proposed
– Generalization Steps in Quantitative Research (33 of 35)
Steps in Quantitative Research (24 of 35)
• Communicate the Findings
• Select the Sample
– May be most important step
– Sample
– Findings have little value without
▪ Subgroup of population dissemination.
▪ Represents population – Nonsignificant findings have value in
▪ Helps make generalizations publication.
Steps in Quantitative Research (34 of 35)
Steps in Quantitative Research (27 of 35)
– Variety of mediums
• Collect the Data ▪ Research journals
– Data ▪ Clinical journals
▪ Pieces of collected information or facts ▪ Presentations at conferences
– Variable or variables must be measured ▪ Poster presentations
– Less formal
Steps in Quantitative Research (28 of 35)
Steps in Quantitative Research (35 of 35)
– Systematic data collection procedures
▪ Who will collect the data? • Utilize the Findings
▪ When will the data be collected? – Researcher’s involvement in implementation
▪ Where will the data be collected? ▪ Recommendations
▪ What data will be collected? ▪ Consultant
▪ How will the data be collected? ▪ Disseminating findings
Many research projects use more than one data-
collection method.
 – Problem area of study may remain
general until researcher enters field
setting
– May indicate:
Qualitative Nursing Research (1 of 22) ▪ General nature of phenomenon to be
studied
• Nursing value system is more consistent
▪ Group or community that will be studied
with qualitative research.
• Individual’s perspective is very important. Qualitative Nursing Research (9 of 22)
• Important source of knowledge about nursing
• State the Purpose
Qualitative Nursing Research (2 of 22) – One-sentence statement of purpose

• Types of Qualitative Research Qualitative Nursing Research (10 of 22)

– Action research
▪ Case study • Select the Research Design
▪ Critical social inquiry – Depends on phenomenon that will be studied
▪ Discourse analysis ▪ Phenomenological approach
▪ Ecological psychology ▪ Grounded theory
▪ Ethical inquiry ▪ Action research
Qualitative Nursing Research (3 of 22) ▪ Other options
Qualitative Nursing Research (11 of 22)
– Ethnography
▪ Ethnology • Review the Literature
▪ Ethnomethodology – Researchers debate about timing.
▪ Ethnonursing – Some qualitative research may not start with
review.
▪ Ethnoscience
▪ Few believe review may bias the study
▪ Feminist inquiry
results
Qualitative Nursing Research (4 of 22) –Prefer to review literature at end of
study
– Grounded theory –Tells how results fit with the body of
knowledge
▪ Hermeneutics
▪ Historical
Qualitative Nursing Research (12 of 22)
▪ Phenomenology
▪ Philosophical inquiry • Select the Sample
▪ Symbolic interaction – Generally smaller in size
– No set rules about size
Qualitative Nursing Research (5 of 22)
– Quality of data over quantity
– Depending on design chosen, steps may vary. ▪ Data often deeper and richer than in
quantitative studies
– Research process is seldom linear.
– Saturation
▪ Constant comparison
▪ Researcher hears a repetition of themes
or salient points
Qualitative Nursing Research (6 of 22)
▪ Data become redundant.
• Steps in the Qualitative Process Qualitative Nursing Research (13 of 22)
– Identify the problem to study
• Gain Entry to Research Site
– State the purpose
– Research in field or where participants live or
– Select the research design
work
– Review the literature
– IRB approval
– Select the sample ▪ Before approaching potential participants
– Gain entry to the research site ▪ To receive funding
– Protect the rights of participants – Gatekeepers
▪ Key people in area of interest
Qualitative Nursing Research (7 of 22)
▪ Key informants In ethnographic research
– Collect the data
Qualitative Nursing Research (14 of 22)
– Analyze the data
– Interpret the data • Protect the Rights of Participants
– Utilize the study results – Close interaction between researcher and
participants
Qualitative Nursing Research (8 of 22)
– Ethical considerations
• Identify the Problem of the Study – Anonymity versus confidentiality
Demographic information may be omitted ▪ Posters

Qualitative Nursing Research (22 of 22)

• Utilize the Study Results

– Findings should be used in nursing practice.
Qualitative Nursing Research (15 of 22) – Implications for nursing practice
– Most physicians, nurses, and assistive
• Collect the Data
personnel operate as separate
– Interview healthcare providers.
▪ Probably most common method
▪ Little communication
▪ Interviewer obtains responses from a
participant
Combining Quantitative and Qualitative
– Participant observation
Methods (1 of 2)
▪ Direct observation and recording of
information • Using mixed methods research is fairly new
practice for nurse researchers
Qualitative Nursing Research (16 of 22)
– Variety of methods used in a single study
to answer a question
– Time frame not specified
– Most comprehensive point of view
– Focus groups
– Often most efficient and cost-effective
▪ Small group of individuals meeting
together and being asked questions Combining Quantitative and Qualitative
Qualitative Nursing Research (17 of 22) Methods (2 of 2)

– Rigor • Triangulation
▪ No one way to assess or assure rigor – Important concept in mixed methods studies
▪ Rigor in terms of trustworthiness – Most often indicates use of two or more
1) credibility different sampling strategies, data
2) transferability collectors, data-collection procedures, or
theories in one study
3) dependability
– Using more than one means of gaining
4) confirmability
understanding about phenomenon
Qualitative Nursing Research (18 of 22)
Chapter 6
• Analyze the Data
Identifying Nursing Research Problems
– Analysis begins once data collection begins.
▪ Involves an examination of words Introduction (1 of 2)
rather than numbers
– Can take months • Clearly identified research problem area is not
– Content analysis typical.
▪ Creating categories of data • Mistake to try to examine too much in one
▪ Developing rules for coding data into study.
categories
• Number of potential nursing studies is infinite.
Qualitative Nursing Research (19 of 22)
Introduction (2 of 2)
– Coding is basic data analysis tool.
• Critical first step
– Data can be analyzed manually or
– Delineate study area clearly
through computer software programs.
– State research problem concisely
▪ QDAS
Qualitative Nursing Research (20 of 22) • Difficult for beginners
• Expectation of nursing students
• Interpret the Data – Identify problems appropriate for
– Occurs simultaneously with data collection nursing research studies
– Looking for themes and patterns
– Consider how study results can be applied Sources of Nursing Research Problems (1 of
5)
Qualitative Nursing Research (21 of 22)
• Personal experiences
• Communicate the Study Results • Literature sources
– Variety of mediums
• Existing theories
▪ Peer-reviewed journals
▪ Nursing research journals • Previous research
▪ Clinical journals
Sources of Nursing Research Problems (2 of
▪ Nursing conferences 5)
 – Ethical guidelines
• Personal experiences ▪ Federal government
– Important source ▪ Professional organizations
– Instances have produced questions.
– A topic for study may be easily identified. Research Problem Considerations (3 of 13)

• Significance to Nursing
– Every nursing study should have
Sources of Nursing Research Problems (3 of significance for nursing.
5) – Researcher should ask questions:
▪ Will clients benefit from the findings?
• Literature sources
▪ Will health care professionals
– Recommendations for further studies
benefit from the findings?
▪ Conclusion of published and unpublished
▪ Will the findings add to our
studies
nursing body of knowledge?
– Contemporary nursing leaders
▪ Can nurses use the results?
continually plead for nursing research.
▪ Is there a gap in knowledge that will be
Sources of Nursing Research Problems (4 of filled?
5)
Research Problem Considerations (4 of 13)
• Existing theories
• Personal Motivation
– Desperately needed research
– Researcher must be interested in the topic.
– Research is a process of theory
development and testing. ▪ Nurses should choose research
questions that they “care deeply
– Theories may need to be adapted for
about.”
individual patients or clients in specific
healthcare settings. – Research can become
fascinating.
– Generally, an entire theory is not tested.
▪ Study becomes a treasure hunt.
– Testing of an existing theory, or
Research Problem Considerations (5 of 13)
deductive research, is definitely needed
in nursing.
• Researcher Qualifications
– Advanced educational preparation
Sources of Nursing Research Problems (5 of
5) – Beginning research skills should be
learned at the undergraduate level.
• Previous research – Healthy competition may be fostered.
– Importance of replication studies – Collaboration among varying skill levels.
– If nursing practice is to be guided by
research, results of studies must be Research Problem Considerations (6 of 13)
verified.
• Feasibility of Study
– Repeating a study with all essential
elements of original study held intact – Many questions need to be answered
▪ Replication of a previous study does ▪ How long will the project take?
not always imply plagiarism. ▪ Are appropriate instruments available?
– Investigations are also needed that ▪ Can subjects be obtained?
address shortcomings of previous ▪ What is the cost?
research. ▪ Does the researcher have support for the
project?
Research Problem Considerations (1 of 13) Research Problem Considerations (7 of 13)

• Many factors should be considered: • Time

– Ethical issues – Always a factor to be considered
– Significance of study for nursing – Wise to allow more time than seems to be
– Personal motivation of researcher needed
– Qualifications of researcher ▪ Unexpected delays frequently occur.
– Feasibility of study
Research Problem Considerations (2 of 13) Research Problem Considerations (8 of 13)

• Ethical issues • Cost

– Many unethical studies have been – Some studies are much more expensive than
conducted since WWII and continue others.
today. – Financial resources must be considered.
– Responsibility of researchers to guarantee – Many sources of outside funding exist.
research is conducted in an ethical
manner. Research Problem Considerations (9 of 13)
• Equipment and supplies Research Question Criteria (4 of 7)
– Making an accurate determination of
needed equipment and supplies before • Includes the
making final decision to conduct a study Variable(s)
is essential. – One-Variable Studies
– Important questions include: ▪ Exploratory in nature
1. What equipment will be needed? ▪ Univariate or single-variable study
2. Is this equipment available and in ▪ Frequently beginning step in research
proper working order? project
3. Is there a qualified operator of the
equipment? Research Question Criteria (5 of 7)
4. Are the necessary supplies available or
– Two-Variable Studies
can they be obtained?
Research Problem Considerations (10 of 13) ▪ Research in nursing is frequently
concerned with two variables.
– Common pieces of equipment are used ▪ Bivariate study
in nursing research. –Independent variable-cause
▪ Physiological data-gathering devices –Dependent variable-effect
▪ Office equipment ▪ Correlation studies
▪ Computers and data analysis programs –Independent and dependent
variable are not identifiable
Research Problem Considerations (11 of 13) –Research variables
Research Question Criteria (6 of 7)
• Administrative support
– Release time to conduct research – Multivariate study
– Ask for funds ▪ More than two variables
– Faculty expectations and support varies ▪ Multivariate
Research Problem Considerations (12 of 13) ▪ Becoming increasingly common
▪ Interaction of the variables
• Peer support Research Question Criteria (7 of 7)
– Without support, many research
ideas are not developed. • Empirically Testable
– Collegial relationship is important. – Variables that can be measured by researcher
– Climate of shared interest is essential. – Data gathered through sense organs
Research Problem Considerations (13 of 13) – Ethical and value issues are not appropriate.
– Avoid words like cause and effect.
• Availability of Subjects
– Subjects are not always available. Research Question Format (1 of 2)
▪ May not meet inclusion criteria
▪ Be unwilling • Correlational and Comparative Research
▪ May already be in other studies Questions
Research Question Criteria (1 of 7) – Correlational statement
▪ More than one variable
• Interrogative sentence form ▪ Seeks relationship between
• Includes population independent and dependent
variables
• Includes variable(s)
– Comparative statement
• Empirically testable ▪ Descriptive or experimental study
▪ More than one variable
▪ Differences between independent and
dependent variables
Research Question Criteria (2 of 7) Research Question Format (2 of 2)

• Written in Interrogative Sentence Form • Neutral and Nonpredictive

– Not declarative – Several reasons for leaving the research
question neutral or nonpredictive.
– Demands an answer
– Little knowledge or information at study onset
– Grammatically correct and complete sentence
– Literature review may help in developing
– Understandable and facilitates response
framework.
Research Question Criteria (3 of 7)
Critiquing Problem Statements,
• Includes the Population Purpose Statements, and Research
– Narrow down to main group of interest Questions (1 of 6)
– Does not identify specific study population
• Reader will need to locate problem 7. Is the feasibility of the study evident?
statement, purpose statement, or research 8. Is the significance to nursing apparent?
question.
– Information should be presented at Chapter 7
beginning of report. Review of the Literature
– Difficult to evaluate study without this Purposes of the Literature Review
information • Determine what is already known about
the topic of interest
– Locate previous studies in that area
– Specify problem to be studied
Statements, and Research Questions (2 • Help locate a framework for proposed study
of 6) • Help plan study methodology

• Problem Statement • Idea for a study may actually be formed during

review.
– Purpose statements and research
Literature Sources (1 of 7)
questions are easily identifiable.
▪ Problem statements may not be. • Types of Information Sources
▪ Either incomplete or absent – Finding tools are used to locate literature
– Designed to get the reader’s attention to the sources.
problem ▪ Resources or search tools
Critiquing Problem Statements,
Purpose Statements, and Research Literature Sources (2 of 7)
Questions (3 of 6)
– Reference materials
– Four – Books
components – Scholarly journals
a)Lead-in – Magazines
b) Declaration of originality – News sources
c) Indication of central – Statistics
focus of the study d)Explanation – Reports, research studies, and conference
of study significance papers
– Theses and dissertations
– Social media
Literature Sources (3 of 7)

• Primary and Secondary Sources

– Primary sources
Critiquing Problem Statements, ▪ Written by original investigator or
Purpose Statements, and Research researcher
Questions (4 of 6)
▪ Frequently found in journal articles
• Purpose Statement
▪ Should be read whenever possible
– Is the purpose of the study clearly stated?
▪ Start by reading abstract or summary
– Is the purpose of the study concisely stated?
▪ Frequently contain reference citations
– Does the purpose of the study logically
flow from the problem?
Literature Sources (4 of 7)
Critiquing Problem Statements,
Purpose Statements, and Research – Secondary sources
Questions (5 of 6) ▪ Summary or description of research
• Research Questions study written by someone else
– Based on the problem statement, purpose ▪ May provide valuable insights
statement, or research question: ▪ Risk of misinterpretation or omission
1. Is the research problem area clear?
2. Is there a succinct problem Literature Sources (5 of 7)
statement, purpose statement, or
research question? • Grey Literature
3. Are the study variables and the – Gray literature
population included? – Not controlled by commercial publishers
4. Was the study quantitative or qualitative? – Not indexed or available in major databases
Critiquing Problem Statements, – Examples
Purpose Statements, and Research ▪ Conference proceedings
Questions (6 of 6) ▪ Dissertations
5. Were empirical data gathered on ▪ Fact sheets
the topic of interest?
▪ Technical documents
6. Was the study ethical?
▪ Unpublished research reports
Literature Sources (6 of 7) – Use options and limiters
▪ Vary according to specific resource
– Publication Bias ▪ Recommend using “advanced
▪ No significant findings search” when available
▪ But findings should not be omitted ▪ Examples of advanced search options and
– Much designed to make technical limiters
material or research findings more –and/or/not/
easily understood by a lay audience –as a phrase
–without the word
–date range
–language
Literature Sources (7 of 7)
Search Strategies (7 of 32)
– Research institutes produce working
papers and issue briefs. ▪ Examples of advanced search options and
– Organizations write policy briefs to limiters
summarize findings of a number of –includes references
individual research studies.
–audience
– Indexes
–URL
▪ CINAHL and Scopus Index often provide
–research type
access to grey literature.
Search Strategies (1 of 32) –age
–peer reviewed
• Develop a Search Strategy Search Strategies (8 of 32)
– Planning can make the search easier,
faster, and often yield better results. • Ask a Librarian
Search Strategies (2 of 32) – Libraries contain a wealth of information.
– Tour the library and consult the staff.
– Decide on your search question – Librarians have skills and expertise.
▪ Question provides framework for literature
review. Search Strategies (9 of 32)
▪ Provide a clear focus.
▪ If question is too broad it may – Before beginning research project, make
lead in many directions. appointment with librarian
Search Strategies (3 of 32) ▪ “Research informationists”
▪ Prepared to work with research teams
– Question whether the topic needs to be more – Librarians love research.
specific ▪ Knowledgeable and helpful
▪ What do certain terms and criteria mean? Search Strategies (10 of 32)
▪ What factors might be important?
▪ Changes will be made as you see what – Evaluate results
has been studied and those results. ▪ Check title, abstract, description, or
keywords for search terms
Search Strategies (4 of 32) ▪ Source authoritative?
▪ Publication date in line?
– Create a set of search terms or phrases
▪ Use nouns, noun phrases, keywords. Search Strategies (11 of 32)
▪ Expand search words with synonyms,
antonyms, other relevant words. – Follow instructions for reference
▪ Limit catalog search to specific materials citations in the assigned style.
by adding terms such as reference or ▪ American Psychological Association (APA)
encyclopedia. – “Record references accurately” (RRA)
▪ In databases, add terms such as study, – Digital object identifier (DOI)
research, measurement, statistics,
▪ Unique number
randomized, validity, and narrative
to retrieve research studies.
Search Strategies (12 of 32)
▪ Include Medical Subject Headings (MeSH).
Search Strategies (5 of 32) • Finding Tools
– Other terms for finding tools are indices and
– Decide if currency is important
resources.
▪ May want to limit search to past five or ten
– Catalogs
years
– Databases
▪ Research studies often cover a
significant time period. – CINAHL
– MEDLINE
Search Strategies (6 of 32) – Cochrane
Search Strategies (13 of 32) literature available
▪ Covers a wide range of topics
– Ovid Nursing ▪ Provides access to:
– Joanna Briggs EBP –Healthcare books
– PsychINFO –Nursing dissertations
– ProQuest Dissertations and Thesis databases –Selected conference proceedings
– Science Direct –Standards of practice
– Scopus –Audiovisuals and book chapters

Search Strategies (14 of 32)

Search Strategies (20 of 32)
– Catalogs
▪ Index print and electronic holdings ▪ Provides access to:
▪ Most are available online. –Legal cases
▪ Give information on how or where –Clinical innovations
to access sources –Critical paths
Search Strategies (15 of 32) –Research instruments
–Clinical trials
▪ World Cat ▪ Available as an institutional based
–Listing of library collections subscription only
throughout the world
–Nonprofit, membership computer Search Strategies (21 of 32)
library service and research
organization – MEDLINE Databases
▪ Discovery catalogs ▪ National Library of Medicine
▪ Provides access to journals in life sciences
Search Strategies (16 of 32) ▪ Concentration on biomedicine
▪ Includes information from nursing,
– Databases dentistry, veterinary medicine, and
▪ Index research reports pharmacy
–Journal articles
–Dissertations Search Strategies (22 of 32)
–Research reviews
▪ MEDLINE With Full Text
–Many other sources both
published and unpublished –Most comprehensive source for full-text
articles
▪ Some address specific topics.
• Coverage from 1949 to present
▪ Others are multidisciplinary.
Search Strategies (17 of 32) • Full-text material from 1965 to present
–Institutional subscription only.
▪ Several index and provide abstracts of
articles from nursing, medicine, and Search Strategies (23 of 32)
other health sciences.
▪ Access to many databases through ▪ MEDLINE®Plus
institution- based subscriptions –Free website for consumer health
–Others are available online at no cost information
• PubMed –Covers topics of interest to
• Cochrane healthcare consumers
–Written in plain language
Search Strategies (18 of 32)
Search Strategies (24 of 32)
▪ Many databases will link directly to
full-text sources. ▪ PubMed
–Might locate source on your library –Official Database of NIH
shelves –Provides free access to MEDLINE
–Ask librarian to request source from database
another library Search Strategies (25 of 32)
Search Strategies (19 of 32)
– Cochrane Database of Systematic Review
• Selected Databases for Nursing Students ▪ Global independent network
– CINAHL Databases ▪ Cochrane Library
▪ Cumulative Index to Nursing and Allied –Collection of databases
Health Literature –Available as an online subscription
▪ Indexes top nursing and allied health database
 –Working toward achieving Search Strategies (31 of 32)
universal open access
– Scopus
Search Strategies (26 of 32) ▪ Elsevier product
▪ Abstract and citation database of
– Ovid Nursing database scientific journals, books, and
▪ Institutional subscription database conference proceedings
▪ Provides content through Lippincott ▪ Features smart tools to track,
Williams & Wilkins analyze, and visualize research
▪ Available as an institutional-based
subscription

▪ Also provides access to:

Search Strategies (32 of 32)
–The Joanna Briggs Institute EBP
Database of Evidence Based – Search Engines
Recommended Practices
▪ Finding tools to help find literature sources
–Joanna Briggs Institute (JBI) Library online
website
▪ Biggest challenge is sorting through
information
Search Strategies (27 of 32)
▪ Google Scholar
– PsychINFO ▪ Don’t pay for articles that your library
▪ Prepared by American Psychological already owns
Association ▪ Information becomes somewhat
▪ Literature from psychology and related outdated almost as soon as it becomes
disciplines available
–Such as nursing
Writing the Literature Review (1 of 9)
▪ Available as
–Institutional subscription • Literature review
–Individual pay-per-use access – Must include organized information
from sources found through a
Search Strategies (28 of 32) comprehensive search
– Purpose is to offer a data-based synthesis
– ProQuest Dissertations & Theses Database of existing research relevant to a topic.
(PQDT) – After information sources are analyzed,
▪ Comprehensive collection of researcher will combine information and
dissertations and theses summarize what was discovered.
▪ Available as Writing the Literature Review (2 of 9)
–Institutional subscription
–Individual pay-per-use access • Extracting Information from Literature Sources
Search Strategies (29 of 32) – Each literature source must be
analyzed and interpreted.
– ProQuest Nursing & Allied Health database – Findings and conclusions will be used.
▪ Abstracting and indexing for – Do not omit important information.
–Nursing journals ▪ Better to have too much information
–Videos
–Dissertations Writing the Literature Review (3 of 9)
–ebooks
• Critiquing the Literature Review in a Research
–Conference papers Article
–Other sources in nursing – Difficult to evaluate if you are not
–Allied health familiar with literature and previous
–Alternative and complementary research for the topic
medicine – If sources appear to be older than 5
–Other health sciences years, some recent references may
Search Strategies (30 of 32) have been omitted.
– Determine if the researcher is citing
– Science Direct primary sources or secondary sources.
▪ Elsevier product – Some sources listed in the
▪ Abstracting and indexing for scientific, references may be important.
technical, and medical peer-reviewed – Parallel searching
journals and books Writing the Literature Review (4 of 9)
▪ Database includes nursing, allied health,
and other health science sources. • Components of a Literature Review
▪ Available as an institutional subscription – Critique Checklist
 1. Is the literature review comprehensive? –Based on your questions resulting
2. Is the literature review concise? from what you found or didn’t find
3. Does the review flow logically from the in the literature
purpose? –Write about aspects of the topic
4. Are all sources relevant to the study topic? where further research is needed
5. Are sources critically appraised? • Include new research questions.
▪ Closing summary
–A discussion about highlights in the body
–Illustrate how previous research
correlates to the thesis statement.

Writing the Literature Review (5 of 9)

Chapter 9
6. Are both classic and current sources Hypotheses
included? Hypotheses Overview (1 of 8)
7. Are paraphrases or direct quotes used most
often? • In scientific research, hypotheses are intelligent
guesses.
8. Are both supporting and opposing
theory and research presented? • Statement of the predicted relationship
9. Can a determination be made if between two or more variables
sources are primary or secondary? • Hypothesis of a study
10. Are all sources that are cited in – Expected outcome of the proposed research
the article on the reference list? question
• Only quantitative studies have hypotheses.
Writing the Literature Review (6 of 9)
Hypotheses Overview (2 of 8)
11. Does review include an • Links the independent and the dependent
introduction, analysis, and synthesis of variables
the literature sources; suggestions for • In experimental studies
further research; and a summary of
– Independent variable is referred to as the
findings?
cause
12. Are sources cited fully,
– Dependent variable is referred to as the effect
offering clear access to evidence?
13. Will reader find the review • In nonexperimental studies
interesting and informative? – Cause and effect are not appropriate
Writing the Literature Review (7 of 9) – Researcher does not manipulate the
independent variable
– Most literature reviews include: Hypotheses Overview (3 of 8)
▪ Introduction
• Should always be written before the study
–An overview of the topic begins
–Objectives of the review
• Should not be changed after the study
–Research question and thesis statement results are examined
–Description of methods used to locate Hypotheses Overview (4 of 8)
sources
–Justification used for inclusion and • Purposes of Hypotheses
exclusion of sources – Lend objectivity to investigations
–Explanation of how sources were – Test theoretical propositions
evaluated and categorized – Advance scientific knowledge
Writing the Literature Review (8 of 9) – Scientific knowledge gained
– Guide research design
▪ Body
– Dictate statistical analysis used
–Where you document what is known
– Show researcher’s expectations
about the research topic
– Guides evidence-based nursing practice
–Answer the question, “What is the Hypotheses Overview (5 of 8)
evidence?”
–Provide an analysis of how each • Sources or Rationale for Hypotheses
source supports or opposes a – Theory
particular position or varies from – Literature review of prior studies
the other research – Personal experience
Provide conclusions about which materials most Hypotheses Overview (6 of 8)
strongly support your arguments
Writing the Literature Review (9 of 9) • Sources or Rationale for Hypotheses
– Most important source of a hypothesis is
▪ Section on suggestions for further research the theoretical or conceptual framework.
  Involves deductive reasoning – Interaction effect
 Propositional statement  Sometimes complex hypotheses
isolated and empirically tested are necessary.
Hypotheses Overview (7 of 8)  Action of two variables in
• Sources or Rationale for Hypotheses conjunction with each other
Classifications of Hypotheses (5 of 13)
– Nursing research studies can also be
derived from findings of other studies. • Nondirectional and Directional Research
 Test assumptions Hypotheses
 Test hypothesis based on findings – Nondirectional research hypotheses
 Researcher predicts relationship
between variables.
 Does not present direction of
relationship
 When a study is not based on a
theory
Hypotheses Overview (8 of 8)  When findings of related studies are
contradictory
• Sources or Rationale for Hypotheses Classifications of Hypotheses (6 of 13)
– Even when a study is based on empirical
generalizations from experience, a • Nondirectional and Directional Research
literature review should be conducted. Hypotheses
 Determine what is already known on the – Directional research hypotheses
topic  Predicts type of relationship that is
– An attempt should then be made to find a expected
theoretical explanation for the observed  Several advantages:
phenomenon. –Make clear researcher’s expectation
Classifications of Hypotheses (1 of 13) –Allow more precise testing of
theoretical propositions
• Categorized as simple hypotheses or complex
–Allow use of one-tailed statistical tests
• Classified as research hypotheses or null
• Research further divided into: Classifications of Hypotheses (7 of 13)
– nondirectional or directional.
• Causal and Associative Research Hypotheses
– causal or associative.
– Hypotheses can express:
Classifications of Hypotheses (2 of 13)
 Causal relationship between
• Simple and Complex Hypotheses variables
– Simple hypothesis –Require an experimental research design
 Relationship between one  Associative relationship between
independent and one dependent variables.
variable –Require nonexperimental or
 Independent variable: cause correlational research designs
–Reason a phenomenon occurs Classifications of Hypotheses (8 of 13)
–Occurs first in chronological time • Causal and Associative Research Hypotheses
 Dependent variable: effect – Causal research hypothesis
–Occurrence of phenomenon
 Predicts independent variable
will cause something to occur to
Classifications of Hypotheses (3 of 13)
dependent variable
• Simple and Complex Hypotheses  Generally testing an
– Complex hypothesis intervention, and the effect of that
 Relationship in which: intervention on a specific outcome
–Two or more independent variables, or; – Associative research hypothesis
–Two or more dependent variables, or;  Predicts there will be a
–Both relationship between variables
–Are being examined in same study  Awareness of an association or
Classifications of Hypotheses (4 of 13) correlation between two or more
variables can help nurse researchers
• Simple and Complex Hypotheses
design interventions.
– Caution should be exercised when
Classifications of Hypotheses (9 of 13)
using complex hypotheses.
– Divide complex hypothesis into two • Null and Research Hypotheses
or more simple hypotheses – Null hypothesis
 Avoid "partial support" crisis.  H0
 Hypothesis is either  Predicts no relationship exists
supported totally, or it is not between variables
supported.  Subjected to statistical analysis
Classifications of Hypotheses (10 of 13) – Research questions that examine more than
one variable are usually written in the form
• Null and Research Hypotheses
of a correlational statement or comparative
– Research hypothesis statement.
 H1 – Directional research hypothesis should
 Alternative hypothesis contain a predictive term
 States expected relationship  less, greater, decrease in, or negative
between variables correlation
 Other names include:
–Scientific Developing Hypotheses (3 of 8)
–Substantive • Hypotheses in Testing Theories
–Theoretical – Hypothesis usually tests only one
Classifications of Hypotheses (11 of 13) proposition from a theory, not an entire
• Null and Research Hypotheses theory.
– Statistical logic requires that a testable – Hypotheses are never proved or disproved.
hypothesis state the expectation of: – If null hypothesis is rejected, research
 No correlation between the hypothesis is supported.
variables. – If research hypothesis is supported,
 No difference between groups or theory is supported.
sets of data on the variable being – If research hypothesis is not supported,
measured. theory is not supported
– Research hypothesis has replaced Developing Hypotheses (4 of 8)
statistical null hypothesis as preferred • Critiquing Hypotheses
way of expressing the predictions for
– First, evaluator determines if report
studies.
contains a hypothesis or hypotheses.
 Optimally, a section heading
Classifications of Hypotheses (12 of 13) clearly labels hypotheses.
– If study contains no hypotheses, a
• Null and Research Hypotheses determination should be made as to
– Level of significance for rejecting the whether or not the study is appropriate
statistical null hypothesis should always for hypothesis testing.
be stated before data are collected. Developing Hypotheses (5 of 8)
 Level of significance is usually set at .05.
• Critiquing Hypotheses
– Aim of researcher is generally to reject
– Critiquing Hypotheses and Research Questions
the null hypothesis because this
provides support for the research 1. Does the study contain
hypothesis. a hypothesis or hypotheses?
Classifications of Hypotheses (13 of 13) 2.Is each hypothesis clearly worded and
concise?
• Null and Research Hypotheses 3.Is it written in a declarative sentence?
– Occasionally, the null hypothesis and 4. Is each hypothesis directly
the research hypothesis are the same. tied to the study problem?
– Researcher actually expects:
 no correlation between variables. Developing Hypotheses (6 of 8)
 no difference between groups
• Critiquing Hypotheses
being compared on a certain variable.
– Critiquing Hypotheses and Research
– Usually, researcher does expect to find a
Questions
difference or a correlation.
5. Is the study framework
 Otherwise, study would not have
clearly defined with each
been conducted.
hypothesis derived from it?
Developing Hypotheses (1 of 8) 6. Does each hypothesis contain
the population and at least two
• A hypothesis should:
variables?
1. Be written in a declarative sentence
7. Is each hypothesis stated as
2. Be written in the present tense a directional research hypothesis?
3. Contain the population If not, is a rationale given for the
4. Contain the variables type employed?
5. Reflect the problem statement, 8. Is it apparent that each
purpose statement, and research hypothesis can be empirically tested?
question
9.Does each hypothesis contain only one
6. Be empirically testable prediction?
Developing Hypotheses (7 of 8)
Developing Hypotheses (2 of 8)
• Critiquing Hypotheses
• Hypothesis Format
– Hypotheses
  Should be clear and concise
declarative sentences and written in the
present tense.
 Should reflect problem
statement, purpose statement, or
research question.
 Should be derived from the study
framework if there is a clearly identified
study framework.

Developing Hypotheses (8 of 8)
• Critiquing Hypotheses
– Hypotheses
 Should contain the population and
study variables.
 Should be empirically testable
and contain only one prediction.
 May contain the name of the
specific research instrument(s) that will
be used to measure the study variables.
– If not, the research report should
contain an operational definition of
each of the study variables.