Chapter 2 Hydrology and Hydraulics

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 2.1 Hydrologic The design of properly sized storm drainage facilities requires some
knowledge of the hydrologic behavior of the watershed in question. For
Methods most designs it is adequate to estimate the peak discharge of the
drainage area for the required design frequency. Larger, more
complicated watersheds may require use of a distributed element
model in order to estimate the discharge hydrograph. Several simple
methods as well as several distributed element models commonly used
are presented in this manual. Other models may be used in lieu of
these if the model is appropriate for the watershed.

Every model has certain limitations that will effect its behavior for
different size drainage areas. The designer should be familiar with the
limitations of the method he is using. In general, street drainage and
small drainage areas (less than a hundred acres) can be modeled
using the rational equation. Larger areas can be modeled using
methods developed by the Natural Resources Conservation Service.
Distributed element models generally use one of these hydrologic
methods but also employ algorithms to account for reduction in the
peak discharge due to storage in the watershed from reservoirs or road
crossings. The hydrologic model used in the distributed element model
should be appropriate for each of the sub-watershed areas.

Many hydrologic methods are available. The following methods are

recommended and the circumstances for their use are listed in Table
2.1 below. If other methods are used they should first be calibrated to
local conditions and tested for accuracy and reliability.

Table2.1 Recommended Hydrologic Methods

2
1
Method Size Limitations Comments

Rational 0 – 100 acres Method can be used for

estimating peak flows and the
design of small sub-division
type storm sewer systems.
Method should not be used for
storage design.

NRCS (SCS) 100 – 2000 acres Method can be used for

estimating peak flows and TP-
149 hydrographs. Method can
be used for the design of all
drainage structures including
storage facilities.
NOTES:
1
There are many readily available programs (such as HEC-1, TR-20, XP-SWMM, and
Pond-Pack) that utilize these methodologies.
2
Size limitation refers to the drainage basin for the stormwater management facility (i.e.,
culvert, inlet).

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 The chosen methods were selected based on several considerations,
including the following:

• Historical use in the City of Raleigh.

• Verification of their accuracy in duplicating local hydrologic esti-
mates of a range of design storms throughout the State of North
Carolina.
• Availability of equations, nomographs, and computer programs.
• Use and familiarity with the methods by local municipalities and
consulting engineers.

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 2.2 Rational It is usually acceptable to design storm drainage facilities for street
Method drainage and relatively small areas (less than one hundred acres) using
the rational method. Beyond this, the designer should employ another
model to perform his design, or at least validate the use of the rational
equation. In general, for larger areas the rational method will yield
over-simplified results.

When using the rational method some precautions should be

considered:

• In determining the C value (land use) for the drainage area,

hydrologic analysis should take into account any changes in
land use.

• The rational method uses a composite C value for the entire

drainage area. If the distribution of land uses within the
drainage basin will affect the results of hydrologic analysis,
then the basin should be divided into two or more sub-drainage
basins for analysis.

• The charts, graphs, and tables included in this section are

given to assist the designer in applying the rational method.
The designer should use good engineering judgment in
applying these design aids and should make appropriate
adjustments when specific site characteristics dictate that these
adjustments are appropriate.

2.2.1 Equation The rational formula estimates the peak rate of runoff at any location in
a watershed as a function of the drainage area, runoff coefficient, and
mean rainfall intensity for a duration equal to the time of concentration
(the time required for water to flow from the most remote point of the
basin to the location being analyzed). The rational formula is
expressed as follows:

Equation 2.1 Rational Equation Q=CIA

Where:
Q = Peak flow from the drainage area (cfs)
C = Coefficient of runoff (dimensionless)
I = Rainfall intensity for a given time to peak (in/hr)
A = Drainage area (acres)

The rational equation is based on the assumption that rainfall is

uniformly distributed over the entire drainage area and at a steady rate,
causing flow to reach a maximum at the outlet to the watershed at the
time to peak (Tp). The rational method also assumes that all land uses
within a drainage area are uniformly distributed throughout the area. If
it is important to locate a specific land use within the drainage area then
another hydrologic method should be used where hydrographs can be
generated and routed through the drainage system.

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 2.2.2 Runoff Coefficient The runoff coefficient (C) is the variable of the rational method least
susceptible to precise determination and requires judgment and -
understanding on the part of the design engineer. While engineering
judgment will always be required in the selection of runoff coefficients,
typical coefficients represent the integrated effects of many drainage
basin parameters. Table 2.2 gives the recommended runoff coefficients
for the rational method.

Table 2.2 Recommended Runoff Coefficient Values

(Sources: North Carolina Erosion and Sediment Control Planning and Design
Manual and The City of Raleigh’s Storm Drainage Design Manual, 1989)

Description of Area Runoff Coefficient, C

Woodlands 0.20 - .025

Parks, cemeteries 0.25

Playgrounds 0.35

Lawns:
Sandy soil, flat, 2% 0.10
Sandy soil, average, 2 - 7% 0.15
Sandy soil, steep, > 7% 0.20
Clay soil, flat, 2% 0.17
Clay soil, average, 2 - 7% 0.22
Clay soil, steep, > 7% 0.35

Graded or no plant cover:

Sandy soil, flat, 0 - 5% 0.30
Sandy soil, flat, 5 - 10% 0.40
Clayey soil, flat, 0 - 5% 0.50
Clayey soil, average, 5 - 10% 0.60

Residential:
Single-family (R - 4) 0.50
Single-family (R - 6) 0.55
Multi-family (R - 10) 0.60
Multi-family (R - 20) 0.70
Multi-family (R - 30) 0.75

Business:
O & I (I, II, III) 0.85
I1 & I2 0.85 – 0.95
Shopping Centers 0.85 – 0.95

Streets:
Gravel areas 0.50
Drives, walks, and roofs 0.95
Asphalt and Concrete 0.95 – 1.00

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 It is often desirable to develop a composite runoff coefficient based on
the percentage of different types of surfaces in the drainage areas.
Composites can be made with the values from Table 2.2 by using
percentages of different land uses, as illustrated in Equation 2.2. In
addition, more detailed composites can be made with coefficients for
different surface types such as roofs, asphalt, and concrete streets,
drives and walks. The composite procedure can be applied to an entire
drainage area or to typical "sample" blocks as a guide to the selection
of reasonable values of the coefficient for an entire area.

Equation 2.2 Composite C Composite C = C1*A1 + C2*A2 + ... Cx*Ax

A1 + A2 + ... Ax

2.2.3 Rainfall Intensity The rainfall intensity (I) is the average rainfall rate in in./hr for a duration
equal to the time of concentration for a selected return period. Once a
particular return period has been selected for design and a time of
concentration calculated for the drainage area, the rainfall intensity can
be determined from the intensity-duration-frequency (IDF) data for the
City of Raleigh given in Table 2.3.

Table 2.3 Intensity – Duration - Frequency Table

City of Raleigh, NC
(Developed by Dr. H.R. Malcom, North Carolina State University, Dept. of
Civil Engineering, and the authors based on NOAA HYDRO-35 and USWB
TP-40)

Frequency (Yrs)
Duratio 2 5 10 25 50 100
n
5 mins 5.76 6.58 7.22 8.19 8.96 9.72
10 4.76 5.54 6.13 7.01 7.71 8.40
15 4.04 4.74 5.25 6.03 6.64 7.24
20 3.47 4.12 4.64 5.42 5.93 6.47
30 2.70 3.28 3.71 4.32 4.80 5.28
40 2.28 2.77 3.15 3.70 4.08 4.48
50 1.94 2.38 2.71 3.19 3.53 3.88
60 1.70 2.12 2.41 2.84 3.17 3.50
90 1.22 1.52 1.74 2.06 2.29 2.53
2 hr 0.95 1.20 1.37 1.62 1.81 2.00
3 0.71 0.89 1.02 1.21 1.35 1.50
6 0.44 0.56 0.65 0.77 0.86 0.96
12 0.26 0.33 0.39 0.46 0.52 0.57
24 0.15 0.19 0.22 0.27 0.30 0.33

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 2.2.4 Time Of Use of the rational formula requires the time of concentration (t c ) for
Concentration
each design point within the drainage basin. The duration of rainfall is
then set equal to the time of concentration and is used to estimate the
design average rainfall intensity (I). The time of concentration consists
of an overland flow time to the point where the runoff enters a defined
drainage feature (i.e., open channel) plus the time of flow in a closed
conduit or open channel to the design point.

There are several acceptable methods for calculating the time of

concentration, including a simple nomograph for use with the rational
formula or the use of equations such as the kinematic wave or Kirpich
equations.

Simple Nomograph

Figure 2.1 is a simple nomograph that can be used to estimate

overland flow time. For each drainage area, the distance is determined
from the inlet to the most remote point in the tributary area. From a
topographic map, the average slope is determined for the same
distance. The runoff coefficient (C) is determined by the procedure
described in a subsequent section of this chapter.

To obtain the total time of concentration, the pipe or open channel flow
time must be calculated and added to the inlet time. After first -
determining the average flow velocity in the pipe or channel, the travel
time is obtained by dividing velocity into the pipe or channel length.
Velocity can be estimated by using the nomograph shown on Figure
2.2. Note: time of concentration cannot be less than 5 minutes.

Kinematic Wave

Another method that can be used to determine the overland flow

portion of the time of concentration is the “Kinematic Wave Nomograph
– Figure 2.3.” The kinematic wave method incorporates several
variables including rainfall intensity and Manning’s “n”. In using the
nomograph, the engineer has two unknowns starting the computations:
the time of concentration and the rainfall intensity. The problem is
attempting to determine a rainfall intensity, which in turn actually
determines the time of concentration. Thus, the problem is one of
iteration. A value of “I” must be assumed, compute a time of
concentration and then check back to see if the rainfall intensity that
was assumed is consistent with the rainfall intensity from the rainfall
intensity in Table 2.3. If one has determined the length, slope,
roughness coefficient, and selected a rainfall intensity table, the steps
to use Figure 2.3 are as follows:

1. Assume a rainfall intensity.

2. Use Figure 2.3 (or the equation given in the figure) to

obtain the first estimate of time of concentration.

3. Using the time of concentration obtained from Step 2,

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 enter the rainfall intensity table and find the rainfall
intensity corresponding to the computed time of
concentration. If this rainfall intensity corresponds with
the assumed intensity, the problem is solved. If not,
proceed to Step 4.

4. Assume a new rainfall intensity that is between that

assumed in Step 1 and that determined in Step 3.

5. Repeat Steps 1 through 3 until there is good

agreement between the assumed rainfall intensity and
that obtained from the rainfall intensity tables.

Generally, the time of concentration for overland flow is only a part of

the overall design problem. Often one encounters swale flow, confined
channel flow, and closed conduit flow-times that must be added as part
of the overall time of concentration.

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 Figure 2.1 Rational Formula - Overland Time of Flow Nomograph
(Source: Airport Drainage, Federal Aviation Administration, 1965)

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 Figure 2.2 Manning’s Equation Nomograph

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 Figure 2.3 Kinematic Wave Nomograph
(Source: Regan, R. M., A Nomograph Based On Kinematic Wave Theory for Determingin Time of
Concentration for Overland Flow, 1971)

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 When this situation is encountered, it is best to compute the confined
flow-times as the first step in the overall determination of the time of
concentration. This will give the designer a rough estimate of the time
involved for the overland flow that will give a better first start on the
rainfall intensity assumption. For example, if the flow time in a channel
is 15 minutes and the overland flow time from the ridgeline to the
channel is 10 minutes, then the total time of concentration is 25
minutes.

2.2.5 Kirpich Equation The Kirpich equation is based on empirical data and observation.
Although it has no analytical basis, it has proven an effective method in
many years of use. It is therefore widely considered an acceptable
method for estimating time of concentration for small drainage areas.
The basic form of the equation is:
3 0.385
Equation 2.3 Kirpich Equation Tc = (L / H)
128

Where :
Tc =Time of Concentration (min)
H =Height of the most remote point on the watershed above
the outlet (ft)
L =Length of flow from the most remote point on the
watershed to the outlet (ft)

(Civil Engineering, Vol. 10, No. 6,June 1940,p.362.)

A graph of the Kirpich Equation also appears in Figure 2.4.

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 Figure 2.4 Kirpich Equation
(Source: North Carolina Erosion and Sediment Control Planning and Design Manual)

Example:
Height above outlet, H = 100’
Length of travel, L = 3000’
Time of concentration, Tc = 14 mins

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 Time of Concentration Notes

Two common errors should be avoided when calculating time of

concentration - Tc .

In some cases runoff from a portion of the drainage area which is highly
impervi ous may result in a greater peak discharge than would occur if
the entire area were considered. In these cases, adjustments can be
made to the drainage area by disregarding those areas where flow time
is too slow to add to the peak discharge.

When designing a drainage system, the overland flow path is not

necessarily the same before and after development and grading
operations have been completed. Selecting overland flow paths in
excess of 100 feet in urban areas and 300 feet in rural areas should be
done only after careful consideration. Except in very flat areas,
overland flow time should not be greater than the pipe or channel flow
time.

The following guidance should be considered:

a. For most applications using the rational method the designer may
assume the time of concentration (Tc ) is equal to the time to peak
(Tp). Adjustments are commonly made to Kirpich Equation to
compensate for channelization.
b. For well-defined natural channels, use Tc .

c. For overland flow on grassy surfaces, use Tc * 2.

d. For overland flow on paved surfaces, use Tc * 0.4.

e. For concrete channels, use Tc * 0.2.

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 2.2.6 Example Problem A new road culvert is proposed as a single reinforced concrete pipe
(RCP).

• Proposed Invert In = 300.0 ft above MSL

• High Point on Watershed = 350.0 ft
• Drainage Area = 50 Ac.
• Length of Flow = 1400 ft
• The watershed consists of 20 acres of R-4 zoning, 20 acres of R-10
zoning and a 10-acre park.

Calculate the 10-year peak discharge at the proposed pipe.

Solution:

Step 1: Calculation of Composite C Value

C =(20 Ac)(0.4) + (20 Ac)(0.6) + (10 Ac)(0.3)= 0.46

50 Ac

Step 2: Calculate the time of concentration from the Kirpich equation.

Since the time increment is short, assume Tp = Tc

3 0.385 3 0.385
(L / H) ( 1400 / 50)
Tc = ----------------- = ------------------------- = 7.46
128 128

From Table 2.3, I = 6.8 in/hr

Step 3: Calculate the peak discharge.

Q = C I A = (0.46 in/hr)*(6.8)*(50 Ac) = 156 cfs

The initial pipe selection can then be made on the basis of a design
discharge of 156 cfs.

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 2.3 NRCS (SCS) The NRCS (SCS) curve number method for estimating runoff has
Unit appeared in several forms over the past few years. The methods
presented here are simplifications of the NRCS TR-55 Graphical
Hydrograph Method (1986 version), and the ES 1027 charts for flat, moderate, and
steep slopes.

The curve number method was originally based on studies of small

watersheds, 1 square mile, and is considered by many engineers to be
limited in its application to highly urbanized watersheds. For use within
the city of Raleigh, the NRCS method as presented here should be
limited to use on drainage areas larger than about one hundred acres.
If the watershed has extensive pipe systems or improved channels, the
engineer should take care in computing travel times and should
consider using a distributed element model. The ES 1027 charts
should be used with great caution in urban watersheds because of the
variety of drainage surfaces. Highly urbanized areas may have a much
shorter travel time than those assumed by the ES 1027charts.
In the Raleigh area, the NRCS Type II storm is typical of the larger
storms experienced. Smaller watersheds are more sensitive to short,
more intense rainfall than larger areas. Larger areas are in turn more
sensitive to longer rainfall duration. In developing the NRCS Type II
storm pattern small time increments were used in order to encompass a
wide range of storms. The result is a generalized center-weighted
storm used as the design storm.

The quantity of runoff in the NRCS method can be attributed to several

factors. Watershed slope, soil type, ground cover, and antecedent
moisture content all effect the quantity of runoff.

Soil types are divided into four major hydrologic soil groups denoted by
the letters A through D. A soils are those which have high infiltration
capacity and subsequently low runoff rates. D soils are those with very
low infiltration capacity and very high runoff rates. A list of soils
common in North Carolina can be found at the local NRCS office.
Those soils given dual notation represent hydrologic classifications for
drained and undrained conditions. The Wake County Soil Survey or
maps from the Central Engineering or Inspections Departments are
good sources of information on soil types for specific locations.
For the purposes of the NRCS method, antecedent moisture content
(AMC) is divided into dry, normal, and wet conditions based on the
rainfall in the prior five days. If the 5-day antecedent rainfall is greater
than 2.1 inches in the growing season or 1.1 inches in the dormant
season the moisture content is presumed wet (AMC III). If the 5 day
antecedent rainfall is less than 1.4 inches or 0.5 inches respectively, it
is presumed dry (AMC I). The runoff curve numbers presented here are
based on normal conditions (AMC II). For design of proposed facilities,
normal conditions are generally used.

In order to calculate the peak discharge using the Graphical Method

one must calculate the volume of runoff from the watershed, the time of
concentration, and apply this to the standard NRCS hydrograph shape.

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 2.3.1 Runoff Volume The volume of flood runoff can be calculated by the following equation.

Equation 2.4 Runoff Volume Q = (P - Ia )2 / (P - Ia ) + S

Where: Q = accumulated direct runoff (in.)

P = accumulated rainfall (potential maximum
runoff) (in.)
Ia = initial abstraction including surface storage,
interception, and infiltration prior to runoff
(in.)
S = potential maximum soil retention (in.)

The empirical relationship used in the NRCS method for estimating Ia

is:

Equation 2.5 Infiltration for Ia = 0.2S

TR55

And CN can be expressed as:

Equation 2.6 CN for TR55 CN = 1000 / (10 +S)

Where: CN = NRCS curve number

General and Raleigh-specific CN numbers can be found in Table 2.4.

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 Table 2-4 Runoff Curve Numbers1

Cover Description Curve Numbers for Hydrologic Soil Groups

Cover type and hydrologic condition A B C D
Cultivated land:
without conservation treatment 72 81 88 91
with conservation treatment 62 71 78 81
Pasture or range land
poor condition 68 79 86 89
good condition 39 61 74 80
Meadow:
good condition 30 58 71 78
Wood or forest land:
thin stand, poor cover 45 66 77 83
good cover 25 55 70 77
Open Space (lawns, parks, golf courses,
2
cemeteries, etc.)
Poor condition (grass cover <50%) 68 79 86 89
Fair condition (grass cover 50% - 75%) 49 69 79 84
Good condition (grass cover >75%) 39 61 74 80
Impervious areas:
Paved parking lots, roofs, driveways, etc. (excluding
98 98 98 98
right-of-way)
Streets and Roads:
Paved; curbs and storm drains (excluding right-of-
98 98 98 98
way)
Paved; open ditches (including right-of-way) 83 89 92 93
Gravel (including right-of-way) 76 85 89 91
Dirt (including right-of-way) 72 82 87 89
Developing urban areas and newly graded areas
77 86 91 94
(pervious area only, no vegetation)
Raleigh Specific
Urban districts by zoning:
O&I (III) 96 97 98 98
O&I (I & II) 98 98 98 98
Buffer Community, Shopping Center, Neighborhood
Business, Industrial I & II
Residential districts by zoning:
R-4 61 75 83 87
R-6 71 80 87 92
R-10 80 85 90 95
R-20 86 90 93 96
R-30 92 94 96 97

1 Average runoff condition, and I = 0.2S

a
2 CNs shown are equivalent to those of pasture. Composite CNs may be computed for other combinations of open space cover type.
Assumptions are as follows: impervious areas are directly connected to the drainage system, impervious areas have a CN of 98, and
pervious areas are considered equivalent to open space in good hydrologic condition. If the impervious area is not connected, the
NRCS method has an adjustment to reduce the effect.

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 For the Raleigh area the design rainfall depths and runoff depths for the
24 hour design storm are as follows:

Table 2-5 Runoff Depth for Raleigh (in)

24 hours storm with Ia = 0.2*S
Frequency, yr 2 5 10 25 50 100
Rainfall, in 3.60 4.56 5.28 6.48 7.2 8.0
CN 60 0.58 1.05 1.47 2.24 2.75 3.33
65 0.81 1.37 1.84 2.71 3.26 3.89
70 1.07 1.72 2.25 3.19 3.79 4.46
75 1.37 2.10 2.68 3.69 4.33 5.04
80 1.72 2.51 3.14 4.22 4.88 5.63
85 2.10 2.96 3.63 4.76 5.44 6.21
90 2.54 3.45 4.15 5.31 6.02 6.81
95 3.04 3.98 4.70 5.89 6.60 7.40
98 3.37 4.32 5.04 6.24 6.96 7.76
The CN is used to determine the initial abstraction, Ia, in Table 2-6.
Ia/P is then computed using Figure 2.6.

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 Table 2-6 Ia Values for Runoff Curve Numbers
(NRCS 210-VI-TR-55, Second Ed., June 1986, pg. 4-1)

Curve No. Ia (in) Curve No. Ia (in)

40 3.000 70 0.857
41 2.878 71 0.817
42 2.762 72 0.778
43 2.651 73 0.740
44 2.545 74 0.703
45 2.444 75 0.667
46 2.348 76 0.632
47 2.255 77 0.597
48 2.167 78 0.564
49 2.082 79 0.532
50 2.000 80 0.500
51 1.922 81 0.469
52 1.846 82 0.439
53 1.774 83 0.410
54 1.704 84 0.381
55 1.636 85 0.353
56 1.571 86 0.326
57 1.509 87 0.299
58 1.448 88 0.273
59 1.390 89 0.247
60 1.333 90 0.222
61 1.279 91 0.198
62 1.226 92 0.174
63 1.175 93 0.151
64 1.125 94 0.128
65 1.077 95 0.105
66 1.030 96 0.083
67 0.985 97 0.062
68 0.941 98 0.041
69 0.899

Figure 2.5 Variation of Ia/P for P and CN

(NRCS 210-VI-TR-55, Second Ed., June 1986, Pg. 4-1)

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 2.3.2 Travel Time For rural applications it is common to describe the watershed as being
either flat (0 to 3%), moderate (3 to 8%), or steep (>8%) in slope. In
such situations the peak discharge curves found at the end of this
chapter may be used with the interpolating factors given. For highly
urbanized watersheds, however, these generalizations may not be
appropriate. The NRCS suggests another method for computing the
peak discharge based on a calculated travel time within the watershed.

The time of concentration can be broken into three types of flow, sheet
flow, shallow concentrated flow, and channel flow (or pipe flow). Sheet
flow is assumed to be no longer than a few hundred feet and can be
described by Manning's kinematic solution:
0.8
0.007 ( n L )
Equation 2.7 Time of Tc = --------------------
0.5 0.4
Concentration P2 S

Where: Tc = Travel time (hours)

N = Manning roughness coefficient
L = Flow length (ft)
P2 = 2-yr 24 hour rainfall (in)
S= Ground slope (ft/ft)

Table 2-7 Manning’s “n” Value for Sheet Flow

(Source: North Carolina Erosion and Sediment Control Planning and Design
Manual)
Description “n”
Smooth surfaces:
Concrete, asphalt 0.011
Bare soil, gravel 0.011
Sparse grasses 0.150
Dense grasses 0.240
Bermuda grass 0.410
Woods, light underbrush 0.40
Dense underbrush 0.80

Shallow concentrated flow travel time is best estimated by calculating

the average flow velocity from the figure on the following page. The
travel time is estimated as the average flow velocity multiplied by the
flow length.

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 Figure 2.6 Average Velocity
(Source: NRCS TR-55 Urban Hydrology for Small Watersheds, Second Edition, June 1986)

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 At the point where a defined channel or pipe system begins, the flow
velocity can be estimated by the Manning equation. For open
channels the equation has the form:
0.667 0.5
1.49 R S
Equation 2.8 Open Channel V = ------------------
Velocity n

where: V = Average flow velocity (fps)

R = Hydraulic radius (ft)
S = Channel slope (ft/ft)
N = Manning’s roughness coefficient

Equation 2.9 Hydraulic Radius R = A/P

Where: A = Cross-sectional area (sq. ft)

P = Wetted perimeter (ft)

For pipe systems the flow velocity can be estimated by the Manning
equation as well. Assuming the pipe is circular and is flowing just full,
the equation simplifies to the form:

0.667 0.5
0.59 D S
Equation 2.10 Flow in a Pipe V = ------------------
n

Where: D = pipe diameter (ft)

Other variables are as defined previously

2.3.3 Peak Discharge The peak discharge equation used by the Natural Resources
Conservation Servi ces has the form:

Equation 2.11 Peak Discharge Qp = Qu A Q Fp

Where: Qp = Peak discharge (cfs)

Qu = Unit peak discharge found from Figure 2.7 (csm/in)
A = Drainage area (sq mi)
Q = Runoff depth (in)
Fp = Pond and swamp adjustment factor from Table 2.8

Table 2.8. Swamp Correction Factors

Percentage of pond Fp
or swamp areas
0 1.00
0.2 0.97
1.0 0.87
3.0 0.87
5.0 0.72

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 Note that swamp correction factors should only be used if the area will
remain in place. If there is a possibility if the area being re-graded in
the future, no correction should be made. In these rare situations, the
correction factors will be reviewed by the City staff.

Example:

New residential development, R4 zoning

Total DA = site area = 38 ac
Impervious area = 13.8 ac
Soils: 60% C
40% B
Predevelopment condition: pasture
Calculate the peak discharge for the 10-year storm.

1) Calculate CN – use Table 2.4

CNpre = 60%(74) + 40%(61) = 68.8
CNpost = 60%(83) + 40%(75) = 79.8

2) Calculate time of travel, tc

0.8
0.007 ( n L )
Tc = --------------------
0.5 0.4
P2 S

n = 0.240 for dense grasses, from Table 2.5

P2 = 3.6 in
S = 0.02 ft/ft for sheet flow area; 0.04 ft/ft for shallow concentrated flow
L = 300’ sheet flow; 450’ shallow concentrated flow

Sheet flow tc = 0.54 hr

Shallow concentrated flow, tc’:

From Table 2.6, find the average velocity = 3.2 fps
tc’ = __L_ _ = 0.04 hr
3600 x V

tc total = 0.04 hr + 0.54 hr = 0.58 hr

3) Calculate peak discharge for the 10-year storm

Qp = Qu A Q Fp

Find Ia/P to determine Qu

Ia = 0.5064 interpolating from Table 2.6

P = 5.28 in
Ia/P = 0.5064/5.28 = 0.10
Qu = Unit peak discharge from Figure 2.7 = 490 cfs
2 2
A = 38ac x 1 ac/640 mi = 0.06 mi
Q10 = 3.12 interpolating from Table 2.5
Fp = 1, since there are no swamp areas within the drainage area

Qp = 490 cfs x 0.06 mi2 x 3.12 in x 1 = 91.7 cfs

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 Figure 2.7 NRCS Type II Unit Peak Discharge Graph
(Source: NRCS TR-55 Urban Hydrology for Small Watersheds, Second Edition, June 1986)

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 2.4 Other Methods In general, any hydrologic model that is appropriate for the drainage
area in question will be considered acceptable by the City staff.
Numerous models have been developed for the analysis of larger
watersheds. The U.S. Army Corps of Engineers HEC-1 model and
SCS TR-20 model are but a few. Both models are Fortran programs
that have been adapted to microcomputers from older mainframe
systems. Consequently they have numerous unique anomalies that
may prove difficult to the first time user.

As stated previously, a distributed element models hydrologic routine

must be applicable to the smallest as well as the largest sub-watershed
in the drainage area. On occasion it maybe helpful to formulate a new
model specifically designed for a given watershed. This can easily be
accomplished in the spreadsheet format with routing done on a time by
time basis. This allows for the same type of variable scenario but with
a model specific to that watershed. If a computer program other than
the industry standards listed above is used, adequate documentation
and source codes must be provided for the staff to review.

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 2.5 Impoundment City standards may require that some form of impoundment, either
detention or retention, be used for new developments. The type and
Design size of facility required will usually depend on the size of the proposed
development, its impact on the downstream watercourse and whether
or not downstream water quality is of primary concern. If areas
immediately downstream of the proposed development are not
sensitive to increases in runoff but areas further downstream are
sensitive, the City will prefer a regional impoundment facility. If areas
immediately downstream of the proposed development are sensitive to
any increases in runoff, an on-site impoundment will be required. It is
the intention of the City to control stormwater problems resulting from
urbanization and lessen some existing flooding problems through the
placement of impoundments as close to the problem area as possible.
Therefore, the City's impoundment requirement will not apply to every
new development but will be a combination of large and small facilities.
If on-site facilities are not required, a fee determined by the Inspections
Department may be required in lieu of any impoundment facility.

The design of impoundment facilities may be quite simple, as is the

case with some small on-site facilities. Larger facilities, however, can
be quite complex. This manual is intended to serve as a reference to
the designer by providing general guidelines and techniques for
analysis. Complex designs should only be undertaken by professionals
with a thorough knowledge of impoundments. All impoundment
designs and their associated calculations should be sealed by a
Professional Engineer registered in North Carolina.

2.5.1 Discharge When an impoundment is required, the peak discharge rate after
Limitations development must not exceed that specified by the particular
requirement for every point of discharge from the site. Please note that
the exemption for sites having less than 15% impervious area applies
to the entire site, not each individual outfall, and must include existing
as well as new impervious surfaces. For example, a wooded site has a
2-year discharge of 100 cfs. After development, the site has a peak
discharge rate of 200 cfs. If the site is required to control to the pre-
developed rate, then the impoundment facility must therefore be
designed to limit the discharge to 100 cfs instead of the 200 cfs that
would result after development. The 10-year design peak may also be
similarly impounded

2.5.2 Required Storage The quantity of water that must be detained in order to adequately
Volume reduce the peak discharge is referred to as the Required Storage
Volume. This is the volume that must be available in the facility without
exceeding the maximum permissible release rate. Although the
required volume can only be found by routing the design storm through
the proposed facility, for smaller volumes (less than 20,000 cf), it is
adequate to estimate the volume by subtracting the permissible outflow
from the basin from the peak inflow for the critical storm duration.
Equation 2.12 Storage Volume
S= (Qp - MPRR)*Tp

Where: S = Estimated storage volume (cf)

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 Qp = Peak inflow (cfs)
MPRR = Maximum permissible release rate (cfs)
Tp = Time to peak (seconds)

This may also be a good initial estimate for larger basins. Note that it is
only an estimate and should be verified by routing the design storm
through the proposed facility.

2.5.3 Types of Storage In general, the type of storage device selected depends on the quantity
of water to be stored and the associated cost of storage. Guidelines for
each are included herein. The selection of the type of storage used is
up the individual owner or engineer. Although all of the following types
of facilities will work, some will present more of a maintenance problem.

2.5.3.1 Dry Basins Detention basins should be designed such that the primary outlet
devices restrict the flow and allow water to pond in a safe contained
fashion. A properly designed emergency spillway should be provided
capable of passing the 100-year storm if the drainage area is greater
than 25 acres. Side slopes should be no steeper than 2:1 but if
vegetative groundcover is to be used, flatter slopes are highly
recommended. The basin should be constructed to insure positive
drainage. This will reduce the risk of mosquito problems and reduce
maintenance costs. In larger basins, a concrete low flow swale is
recommended since vegetation may be difficult to maintain with
frequent flow through the basin.

2.5.3.2 Wet Basins The same basic standards apply to wet basins as to dry impoundment
facilities. Outlet devices should be appropriately sized and an
emergency spillway provided. Because of their added benefit to water
quality, wet basins are highly encouraged by the City staff. Although
they may be impractical for smaller areas, their use in larger drainage
areas can provide improved water quality and an attractive, aesthetic
component to the development. Hydrologic modeling of the wet basin is
similar to that of other basins with only some minor changes to the
stage-storage curve.

Careful consideration should be given to the frequency of inflow and

nutrient levels in the influent when deciding whether or not to use a wet
impoundment basin. Low flows and high nutrient levels may result in
the eutrophication of the pond and subsequently high maintenance
costs.

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 2.5.3.3 Parking Lot For on-site detention where topography or space is a problem, parking
Storage lot storage may be an option. Naturally, not much water can be stored
in a parking lot. Therefore it should be considered for only small sites
with little or no off site drainage entering the parking lot. The depth of
storage should be limited to 8 inches and if possible should be
restricted to a remote portion of the parking lot. Storage may not
inundate handicap spaces or the primary access to the site. Some
form of emergency overflow should be provided to pass the 100-year
storm for drainage areas over 25 acres, usually by overtopping the
curb. Since small outlet devices are required for parking lot storage,
weirs are preferred to orifices. In general, parking lot storage creates
more of a maintenance problem than any other type of on-site storage
and should be used only when other facilities are impractical.

2.5.3.4 Pipe Storage When space is severely limited on the site pipe storage may be an
option. Oversized pipes with a restricted outlet can provide storage but
usually only at a very high cost. Access to the pipe and outlet device
must be provided for adequate maintenance. Debris control should be
a prime consideration in designing pipe storage since the restricting
outlet device is generally much smaller than the storage or inflow pipes.

2.5.4 Outlet Devices The following sections are a general description of some common
outlet devices used in impoundment facilities. Other devices are
available. Because controlling multiple design storms may be required,
some rather imaginative outlet devices may result. To the extent
possible, outlet devices should be kept simple. This may require and
optimal design for one storm frequency and an over design for the other
storm event.

2.5.4.1 Orifices The discharge through an orifice can be described by an energy

balance analysis. Assuming the upstream velocity is negligible (i.e. a
reservoir) and the water surfaces both upstream and downstream are
free surfaces, the energy balance can be simplified to what is referred
to as the orifice equation.

Equation 2.13 Orifice Equation Q = Cd A (2gh)

Where: Q = Discharge (cfs)

A = Cross-sectional area of the orifice (sq ft.)
G = Gravitational acceleration
H = Driving head to the centroid of the orifice
(where H > D/2)
Cd = Coefficient of discharge (usually 0.50-
0.70)

The orifice equation is only appropriate when the headwater depth is

above the top of the orifice (HW>D). When the flow through the orifice
is lower than the top of the orifice other forms of analysis such as a
modified Weir Equation are required. For manual computations of
discharge the charts used for the inlet control may also be helpful.
These charts are similar to the orifice equation but were developed
using empirical data. In many cases they include discharges for depths
as low as half the orifice diameter (HW/D = 0.5).
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 The most common problem encountered with this limitation of the
orifice equation is in routing a detention facility. In the early stages of a
storm, the depth of water stored may be below the top of the orifice,
resulting in an error in the routing. When the discharge occurring under
these circumstances is smaller relative to the entire routing, the
following approach may be helpful.

1. Calculate the discharge at HW/D = 1.

2. Derive a power curve with exponent greater than 1 (like the
weir equation) that matches the known data.
3. Formulate an approximated stage discharge curve.

Example:

Formulate a stage-discharge curve from a depth of 0 to 5 feet for a

circular orifice with a diameter of 1 foot and Cd = 0.65.

For HW/D > 1 (i.e. h > 0.5 ft.)

0.5
Q = Cd A (2gh)
A = 0.785 sq ft.
Cd = 0.65

At HW /D = 1, h = 0.5 ft.
0.5
Q = 0.65 * 0.785 * [(2)(32.2)(0.5)] = 2.9 cfs

When the headwater depth is below the top of the orifice, h < 0.5 the
discharge can be described by a power curve, the constant for which
can be solved for by substituting in the value at h = 0.5.

The resulting power curve for 3/2 power would then be:

Qp = K(HW)

Where Qp = Q (at HW/D = 1) = 2.9 cfs

K = some constant
1.5
2.9 = K(1)
K = 2.9

Therefore:
1.5
Qp = 2.9 (HW)

If the depth is less than 1 foot

1.5
Q = 2.9 depth

If the depth is greater than 1 foot

0.5
Q = 0.65 * 0.785 * (2gh)

Admittedly this method is an approximation for lower depths. When

routed, if the depth is only below the top of the orifice for a short period
it may be an appropriate estimate. If the depth is below the top of the
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 orifice for a longer period of time, as is the case for some street
culverts, this method would not be applicable. In these situations, the
methods for analyzing street culverts in Chapter 4 should be
considered.

2.5.4.2 Weir Equation Most weirs used in impoundments will fall into one of two categories;
sharp-crested weirs, such as flow over a standpipe, or broad-crested
weirs such as emergency overflows in basins. Although considerable
research has been conducted in the modeling of weirs, a simple
expression can be applied to most weirs used in stormwater
impoundments. The equation is usually expressed as:

Equation 2.14 Weir Equation 1.5

Q = Cw L H

Where: Q = Discharge (cfs)

Cw = Weir coefficient
L = Length (ft)
H = Height of water above the crest of the weir
(ft)

For sharp-crested weirs, Cw is usually taken to be about 3.33. For

broad-crested weirs, 3.0 is generally used. Cw is not a true a constant,
but rather a function of flow depth and geometry. For horizontal weirs
used in storm drainage, these values will usually suffice.

The discharge calculation of compound weirs can usually be estimated

by superposition. For example, the total discharge of the compound
weir (Qtot) shown below is the sum of the two partial discharges (Qa &
Qb).

Equation 2.15 Compound Weir Qtot = Qa + Qb

Equation

Or
1.5 1.5
Qtot = Cw La Ha + Cw Lb Hb

2.5.4.3 Riser Barrel Riser-barrel outlets act as a combination of several types of outlet
Outlets devices. At different stages the outlet may behave differently. At
shallow depths the riser may act as a weir. As the depth increases the
riser may begin to act as an orifice or the barrel may begin to control.
The controlling factor will be that with the smallest discharge at a given
depth.

Riser as a sharp-crested weir:

Equation 2.16 Sharp Crested 1.5

Q = Cw L h
Weir
Where: L = The circumference of the riser (ft)
h = Head above the top of the riser (ft)
All other terms are as previously defined.

Riser as an orifice:

Equation 2.17 Orifice Equation 0.5

Q = Cd A (2gh)

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 Where: A = Cross-sectional area of the riser (sq ft)
All other terms are as previously defined.

Barrel as an orifice:
Equation 2.18 Barrel as Orifice 0.5
Q = Cd A (2gH)

Where: A = Cross-sectional area of the barrel (sq ft)

H = Head above the centroid of the barrel (ft)

Note that vortex action can and should be eliminated by using an anti-
vortex plate or designing a riser-barrel combination incapable of
producing a vortex.

Figure 2.8 Cross Section of a Riser Barrel

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 2.5.5 Routing Hydrologic routing is an attempt to model the change in storage in a
detention facility by comparing inflow and outflow at every point in time.
The differential equation of the change in storage has the simplified
form:

Equation 2.19 Change in dS

Storage
---- = I-O
dT

Where:
dS
---- = Change in storage in the basin with respect to time
dT
I = Inflow
O = Outflow

Although many methods have been developed to perform routings, only

two are presented here, the Storage Indication Method and a short cut
method developed by Dr. H. R. Malcom (North Carolina State
University, Department of Civil Engineering). Both require the same
basic input elements. A description of the inflow hydrograph, the
relationship between stage and discharge, and the relationship
between stage and storage are required for either.

2.5.5.1 Inflow The nature of impoundment basin routing is such that the inflow to the
Hydrograph basin must be described in small time increments. In order to
Formulation accomplish this, an inflow hydrograph must be formulated for each of
the post-development design storms. If one of the more complex
hydrologic methods is used to determine discharge from the drainage
area, the inflow hydrograph is already available and can be used for the
routing. If only the peak discharge has been determined, a hydrograph
must be formulated based on that peak.

It is widely accepted that storms in the Raleigh area can generally be

described by the SCS type II storm distribution. For the type II storm
the volume of runoff can be expressed as a percentage of the total
runoff.

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 Table 2.9 SCS Type II Storm Distribution
T/Tp Q/Qp T/Tp Q/Qp
0.0 0.0 1.3 0.84
0.1 0.015 1.4 0.75
0.2 0.075 1.5 0.66
0.3 0.16 1.6 0.56
0.4 0.28 1.7 0.49
0.5 0.43 1.8 0.42
0.6 0.60 1.9 0.37
0.7 0.77 2.0 0.32
0.8 0.89 2.1 0.28
0.9 0.97 2.2 0.24
1.0 1.00 2.3 0.21
1.1 0.98 2.4 0.18
1.2 0.92 2.5 0.15
(U.S. Bureau of Reclamation, DESIGN OF SMALL DAMS, Denver, Colorado, 1974.)

Therefore, if the volume of runoff is known, the shape of the hydrograph

can be calculated. The following method is offered as a reasonable
way to estimate the inflow hydrograph (Malcom):

1. Calculate the peak flow for the given design storm (rational method,
SCS methods, etc.)
2. Estimate the volume of runoff (Type II 6 hr. storm runoff for
example)
3. Given that

Equation 2.20 Runoff Volume Vol = 1.39 Qp Tp

Where Vol = Volume of runoff from 2 above

Qp = Peak discharge from 1 above
Tp = Time to peak of the hydrograph

Note: Keep consistent units

4. Adopt the shape to be used. For graphical work, the type II

coordinates discussed previously may be used. For a more precise
calculation, a step function closely approximating the shape may be
used (Malcom).

For 0 < t < 1.25tp

Qp  Π×t
Equation 2.21 Step Function Q=  1 − cos  in radians
2  tp 

For t > 1.25 tp

−1 .3  t tp 
Equation 2.22 Step Function
Q = 4.34Qpe  
in radians

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 2.5.5.2 Formulation of For routing a storm by the short cut method in a computer program or
the Stage-Storage by hand, it is necessary to formulate an expression for the stage-
Function storage relationship. For routing by hand, a plot of the relationship is
adequate. For computer application, the relationship can usually be
expressed by a power curve. The simplest way to calculate the volume
of storage is to planimeter (or digitize) a topographic map of the basin
and calculate using the average end areas method as demonstrated
below.

The resulting plot of stage vs. storage may be used for routing by hand
or a "best fit" equation of the points may be used. The best fit is usually
of the form
Storage = K × Stage b
Equation 2.23 Stage-Storage
Function

Where
3
Storage is in ft
Stage is in feet
K = 200
b=3

Therefore, to calculate the stage for the associated storage volume:

1
Stage = K × Storage 3

Table 2.10 Formulation of Stage Storage Function

Contour Stage Planimeter Area Incremental Total
(elev) (ft) Reading (sf) Volume Volume
(sq in) (cf) (cf)
200 0 0 0 0 0
202 2 0.64 1600 1600 1600
204 4 3.84 9600 11,200 12,800
206 6 8.32 20,800 30,400 43,200
208 8 15.36 38,400 59,200 102,400
210 10 23.68 59,200 97,600 200,000
212 12 38.16 95,400 154,600 345,600
214 14 43.12 107,800 203,200 548,800

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 2.5.5.3 Storage Simplifying the differential equation in the previous section, the change
Indication Method in storage from time "i" to time "j" can be described by the average
inflow and outflow over the period.

Equation 2.24 Storage

Sj − Si Ij − Ii Oj − Oi
Indication = −
Tj − Ti 2 2

Where: Si,Sj = Storage at time i and j respectively

Ii,Ij = Inflow at time i and j respectively
Oi,Oj = Outflow at time i and j respectively
Tj - Ti = Change in time

Rearranging, the equation has the more common form:

 2Si  2Si
Ii + Ij +  − Oi  = + Oj
 Tj − Ti  Tj − Ti
In order to route the hydrograph, it is necessary to plot the relationship
between outflow and the right half of the equation above. Since the
stage-storage and stage-discharge relationships are known, this can be
easily accomplished. The routing is best explained by example.

Example:

For a proposed detention facility the following relationships have been

developed.

l The target maximum release rate is 150 cfs.

l The outlet device should be a single 42 inch RCP.
l The stage can be described by a power curve with K = 200 and b =
3 and should not exceed 12 feet. The power curve was developed
previously.
l The inflow hydrograph has a peak discharge of 400 cfs occurring at
20 minutes and has the shape of the step function discussed in
Section 2.5.5.1.

Solution:

1. Select a time increment for the routing. Since the routing is actually
a numerical integration of the differential equation, the time
increment should be small enough to accurately reflect the area
under the hydrograph. Therefore, for any routing technique, the
time step should be no longer than 10 percent of the time to peak.
The time step for this routing will be 2 minutes.
2. Develop the inflow hydrograph. Using the shape of the step
function in Section 2.5.5.1, the inflow hydrograph is listed in column
2 of the routing worksheet.
3. Develop the stage-discharge function. The outlet device will be a
single 42 inch RCP with no tailwater constraints. The discharge
function can then be developed as discussed in Section 2.5.4.1.
The Cd is taken to be 0.65.

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 1/2
Q = Cd A (2gh)

Where: Q = Discharge (cfs)

Cd = 0.65
A = Cross-sectional area = 9.62 sq ft
H = Driving head = stage - d/2 = stage -
1.75 ft

Therefore :

For HW < 42 inches

3/2
Q = 10.14 * stage

For HW > 42 inches

1/2
Q = 0.65 * 9.62 * (2 * 32.2 * (stage - 1.75))

4. The stage-storage curve used is the one developed in Section

2.5.5.2.
1/b Stage = (Storage/K)
1/3 = (Storage/200)

5. Plot the indication curve.

Stage Discharge Storage O + 2S /(Tj-Ti)

0 0 0 0
1 14 200 17
2 25 1600 52
3 56 5400 146
4 75 12800 289
5 90 25000 507
6 103 43200 823
7 115 68600 1258
8 125 102400 1832
9 135 145800 2565
10 144 200000 3477
11 153 266200 4589
12 161 345600 5291
13 168 439400 7492
14 176 548800 9322
15 183 675000 11433

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 6. Routing

Time Ii Ij 2S - O 2S + O O
Tj-Ti Tj-Ti
(min) (cfs) (cfs) (cfs) (cfs) (cfs)
0 0 10 0 0
2 10 38 10 10 0
4 38 82 58 58 0
6 82 138 46 178 66
8 138 200 122 266 72
10 200 262 288 460 86
12 262 318 550 750 100
14 318 362 906 1130 112
16 362 390 1344 1586 121
18 390 400 1840 2096 128
20 400 390 2358 2630 136
22 390 362 2866 3148 141
24 362 320 3328 3618 145
26 320 281 3712 4010 149
28 281 247 4011 4313 151
30 247 217 4233 4539 153
32 217 190 4389 4697 154
34 190 167 4486 4796 155
36 167 147 4533 4843 155
38 147 129 4537 4847 155
40 129 113 4503 4813 155
42 113 99 4437 4745 154
44 99 87 4341 4649 154
46 87 77 4221 4527 153
48 77 67 4081 4385 152
50 67 59 3925 4225 150
52 59 52 3753 4051 149
54 52 46 3570 3864 147
56 46 40 3376 3668 146
58 40 35 3174 3462 144
60 35 3249 142

The peak discharge will be about 155 cfs occurring about 38 minutes
into the storm. Note that there is some minor instability in the first few
routing steps. As long as these errors do not account for much change
in storage volume they can be ignored.

2.5.5.4 Short Cut An alternative to the storage indication method of routing is a method
Routing Method that may lend itself to computer spreadsheet application. (Developed
by Dr. H.R. Malcom, NCSU, Dept. of Civil Engineering) The
components required for the short cut method are similar to those of
storage-indication method. The short cut is an incremental tabular
application of the same differential equation but simplified to the form:

Si = (Ii-Oi)*(Ti-Tj)

Where: Si = Incremental change in storage at time i (sec)

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 Ii = Inflow at time i (cfs)
Oi = Outflow at time i (cfs)
Tj-Ti = Time step (sec)
The short-cut method may not be as intuitively satisfying as other
methods since the outflow at any time is based on the storage volume
prior to that time step. The method does however lend itself to
spreadsheet application and with sufficiently short time steps provides
reasonable results. Here again the method is best explained by
example.

Example:

Repeat the same example used in Section 2.5.5.3 for the storage
indication method using the short-cut method.

Solution:

1. The time step and inflow hydrograph are the same as those used in
the previous example and appear in columns 1 and 2 respectively.
2. The stage-storage curve is the same as the one developed
previously:

1
 Storage  3
Stage =  
 2 
3. The stage-discharge function is the same as the one developed
previously:

For Stage < 3.5 feet

3/2
Q = 10.14 * stage

For Stage > 3.5 feet

1/2
Q = 0.65 * 9.62 * (2 * 32.2 * (stage-1.75))

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 4. Routing
Time Inflow Storage Stage Outflow
(min) (cfs) (cu ft) (ft) (cfs)
0 0 0 0 0
2 10 0 0.00 0
4 38 1175 1.80 12
6 82 4356 2.79 51
8 138 8103 3.43 65
10 200 16873 4.39 81
12 262 31100 5.38 96
14 318 51052 6.34 108
16 362 76257 7.25 118
18 390 105554 8.08 126
20 400 137233 8.82 133
22 390 169227 9.46 139
24 362 199339 9.99 144
26 320 225477 10.41 148
28 281 246204 10.72 150
30 247 261931 10.94 152
32 217 273320 11.10 153
34 190 280942 11.20 154
36 167 285290 11.26 155
38 147 286797 11.28 155
40 129 285837 11.26 155
42 113 282743 11.22 154
44 99 277801 11.16 154
46 87 271268 11.07 153
48 77 263368 10.96 152
50 67 254297 10.83 151
52 59 244232 10.69 150
54 52 233327 10.53 149
56 46 221722 10.35 147
58 40 209538 10.16 145
60 35 196887 9.95 144

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 Note that the peak discharge found by the short-cut method is the same
as that found by the storage-indication method and that the peak
occurs at about the same time.

2.5.6 Ten Percent Rule The “ten percent rule” may be used to determine the downstream
extent of design considerations for new detention. This rule recognizes
that in addition to controlling the peak discharge from the outlet works,
storage facilities change the timing of the entire outflow hydrograph.
Where required, channel routing calculations must proceed
downstream to a confluence point where the drainage area being
analyzed represents ten percent or less of the total drainage area. At
this point, the effect of the hydrograph routed through the proposed
storage facility on the downstream hydrograph is assessed and shown
not to have detrimental effects on downstream hydrographs. If
detrimental impacts are suspected, then backwater calculations and
determination of flood elevations for the areas impacted by increased
flows, if any, must be prepared.

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