Física del Cosmos

Stars:
Relativistic & Newtonian

Academic year 2015-16

 Outline of this lecture

• In this final lecture we study the hydrostatic equilibrium of stars, both

relativistic and Newtonian.

• Relativistic hydrostatic equilibrium: the TOV equation.

• The most compact stars: the uniform density model.

• Newtonian polytropes: the Lane-Emden equation.

• Compact stars: gravity and quantum physics.

• White dwarfs: radius, mass & the Chandrasekhar limit.

• Neutron stars: basic properties.

Non-vacuum spherically symmetric metric

Rµ⌫ 6= 0
T µ⌫ 6= 0

“star”
Previously, we calculated the exterior
“vacuum exterior” (=vacuum) metric in spherical symmetry, i.e.
Rµ⌫ = 0 the Schwarzschild spacetime. Now, we turn
our attention to the interior spacetime
T µ⌫ = 0 (assuming a static system).
 The spacetime for spherical stars (I)

• We write the metric in the familiar form (G=c=1 units):

2 ⌫(r) 2 (r) 2 2 2
ds = e dt + e dr + r d⌦
• The (also familiar) field equations:
✓ ◆
1
Rµ⌫ = 8⇡ Tµ⌫ gµ⌫ T
2
• The non-vanishing Ricci tensor components (already computed earlier):
✓ 00 0 2 0 0 0
◆
⌫ ⌫ (⌫ ) ⌫ ⌫
R00 = e + +
2 4 4 r
⌫ 00 (⌫ 0 )2 ⌫0 0 0
R11 = + +
2 4 4 r
h r 0 i
0 2
R22 = 1 e 1 + (⌫ ) R33 = sin ✓R22
2
 The spacetime for spherical stars (II)

• Stars are fluid systems, therefore:

Tµ⌫ = (⇢ + p)uµ u⌫ + pgµ⌫ p = p(r), ⇢ = ⇢(r)

• Our star is static, which means that: uµ = (u0 , 0, 0, 0)

gµ⌫ uµ u⌫ = 1 ) u0 = ( g00 ) 1/2

=e ⌫/2

• Then we easily find: Tµ⌫ = diag[ g00 ⇢, g11 p, g22 p, g33 p]

T = g µ⌫ Tµ⌫ = 3p ⇢

• Now we are ready to use the field equations.

 The spacetime for spherical stars (III)

• We have:
⌫ 00 (⌫ 0 )2 ⌫0 0 ⌫0
“00”: + + = 4⇡e (⇢ + 3p)
2 4 4 r

“11”:
⌫ 00 (⌫ 0 )2 ⌫0 0 0
+ + = 4⇡e (⇢ p)
2 4 4 r
h r 0 i
“22”: 1 e 1 + (⌫ 0
) = 4⇡r2 (⇢ p) “33” = “22”
2

“00” + “11” ) ⌫0 + 0
= 8⇡re (⇢ + p)
2
“22” ) ⌫0 0
= (1 e ) 8⇡re (⇢ p)
r
• The sum and the difference of these two equations lead to:

(re )0 = 1 8⇡r2 ⇢ r⌫ 0 = 1 + e (1 + 8⇡r2 p)

 The spacetime for spherical stars (IV)

• We solve the first equation by defining the mass function m(r):

2m(r) 0 2
e =1 (re 0
) =1 8⇡r ⇢ 2
) m = 4⇡r ⇢
r

• From the second equation we have:

✓ ◆ 1
0 2 2m
r⌫ 0 = 1 + e (1 + 8⇡r2 p) ) ⌫ = 2 1 (m + 4⇡r3 p)
r r

• We also have the hydrodynamical equations:

u @ ⇢ + (⇢ + p)r⌫ u⌫ = 0 ) trivial 0=0

r⌫ T µ⌫ = 0 ) (⇢ + p)u r u↵ = (g ↵µ + u↵ uµ )@µ p
0 0 ⌫0
) p = (⇢ + p)e ⌫ 1
00 ) p = (⇢ + p)
2
Hydrostatic equilibrium: “TOV” equation
• Lets collect the previous results:
✓ ◆ 1
dp 1 d⌫ d⌫ 2 2m 3
= (⇢ + p) = 2 1 (m + 4⇡r p)
dr 2 dr dr r r

dp m + 4⇡r3 p dm
) = (⇢ + p) = 4⇡r2 ⇢
dr r(r 2m) dr
Tolman-Oppenheimer-Volkoff (TOV) equation mass equation

• The stellar hydrostatic equilibrium is fully determined by these two

equations, once an equation of state (EoS) p = p(⇢) is provided.

• The stellar surface is located at the radius r=R where p(R)=0.

The stellar mass is: M= m(R).
The exterior metric is Schwarzschild with mass parameter M (note that
the metric is continuous as we move from the interior to the exterior)
 TOV equation: Newtonian limit

• In the limit of Newtonian gravity:

g00 = e⌫ ⇡ (1 + ⌫) = (1 + 2 ) ) ⌫ = 2

• It is easy to see that the TOV equations reduce to familiar Newtonian results:

dp 1 d⌫ dp d
= (⇢ + p) ) ⇡ ⇢
dr 2 dr dr dr
dp m + 4⇡r3 p ) dp ⇡ m d m
= (⇢ + p) ⇢ 2 ) = 2
dr r(r 2m) dr r dr r

✓ ◆
dm 2 1 d 2d
= 4⇡r ⇢ ) 2 r = 4⇡⇢
dr r dr dr
 Relativistic stars: uniform density (I)
• This is the simplest relativistic star. The relevant solution is called the
interior Schwarzschild solution.

• The energy density is assumed uniform, ρ = const. (note that this is not
realistic because it implies an infinite sound speed!)

• The integration of the mass equation is trivial:

4⇡ 3 4⇡ 3
m(r) = ⇢r and m(r R) = R ⇢=M
3 3

• The TOV equation can also be integrated analytically:

p p 2m(r)
p(r) f (r) f (R) f (r) = 1
= p p where: r
⇢ 3 f (R) f (r) 2M
f (R) = 1
R
 Relativistic stars: uniform density (II)

• The star cannot be made arbitrarily compact. The maximum value for the
compactness R/M corresponds to infinite central pressure:

✓ ◆
R 9
p(0) ! +1 ) = = 2.25
M min 4

For a given M, this is the smallest possible R

for any perfect fluid star!

p/⇢
R/M = 2.25 The existence of a minimum R/M is a
relativistic effect.
It is absent in the Newtonian solution for a
uniform density star:
R/M > 2.25 ✓ 2
◆
p(r) M r
= 1
⇢ 2R R2
r/R
 Relativistic stars: general EoS
• For a general equation of state, p = p(ρ), the equations of hydrostatic
equilibrium have to be integrated numerically:
3 ✓ ◆ 1
dp m + 4⇡r p d⌫ 2 2m
= (⇢ + p) = 2 1 (m + 4⇡r3 p)
dr r(r 2m) dr r r
dm
= 4⇡r2 ⇢
dr

• We need to specify boundary conditions at the stellar centre (r=0):

mc = m(0) = 0 ⇢c = ⇢(0) ) pc = p(⇢c ) ⌫c = ⌫(0) = 0

• The integration proceeds radially outwards up to the point where p=0
(note that p(r) is monotonically decreasing). This defines the stellar
radius r=R and the stellar mass M=m(R) :
Z R
M = 4⇡ drr2 ⇢(r)
0
 Newtonian polytropic stars

• Lets now discuss the hydrostatic equilibrium of Newtonian stars.

• The EoS will be assumed to be polytropic:

polytropic index
p = K⇢ , K = const. , = 1 + 1/n
dp m dm
• For hydrostatic equilibrium: = ⇢ 2, = 4⇡r2 ⇢
dr r dr
✓ 2 ◆ ✓ 2 ◆
d r dp 2 1 d ⇠ dp 2
) = 4⇡r ⇢ ) 2 = 4⇡↵ ⇢
dr ⇢ dr ⇠ d⇠ ⇢ d⇠
• In this last step we have introduced the dimensionless length parameter ξ:
r = ↵⇠ , α= const.
• We also define: d⇥ 1 dp
⌘ ) ⇥ = (1 + n)K⇢1/n
d⇠ ⇢ d⇠
 The Lane-Emden equation (I)
• We want to arrive to an equation with dimensionless parameters.
For that reason we define:
✓ ◆1/n
⇥ ⇢
✓⌘ = ) ⇢ = ⇢c ✓ n
⇥c ⇢c

• Then, the hydrostatic equilibrium equation becomes:

✓ ◆ 2
1 d 2 d✓ 4⇡↵
⇠ = A✓n , A = ⇢1c 1/n
⇠ 2 d⇠ d⇠ (n + 1)K
2 K
• We can choose α so that A=1: a = (n + 1)⇢c 1+1/n
4⇡
• We finally arrive at the Lane-Emden equation for Newtonian polytropes:
✓ ◆
1 d 2 d✓
⇠ = ✓n
⇠ 2 d⇠ d⇠
 The Lane-Emden equation (II)
• Thus we can conclude that the equilibrium of Newtonian polytropes boils
down to the integration of a single, scale-invariant equation, the Lane-
Emden equation.

• For the actual integration we impose boundary conditions at the centre (ξ=0):
d✓
✓(0) = 1, (0) = 0
d⇠
• For n < 5 θ(ξ) decreases monotonically and the stellar surface is located at:
⇠ = ⇠1 , ✓(⇠1 ) = 0
• The stellar radius and mass are then given by:
3 n
R = ↵⇠1 ) M /R 1 n

Z R Z ⇠1
M = 4⇡ drr2 ⇢ = 4⇡↵3 ⇢c d⇠⇠ 2 ✓n = 4⇡↵3 ⇢c ⇠12 |d✓(⇠1 )/d⇠|
0 0
 Example: the n=1 polytrope
• The Lane-Emden equation can be solved analytically for n=1 (this is a good
approximation for the EoS of a neutron star, although these objects are
strongly relativistic!). We have:
d2 ✓ 2 d✓ sin ⇠
+ + ✓ = 0 ) ✓(⇠) = ) ⇠1 = ⇡
d⇠ 2 ⇠ d⇠ ⇠

• The stellar parameters are easily calculated:

✓ ◆1/2 ✓ ◆1/2
K ⇡K
↵= R= M = 4⇡⇢c ↵3
2⇡ 2

• The density profile is:

sin(⇡r/R)
⇢ = ⇢c
⇡r/R
 Stellar evolution (cartoon)

White dwarfs: Neutron stars:

9 6
R ⇠ 10 cm R ⇠ 10 cm
M ⇠ 1M M ⇠ 1M
 Compact stars: gravity & quantum
• The end of stellar evolution can either lead to a compact star (a white
dwarf or a neutron star) or a black hole.

• Normal stars end their lives and collapse when they exhaust their nuclear
fuel. But what prevents compact stars from further collapse?

• It is remarkable that the principles of quantum (statistical) physics are

responsible for the existence of these objects!

• Compact stars have to be compact (=small size, high density) so that

some particles become a Fermi gas. The pressure is then the Fermi
pressure due to the uncertainty principle.

• It is easier for the electrons to become a Fermi system: white dwarfs are
indeed supported in equilibrium by the electron Fermi pressure.
 White dwarfs (I)

Carbon/Oxygen nuclei form a

crystal lattice, electrons are free.

M ⇠M 9
R ⇠ 10 cm ⇢ ⇠ 106 gr/cm3
 White dwarfs: EoS, M & R (I)
• From the kinetic theory of a fermi gas we obtain the following polytropic EoS :

= 5/3 (n = 3/2) ⇢ ⌧ 106 gr/cm3

K = 3 ⇥ 1012 gr 2/3
cm4 s 2
(non-relativistic electrons)

= 4/3 (n = 3) ⇢ 106 gr/cm3

K = 5 ⇥ 1014 gr 2/3
cm4 s 2
(relativistic electrons)

• From the integration of the Lane-Emden equation we obtain the following

results:
⇠1 ⇡ 3.6, ⇠12 |d✓(⇠1 )/d⇠| ⇡ 2.7 = 5/3 (n = 3/2)

⇠1 ⇡ 6.9, ⇠12 |d✓(⇠1 )/d⇠| ⇡ 2.0 = 4/3 (n = 3)

 White dwarfs: EoS, M & R (II)
• Then, we obtain the following results for the mass and radius:

= 5/3 (n = 3/2) = 4/3 (n = 3)

✓ ◆ 1/6 ✓ ◆ 1/3
9 ⇢c 9 ⇢c
R ⇡ 10 cm R ⇡ 3 ⇥ 10 cm
106 gr/cm3 106 gr/cm3
✓ ◆ 3
R
M ⇡ 0.7 M M ⇡ 1.457 M
106 cm

3 The Chandrasekhar limit:

M /R the maximum mass for a white dwarf
More mass means
smaller size!
 Chandrasekhar limit: qualitative analysis (I)
• The number density of the fermions (electrons) is: ne ⇠ Ne /R3

• According to the Pauli exclusion principle, a quantum state can be

occupied by one fermion only. This implies:
1/3
~Ne
p3F ne 1 ⇠ ~3 ) pF ⇠ ~n1/3
e ⇠
R
volume/per electron
GM 2
• The system’s gravitational energy is: Egrav ⇠ M ⇡ Nb mb ⇠ Ne mb
R
baryon mass

• The Fermi energy for a single electron is:

2/3
p2F ~ Ne
2
1/3
non-relativistic: EF ⇠ ⇠ relativistic: EF ⇡ cpF ⇠ c~ne
2me 2me R2

• Total Fermi energy: EF = Ne EF

Chandrasekhar limit: qualitative analysis (II)
• When the density is not too high (=mass not too large), the electrons are
non-relativistic. The total energy is:
5/3
~ Ne
2
GNe2 m2b
Etot = EF + Egrav ⇠ (non-relativistic)
2me R2 R
• The equilibrium radius can be found by minimising the energy:
dEtot ~2
= 0 ) Req ⇠ 1/3
dR 2
Gme mb Ne
• When the mass increases (=higher density) at some point the electrons
should become relativistic. In that case:
!
4/3 2/3
c~Ne Gm2b Ne
Etot = EF + Egrav ⇠ 1 (relativistic)
R c~
Chandrasekhar limit: qualitative analysis (III)
• The star becomes unstable (i.e. Etot becomes increasingly negative with
decreasing R) for:
✓ ◆3/2 ✓ ◆3
~c MP
Ne > Nmax ⇠ 2 =
Gmb mb

• Hence, the maximum mass for a white dwarf is:

✓ ◆2
MP Chandrasekhar
Mmax ⇡ Nmax mb ⇠ MP ⇡ 1.5M mass limit
mb

• With the help of this result we can also estimate the size of a white dwarf:
~
MP e =
Rwd ⇠ e ⇡ 109 cm me c
mb electron’s Compton
wavelength
 Neutron stars (I)
• Neutron stars are held in hydrostatic equilibrium by the Fermi pressure of
free neutrons. It is straightforward to repeat the previous qualitative analysis
and obtain estimates for a neutron star’s maximum mass and radius:
✓ ◆2
MP
Mmax ⇡ Nmax mb ⇠ MP ⇡ 1.5M
mb
• In reality, the maximum mass for neutron stars is much higher, because the
neutrons are not a Fermi gas but a Fermi liquid (=their mutual interactions
are important) and gravity is relativistic:

2 M < Mmax . 3 M
• For the neutron star radius we have:

MP Rwd e mn
Rns ⇠ n ⇡ 106 cm ) ⇠ = ⇡ 103
mb Rns n me
 Neutron stars (II)

R ⇠ 106 cm
M ⇠M

⇢ ⇠ 1014 1015 gr/cm3

Neutron stars as Pulsars

magnetic
field lines
Epilogue

When I heard the learn’d astronomer,

When the proofs, the figures, were ranged in columns before me,
When I was shown the charts and diagrams, to add, divide,
and measure them,
When I sitting heard the astronomer where he lectured with
much applause in the lecture-room,
How soon unaccountable I became tired and sick,
Till rising and gliding out I wander’d off by myself,
In the mystical moist night-air, and from time to time,
Look’d up in perfect silence at the stars.

“When I heard the learned astronomer” by W. Whitman