Stone

Sources of stone
stones are obtained from the rocks.a rock represents a definite portion of the earth
surface.it is not homogenious.it has no definite chemical composition and shape.
Monomineralic rock-if it contains only one minerals
Polymineralic- rocks contains nore thane one minerals
Classification of rocks
1.geological classification
2.Physical classification
3.Chemical classification

1) Geological classification :
Depending upon the process of formation rocks can be divided into three main classes
namely
a) Igneous rocks
b) Sedimentary rocks
c) Metamorphic rocks
a) Igneous rocks: These rocks are formed as a result of solidification of molten mass
( magma) laying below or above the earth surface.
The Igneous rocks are further classified as
i) Plutonic rocks:Rocks formed due to cooling of magma at a considerable depth
from earth's surface. The rocks possess large crystals as it is formed due to slow
cooling of lava. The thick covering of earth crust at the top is responsible for the slow
cooling. Example: Granite.
ii) Hypabyssal rocks:These rocks arc formed due to cooling of magma at a shallow
depth from the earth's surface. The cooling is quick and these rocks posses finely
grained crystalline structure. Example: Dolerite.
iii) Volcanic rocks:These rocks are formed due to cooling of magma at the surface of
the earth. The rate of cooling is quicker. As a result of this, they are non-crystalline,
amorphous and glassy in texture. Example:Basalt.
 (Formation of igneous rocks)

B) Sedimentary rocks
Sedimentary rocks are formed by deposition of materials like sand, clay, disintegrated
rock, dead sea organism, etc. The sediments get consolidated in horizontal beds on
account of the pressure exerted by overlying material. The deposition of suspended
particles is responsible for the formation of most of the sedimentary rocks.
Example: Sand stone,lime stone, Gypsum Shale,etc.
C) Metamorphic rocks
Metamorphic rocks are formed from igneous or sedimentary rocks by the action of
earth movements, temperature changes, liquid pressure, etc., acting on these rocks.
The igneous rocks or sedimentary rocks are changes its character when they subjected
to great heat and pressure. The process of change is known as the metamorphism. The
metamorphic rocks as a foliated structure. Examples: Slate, marble, gneiss. (As a
result of metamorphosis.
lime stone and marl become marble,
basalt and trap become schist,
laterite and granite become gneiss).
2) Physical classification
This classification is based on general structure of rock. Stones are classified under
three heads based on physical classification
i) Stratified rocks
ii)Unstratified rocks
iii) Foliated rocks
i) Stratified rocks
These rocks possess planes of cleavage and rocks can be split up along these planes.
Materials from the disintegration of originally formed rocks form stratified rocks.
Example: Sedimentary rocks.
ii)Unstratified rocks
The structure of these rocks may be crystalline .Example: Igneous rocks.

iii) Foliated rocks

Metamorphic rocks have foliated structure. In this case layers of stratification are not
formed due to deposition but due to metamorphic act ion of heat and pressure.
3) Chemical classification
Stones for engineering works are divided into three classes based on chemical
composition
i) Silicious rocks
ii) Argillaceous rocks
iii) Calcareous rocks
i) Silicious rocks
The main composition of these rock is Silica. The rocks are hard and durable. It is
unaffected by weathering action. Example: Granite, Quartzites, Basalt.
ii) Argillaceous rocks
The main composition ofthese rock is Clay. They are brittle but hard and durable.
Example:Porphyry, Laterite, Clay slate.
iii) Calcareous rocks
The main composition of these rock is Lime. Example: Lime stone, Dolomite.
Marble Kankar,

ROKS MINERALS:

Our Earth is made mostly of rocks. The rocks are composed of mineral grains
combined in different ways and having various properties. Minerals are naturally
occurring chemical compounds in which atoms are arranged in three-dimensional
patterns. The kind of elements and their arrangements lead to a particular appearance
and certain properties for each mineral. The same chemical elements when arranged
in different patterns show different characteristics

Uses of Stone
Following are the uses of stone in civil engineering works:
1. The stones are used for foundations, walls, columns, arches, damp-proof courses,
floors. etc.
2. The stone are used facing work to give massive appearance.
3. Crushed stones are widely used in the manufacture of artificial stones.
4. The Stones are used as aggregate for cement concrete, roads, etc.
5. The stones arc used as ballast for railway lines.
6. Stones are used for ornamental works in the buildings in the form of moldings
with large
projections.
7. Flag stone slabs are used for paving.
8. Lime Stone is necessarily used for manufacture or cement.
9. On account of high crushing strength, stones are used in construction of dams,
retaining walls,
weirs, harbours abutment for piers, etc.
10. Slate in the form of tiles is used as an excellent roof covering material.

Characteristics of Good Stones

In selecting as tone for engineering work .the following characteristics should be
looked into.
1. It should be strong hard and durable to withstand the deteriorating action of rough
weather.
2. It should have pleasing uniform colour and fine grained compact-texture.
3. It should be remain unaffected by smoke and atmospheric acids.
4. It should be free from cracks cavities, flaws, decay or patches of soft material.
5. The surface of a freshly broken stone should be sharp, clean and bright with
uniformity of
Colour and texture.
6. The specific gravity of stone should not in any case be less than 2.7.
7. It should be crystalline and homogeneous structure.
8. It should not absorb more than 0.60percent of its weight of water after 24hours of
immersion. 9. It should be seasoned.
9. it should be easily workable.
11. It should stand fire well for some time without serious injury.
12. It should be easily obtainable and economical.
Quarrying of Stones
The process of taking out stones from natural rock bed is known as quarrying or. It is
the art of extracting stones for engineering purposes from natural rock.

Selection of site for quarry: Following are the point to be kept in mind while
selecting site for quarry:
1. Availability or tools, power, materials and labour for the easy and efficient working
of quarry.
2. Availability of site for dumping of refuse.
3. Distance of quarry from roads, railways, sea coast. Etc., for transportation.
4. Drainage of quarry pit
5. Economy in quarrying
6. Facility of carrying and conveying stones from quarry.
7. For quarrying by blasting, absence of permanent structures in the nearby area.
8. Geological data regarding rock forming at the site.
9. Quality of stone available from quarry.
10. Quantity of Stone likely to be obtained from quarry.
Methods of quarrying :Depending upon the nature of rock and the purpose for
which stone is to be used, the process of quarrying can he performed by the following
methods.
1. Quarrying by hand tools
2. Quarrying by channeling machine
3. Quarrying by blasting
1. Quarrying by hand tools :Quarrying by use of hand tools may be done in three
different ways:
a) By excavating: In this method, the stones are excavated with the help of pick
axes, hammers, showels, chisels etc. This method is useful when stones are soft.
b) By heating: The top surface of rock is heated by using fuel. Due to unequal
expansion, the upper layer of rock separates out.The detached portion, of rock is then
removed by pick axes, crow bars etc.
c) By wedging: In quarrying by wedging a number or holes first drilled on the surface
ofrock in a straight line. The holes arc usually 12mm diameter. 15 to
20cm deep and are spaced at 10 to 15cm apart. Feather and plugs are
then inserted in each hole, Tops of the plugs arc then simultaneously
 driven by hammer till the rock cracks along the line of holes. This
method of quarrying is suitable for sedimentary and soft rocks.
2. Quarrying by channeling machine
In this method, channeling machines driven by steam, compressed air or electricity
are used. With the help of channeling machines vertical or oblique grooves or channel
can be cut to a depth of 2.4 to 3.7m. After the channels are cut around the stone block
which is be removed from the rock mass, horizontal holes are drilled beneath the
block and the block is then broken loose from its bed by driving wedge in the holes.
This method is suitable for quarrying marbles, lime stones, soft sand stones.
3. Quarrying by blasting
This method is suitable for quarrying hard stone and compact rocks. Blasting consists
of splitting, separating or loosening a portion of rock from its mass by use of
explosives. This method is also used for splitting larger blocks of stones into stones of
smaller sizes.
Tools for blasting
The following tools are used for blasting:
1.Dipper: It is used to drill a hole to the required depth.
2. Jumper: It is used to make blast holes.

3. Priming needle: It is in the form or thin copper rod. Used for making an passage
for the insertion of fuse to cause explosion in the hole.

4.Scrapping spoon: It is used to scrap or remove dust of crushed stones from blast
holes.

5.Tamping bar: It is used to tamp the material while refilling blast holes.
Materials for blasting
• Detonators (Copper cylinder)
• Explosives (Dynamite or gun powder)
• Fuses
The various operations involved in this process are:
• The blast holes of required depths and diameters are made with jumpers, dippers
and scrapping spoons.
• The blast holes are cleaned. They are made dry by rotating a small iron rod with a
piece of dry cloth tied at its end. After few rotations, the rod is taken out.
• Proper quantity of blasting powder (Gun powder or dynamite) is poured into the
hole by a funnel and copper tube.
• The remaining portion of bias hole is filled in layers with dry sandy clay, moorum
or ant-hill earth. Each layer is tamped by brass camping bar.
• A 2mm diameter copper rod known as priming needle is then inserted into the
tamped material to reach the charge in the hole. The priming needle is then withdrawn
slowly, leaving a long narrow hole.
• Gun powder is then poured inside this hole and on the top, a fuse is introduced
which extends outside the hole for a length of 60 to 90cm.
• The free end or the fuse is fired. This can be done either with a match or with
electricity.
• The explosion takes place and rock is disintegrated into small pieces.

Precautions to be taken in blasting

The following precautions should be taken during blasting:
• Sometimes a change fails to explode due to any reason. The fresh hole should not
be too near the failed hole.
• The gases formed when explosion occurs will follow the line of path which offers
the least resistance. Such a line is known as the Line of least resistance or L.L.R.
In practice LLR is taken as the shortest distance between the center of charge and
Lind the nearest rock surface. The LLR play important part in determining the
quantity of explosive and it should be carefully decided.
• The needle and tamper should be made of copper bras or bronze and not of steel.
• Red flags, caution boards should be placed along the boundary of blasting area.
• The length of the fuse should be sufficient to enable the man lighting the fuse to
reach the place of safely before explosion takes place.
• If the water is entering the blast hole, the charge of explosive should be placed in
thin iron plate or in water proof paper.
• The work of blasting should be carried out by trained and experienced person.
• The explosives should be stored in magazine especially built for this purpose.
Dressing and Polishing of Stones
The process of cutting and converting the stones to the require shape and to give them
a smooth finish is called cutting and dressing of stones.
They stones, when obtained from a rock, are very irregular in shape and size. They
are, therefore, dressed for proper bedding, thin joints and speed construction, the
stones should be cut and dressed as soon after quarrying as possible because stones
when freshly quarried contain some moisture "quarry sap" and In this state they are
softer and can be easily dressed.
Advantages of dressing
The following are the advantages of dressing
• Dressed stones call be transported easily & economically.
• Dressed stones can be used for stone masonry works, ornamental works.
• Dressing of stones at quarry site reduces the cost of labour ( as it is possible to get
cheap labour at quarry site).
Factors affecting the selection of a type of dressing
The following are the factors which affect the selection of type of dressing
1. The type of stone
2. The architectural effects desired
3. The position of stone and its function in the structure
4. The atmospheric considerations
Types of dressing
The different types of surface dressing or surface finish of stones are discussed below:
1. Scabbling dressing
The dressing in which irregular projections of the queried stone are removed by
means of a scabbling hammer is called scabbling dressing. This is usually done at
quarry. The stones thus dressed roughly are called scabbled stones, and the surface
finish provided in this way is termed as scabbling finish.
2. Hammer dressing
The dressing in which the stones are made roughly square or rectangular by means of
a mason's hammer is called hammer dressing. The stone blocks are simply made
square to enable the mea son-to provide proper joints in the masonry work.
3. Rough tooled dressing
The dressing in which projections from the surface of u stone block arc removed by
means of chisels until no portion of the dressed surface is more than 10mm from a
straight edge placed on it is called rough tooled dressing or one line dressing. The
stones thus dressed are called rough tooled
or one line dressed stones and the surface finish provided in this way is known as
rough tooled finish. This type of dressed stones generally used for coursed rubble
masonry.

4. Tooled dressing
The dressing in which all the projections from the surface of stone blocks are removed
by means of chisels until no portion of the surface is more than 3 mm from a straight
edge placed on it, is called tooled dressing. This type of dressed stones used for
superior type of coursed rubble masonry.

Fig.1.9: Hammer and Tooled dressed surface

• Furrowed finish
The surface of the exposed face is finished by making a number of vertical and
horizontal grooves about 10 mill wide. 2 cm wick margin is also made around the
edges or the exposed face.
6. Reticulated finish
In this finishing 2.cm wide margin, chamfered at 45° is marked on the edges and
irregular depressions are developed on the enclosed space of the exposed face.
 Fig 1.10: Furrowed and Reticulated finish
7. Vermiculated finish
This finish appears just like worm eaten surface. It is similar to reticulated finish
except that depressions in this surfacing are more curved and good looking in
appearance.
8. Finely punched dressing
The dressing in which all the projections from the surface of a stone block are
removed by means of pointed tools or a punch giving a clotted appearance is called
finely punched dressing. This type of dressing is usually specified to give
architectural appearance to the masonry work .

Fig.1.11: Punched and Polished surface

9. Cut stone dressing
The dressing in which all the projections from all the faces or a stone block are
removed by means of a sharp chisel, rend ring the surface free of chisel marks is
called cut stone dressing. This type of dressed stones used for ashlar masonry.
10. Rubbed dressing
The dressing in which a perfectly smooth surface finish is obtained by grinding or
rubbing a cut stone by hand or by machine is called rubbed dressing. This type of
dressed stone used for ashlar masonry.
11. Polished dressing
The dressing in which the rubbed stone surfaces are polished by manual labour, using
sand and water pumice stone etc. or by means of a rubbing machine is called polished
dressing.