Industrial Power Electronics PDF

1
GOVERNMENT OF TAMILNADU
DIRECTORATE OF TECHNICAL EDUCATION
CHENNAI – 600 025
STATE PROJECT COORDINATION UNIT
Diploma in Instrumentation and Control Engineering

Course Code: 1042
M – Scheme
e-TEXTBOOK
on
INDUSTRIAL POWER ELECTRONICS
for
V Semester DICE
Convener for ICE Discipline:
Dr.S.Rajakumari,
Head of Department/ECE,
Dr.Dharmambal Govt. Polytechnic College for Women,
Tharamani, Chennai - 600 113
Team Members for Industrial Instrumentation:
Mr.K. Annamalai M.E.,

Lecturer (Sr.Gr.) / ICE,
221, Seshasayee Institute of Technology,
Tiruchirappalli – 620 010.
Mrs.N.Noor Aisha Nasreen M.E.,

Lecturer (Sr.Gr.) / ICE,
210, CIT Sandwich Polytechnic College,
Coimbatore – 641 014.
Ms.T.Sripriya M.E.,
Lecturer / EEE,
221, Seshasayee Institute of Technology,
Validated By
Mrs. M. Shakila Begum M.E.,
Lecturer (Sr.Gr.) / ECE,
P.N.R.M. Polytechnic College for Girls,

2
34273 - INDUSTRIAL POWER ELECTRONICS

DETAILED SYLLABUS
UNIT NAME OF THE TOPIC Page No.

POWER DEVICES AND TRIGGER CIRCUITS
Thyristor family –Working principle ,VI characteristics, Applications of SCR –
Definitions for holding current, latching current, dv/dt rating, di/dt rating– Symbol,
principle of working ,VI characteristics ,applications of Insulated gate bipolar Transistor
I (IGBT), MOSFET and GTO. Triggering of SCR - Gate triggering –Types – Concepts of 3-28
DC triggering, AC triggering, Pulse gate triggering – Pulse transformer in trigger circuit –
Electrical isolation by opto isolator - Resistance firing circuit and waveform – Resistance
capacitor firing circuit and waveform, Synchronized UJT triggering (ramp triggering) and
waveform – Ramp and pedestal trigger circuit for ac load.
CONVERTERS (Qualitative treatment only)

Converters – Definition – Single phase Half controlled bridge converter with resistive load
and resistive inductive loadimportance of flywheel diode – Single phase fully controlled
bridge converter with resistive load – voltage and current
waveforms – Single phase fully controlled bridge converter with RL load ––voltage and
II current waveforms. Commutation- Natural commutation – Forced commutation – Types
29-49
of forced commutation (mention the types only)
3 phase half controlled bridge converter with resistive load - current and voltage waveform
-3 phase fully controlled bridge with resistive load – current and voltage waveforms. Dual
converter – modes of Dual converter
CHOPPERS
Introduction – applications -principle of chopper-control strategies (time ratio and current
III limit control)-types of choppertype A, B, C, D, and E - step up chopper –Jones chopper – 50-62
Morgan chopper-chopper using MOSFET – PWM control circuit for driving MOSFET in
chopper. DC Transmission- principle – advantages – drawbacks.
INVERTERS & APPLICATIONS
Inverter Definition Requirement of an inverter –Single phase inverter with resistive load –
Single phase inverter with RL load –Methods to obtain sine wave output from an inverter-
output voltage control in inverters - McMurray inverter – advantages- Basic 3 phase
IV bridge inverter with 120 conduction mode – circuit, trigger sequence, waveform –
63-73
Through pass inverter – Parallel inverter using IGBT.
UPS – Need for UPS –ON Line UPS -OFF Line UPS - Comparison of ON line and OFF
line UPS
NUMERICALLY CONTROLLED SYSTEMS

Basic concepts of numerical control- Block diagram of numerical control system–
Advantages, disadvantages , applications of numerical control system – Driving devices –
Hydraulic system , Stepper motor - Programming systems ( mention the names only ) –
V Data processing unit – Data reading – Part programming – steps - Post processor
74-88
Introduction to CNC / DNC – Basic concepts of CNC , DNC and AC system - Types of
AC system - -Block diagram of ACO , ACC – Comparison between NC & CNC – Typical
CNC system – Block diagram - Advantages of CNC system

3
I UNIT
Power devices and Trigger circuits
1.1 Power Electronics Defined It has been said that people do not use electricity, but rather they use communication, light,
mechanical work, entertainment, and all the tangible benefits of energy and electronics. In this sense, electrical engineering as a
discipline is much involved in energy conversion and information. In the general world of electronics engineering, the circuits
engineers design and use are intended to convert information. This is true of both analog and digital circuit design. In radio-
frequency applications, energy and information are on more equal footing, but the main function of any circuit is information
transfer.
What about the conversion and control of electrical energy itself? Energy is a critical need in every human ndeavor. The
capabilities and flexibility of modern electronics must be brought to bear to meet the challenges of reliable, efficient energy. It is
essential to consider how electronic circuits and systems can be applied to the challenges of energy conversion and management.
This is the framework of power electronics, a discipline defined in terms of electrical energy conversion, applications, and
electronic devices. More specifically,
DEFINITION Power electronics involves the study of electronic circuits which is used to control the flow of electrical
energy.
Key Characteristics All power electronic circuits manage the flow of electrical energy between an electrical source and a
load.. A general power conversion systemis shown in Fig. 1.1. The function of the power converter in the middle is to control the
energy flow between a source and a load. For our purposes, the power converter will be implemented with a power electronic
circuit. Because a power converter appears between a source and a load, any energy used within the converter is lost to the overall
system.
Fig 1.1
The Efficiency Objective – The Switch
A circuit element as simple as a light switch reminds us that the extreme requirements in power electronics are not especially novel.
Ideally, when a switch is on, it has zero voltage drop and will carry any current imposed on it. When a switch is off, it blocks the
flow of current regardless of the voltage across it. The device power, the product of the switch voltage and current, is identically
zero at all times. A switch therefore controls energy flow with no loss. In addition, reliability is also high. Household light switches
perform over decades of use and perhaps 100,000 operations. Unfortunately, a mechanical light switch does not meet all practical
needs. A switch in a power supply may function 100,000 times each second. Even the best mechanical switch will not last beyond a
few million cycles. Semiconductor switches (without this limitation) are the devices of choice in power converters.
A circuit built from ideal switches will be lossless. As a result, switches are the main components of power converters, and
many people equate power electronics with the study of switching power converters. Magnetic transformers and lossless storage
elements such as capacitors and inductors are also valid components for use in power converters. The complete concept, shown in
Fig. 1.2, illustrates a power electronic system. Such a system consists of an electrical energy source, an electrical load, a power
electronic circuit, and a control function. The power electronic circuit contains switches, lossless energy storage elements, and

4
magnetic transformers. The controls take information from the source, the load, and the designer, and then determine how the
switches operate to achieve the desired conversion. The controls are built up with low-power analog and digital electronics.
Fig 1.2
1.2 Thyristor and Family

Introduction The modern power electronics area truly began with advent of thyristors. One of the
first developments was the publication of the P-N-P-N transistor switch concept in 1956 by J.L. Moll and others at Bell
Laboratories. However, engineers at General Electric quickly recognized its significance to power conversion and control and
within nine months announced the first commercial Silicon Controlled Rectifier in 1957. This had a continuous current carrying
capacity of 25A and a blocking voltage of 300V.
Thyristors (also known as the Silicon Controlled Rectifiers or SCRs) have come a long way from this modest beginning
and now high power light triggered thyristors with blocking voltage in excess of 6kv and continuous current rating in excess of 4kA
are available.
Along the way a large number of other devices with broad similarity with the basic thyristor (invented originally as a phase
control type device) have been developed. They include,
inverter grade fast thyristor
Silicon Controlled Switch (SCS)
light activated SCR (LASCR)
Asymmetrical Thyristor (ASCR)
Reverse Conducting Thyristor (RCT)
Diac
Triac
and the Gate turn off thyristor (GTO).
From the construction and operational point of view a thyristor is a four layer, three terminal, minority carrier semi-controlled
device. It can be turned on by a current signal but can not be turned off without interrupting the main current. It can block voltage in
both directions but can conduct current only in one direction. During conduction it offers very low forward voltage drop due to an
internal latch-up mechanism. Thyristors have longer switching times (measured in tens of μs) compared to a BJT. This, coupled
with the fact that a thyristor can not be turned off using a control input, have all but eliminated thyristors in high frequency
switching applications involving a DC input (i.e, choppers, inverters).
1.3 Silicon Controlled Rectifiers ( SCR)

Thyristors are usually three-terminal devices that have four layers of alternating p-type and n-type material (i.e. three p–n
junctions) comprising its main power handling section. The control terminal of the thyristor, called the gate (G) electrode, may be
connected to an integrated and complex structure as a part of the device. The other two terminals, called the anode (A) and cathode

5
(K), handle the large applied potentials (often of both polarities) and conduct the major current through the thyristor. The anode and
cathode terminals are connected in series with the load to which power is to be controlled.
Thyristor circuits must have the capability of delivering large currents and be able to withstand large externally applied
voltages. All thyristor types are controllable in switching from a forward-blocking state (positive potential applied to the anode with
respect to the cathode, with correspondingly little anode current flow) into a forward-conduction state (large forward anode current
flowing, with a small anode–cathode potential drop). Most thyristors have the characteristic that after switching from a forward-
blocking state into the forward-conduction state, the gate signal can be removed and the thyristor will remain in its forward-
conduction mode. This property is termed ―latching‖ and is an important distinction between thyristors and other types of power
electronic devices.
1.3.1 Basic Structure and Operation

Figure 1.3 shows a conceptual view of a typical thyristor with the three p–n junctions and the external electrodes labeled. Also
shown in the figure is the thyristor circuit symbol used in electrical schematics.
Fig 1.3
A high-resistivity region, n-base, is present in all thyristors. It is this region, the n-base and associated junction, J2 of Fig. 1.3, which
must support the large applied forward voltages that occur when the switch is in its off- or forward-blocking state (non-conducting).
The n-base is typically doped with impurity phosphorous atoms at a concentration of 1013 to 1014 cm−3.
High-voltage thyristors are generally made by diffusing aluminum or gallium into both surfaces to create p-doped regions
forming deep junctions with the n-base. The doping profile of the p-regions ranges from about 1015 to 1017 cm−3.
The cathode region (typically only a few micrometer thick) is formed by using phosphorous atoms at a doping density of
1017 to 1018 cm−3.
Operation of thyristors is as follows.When a positive voltage is applied to the anode (with respect to cathode), the thyristor
is in its forward-blocking state. The center junction, J2 (see Fig. 1.3) is reverse biased. In this operating mode the gate current is
held to zero (open circuit). In practice, the gate electrode is biased to a small negative voltage (with respect to the cathode) to
reverse bias the GK-junction J3 and prevent charge-carriers from being injected into the p-base. In this condition only thermally
generated leakage current flows through the device and can often be pproximated as zero in value. As long as the forward applied
voltage does not exceed the value necessary to cause excessive carrier multiplication in the depletion region around J2 (avalanche
breakdown), the thyristor remains in an off-state (forward-blocking). If the applied voltage exceeds the maximum forward-blocking
voltage of the thyristor, it will switch to its on-state. However, this mode of turn-on causes non-uniformity in the current flow, is
generally destructive, and should be avoided.
When a positive gate current is injected into the device, J3 becomes forward biased and electrons are injected from the n-
emitter into the p-base. Some of these electrons diffuse across the p-base and get collected in the n-base. This collected charge

6
causes a change in the bias condition of J1. The change in bias of J1 causes holes to be injected from the p-emitter into the n-base.
These holes diffuse across the n-base and are collected in the p-base. The addition of these collected holes in the p-base acts the
same as gate current. The entire process is regenerative and will cause the increase in charge carriers until J2 also becomes forward
biased and the thyristor is latched in its on-state (forward-conduction). The regenerative action will take place as long as the gate
current is applied in sufficient amount and for a sufficient length of time. This mode of turnon is considered to be the desired one as
it is controlled by the gate signal.
1.3.2 Static Characteristics – Forward bias
A plot of the anode current (iA) as a function of anode– cathode voltage (vAK ) is shown in Fig.1.4. The forwardblocking
mode is shown as the low-current portion of the graph .With zero gate current and positive vAK , the forward characteristic in the
offor blocking-state is determined by the center junction J2,which is reverse biased.
At operating point ―1‖ very little current flows (Ico only) through the device. However, if the applied voltage exceeds the
forward-blocking voltage, the thyristor switches to its on- or conducting-state (shown as operating point ―2‖) because of carrier
multiplication .The effect of gate current is to lower the blocking voltage at which switching takes place. The portion of the graph
indicating forward-conduction shows the large values of iA that may be conducted at relatively low values of vAK , similar to a
power diode. As the thyristor moves from forward-blocking to forward conduction, the external circuit must allow sufficient anode
current to flow to keep the device latched.
BREAKOVER VOLTAGE I t is the minimum forward voltage gate being open at which SCR starts conducting heavily i.e
turned on
The minimum anode current that will cause the device to remain in forward conduction as it switches from forward-
blocking is called the latching current IL.
If the thyristor is already in forward conduction and the anode current is reduced, the device can move its operating mode
from forward-conduction back to forward-blocking. The minimum value of anode current necessary to keep the device in forward-
conduction after it has been operating at a high anode current value is called the holding current IH. The holding current value is
lower than the latching current value as indicated in Fig. 1.4.
di/dt rating The time rate of rise of anode current (di/dt) during turn-on
dv/dt rating The time rate of rise of anode–cathode voltage (dv/dt) during
turn-off are important parameters to control for ensuring proper and reliable operation.
Fig 1.4

7
Reverse Bias When anode is negative with respect to cathode the curve between Voltage & current is known as reverse
characteristics reverse voltage come across SCR when it is operated with ac supply reverse voltage is increased anode current
remains small avalanche breakdown occurs and SCR starts conducting heavily is known as reverse breakdown voltage
The two-transistor analogy
Fig 1.5
Application
SCR as a static contactor
SCR for power control
SCR for speed control of d. c. shunt motor
Over light detector
1.4 Insulated Gate Bipolar Transistor ( IGBT)
The insulated gate bipolar transistor (IGBT), which was introduced in early 1980s, is becoming a successful
device because of its superior characteristics. IGBT is a three-terminal power semiconductor switch used to control the electrical
energy.
Prior to the advent of IGBT, power bipolar junction transistors (BJT) and power metal oxide field effect transistors
(MOSFET) were widely used in low to medium power and high-frequency applications, where the speed of gate turn-off thyristors
was not adequate.
Power BJTs have good on-state characteristics but have long switching times especially at turn-off. They are current-
controlled devices with small current gain because of high-level injection effects and wide base width required to prevent reach-
through breakdown for high blocking voltage capability. Therefore, they require complex base drive circuits to provide the base
current during on-state, which increases the power loss in the control electrode.
On the other hand power MOSFETs are voltage-controlled devices, which require very small current during switching
period and hence have simple gate drive requirements. Power MOSFETs are majority carrier devices, which exhibit very high
switching speeds.
Their ON state resistance increases with increasing breakdown voltage. Furthermore, as the voltage rating increases the
inherent body diode shows inferior reverse recovery characteristics, which leads to higher switching losses.
In order to improve the power device performance, it is advantageous to have the low on-state resistance of power BJTs
with an insulated gate input like that of a power MOSFET. The Darlington configuration of the two devices shown in Fig. 1.6 has
superior characteristics as compared to the two discrete devices. This hybrid device could be gated like a power MOSFET with low
on-state resistance.

8
A more powerful approach to obtain the maximum benefits of the MOS gate control and bipolar current conduction is to
integrate the physics of MOSFET and BJT within the same semiconductor region. This concept gave rise to the commercially
available IGBTs with superior on-state characteristics, good switching speed and excellent safe operating area.
Fig 1.6

The vertical cross section of a half cell of one of the parallel cells of an n-channel IGBT shown in Fig.1.7 This layer forms
the IGBT collector and a pn junction with n− drift region, where conductivity modulation occurs by injecting minority carriers into
the drain drift region of the vertical MOSFET. Therefore, the current density is much greater than a power MOSFET and the
forward voltage drop is reduced. The p+ substrate, n− drift layer, and p+ emitter constitute a BJT with a wide base region and hence
small current gain. The device operation can be explained by a BJT with its base current controlled by the voltage applied to the
MOS gate. For simplicity, it is assumed that the emitter terminal is connected to the ground potential. By applying a negative
voltage to the collector, the pn junction between the p+ substrate and the n− drift region is reverse biased which prevents any current
flow and the device is in its reverse blocking state. If the gate terminal is kept at ground potential but a positive potential is applied
to the collector, the pn junction between the p-base and n− drift region is reverse biased. This prevents any current flow and the
device is in its forward blocking state until the open base breakdown of the pnp transistor is reached.
Fig 1.7
When a positive potential is applied to the gate and exceeds the threshold voltage required to invert the MOS region under
the gate an n channel is formed, which provides a path for electrons to flow into the n− drift region. The pn junction between the p+
substrate and n− drift region is forward biased and holes are injected into the drift region. The electrons in the drift region
recombine with these holes to maintain space charge neutrality and the remaining holes are collected at the emitter, causing a
vertical current flow between the emitter and collector. For small values of collector potential and a gate voltage larger than the
threshold voltage the on-state characteristics can be defined by a wide base power BJT. As the current density increases, the injected
carrier density exceeds the low doping of the base region and becomes much larger than the background doping. This conductivity

9
modulation decreases the resistance of the drift region, and therefore IGBT has a much greater current density than a power
MOSFET with reduced forward voltage drop. The base–collector junction of the pnp BJT cannot be forward biased, and therefore
this transistor will not operate in saturation. But when the potential drop across the inversion layer becomes comparable to the
difference between the gate voltage and threshold voltage, channel pinch-off occurs. The pinch-off limits the electron current and as
a result the holes injected from the p+ layer. Therefore, base current saturation causes the collector current to saturate.
Typical forward characteristics of an IGBT as a function of gate potential and IGBT transfer characteristics are shown in
Fig.1.8. The transfer characteristics of IGBT and MOSFET are similar. The IGBT is in the off-state if the gate–emitter potential is
below the threshold voltage. For gate voltages greater than the threshold voltage, the transfer curve is linear over most of the drain
current range. Gate-oxide breakdown and the maximum IGBT drain current limit the maximum gate–emitter voltage.
Fig 1.8
The main advantages of IGBT over a Power MOSFET and a BJT are:
1. It has a very low on-state voltage drop due to conductivity modulation and has superior on-state current density. So smaller chip
size is possible and the cost can be reduced.
2. Low driving power and a simple drive circuit due to the input MOS gate structure. It can be easily controlled as compared to
current controlled devices (thyristor, BJT) in high voltage and high current applications.
Applications An insulated-gate bipolar transistor (IGBT) is a three-terminal power semiconductor device primarily used as an
electronic switch which, as it was developed, came to combine high efficiency and fast switching.
1.5 The Power MOSFET

Unlike the bipolar junction transistor (BJT), the MOSFET device belongs to the Unipolar Device family, since it uses only
the majority carriers in conduction. The development of the metal oxide semiconductor technology for microelectronic circuits
opened the way for developing the power metal oxide semiconductor field effect transistor (MOSFET) device in 1975. Selecting the
most appropriate device for a given application is not an easy task, requiring knowledge about the device characteristics, its unique
features,
The device symbol for a p- and n-channel enhancement and depletion types are shown in Fig.1.9. The n-channel enhancement-type
MOSFET. It is the fastest power switching device with switching frequency more than 1 MHz, with voltage power ratings up to
1000V and current rating as high as 300 A.

10
1.9 (a) n-channel enhancement-mode; 1.9 (b) p-channel enhancement-mode;
1.9 c)n-channel depletion-mode; 1.9 d) p-channel depletion-mode.
1.5.1 MOSFET Structure

Figure 1.10 a shows vertical cross-sectional view for a power MOSFET. Figure 1.10 b shows a more simplified
representation and also shown symbol fig 1.11

11
Fig 1.10 a Fig 1.10 b
Fig 1.11
The P–N junction between p-base (also referred to as body or bulk region) and the n-drift region provide the forward voltage
blocking capabilities. The source metal contact is connected directly to the p-base region through a break in the n+ source region in
order to allow for a fixed potential to p-base region during the normal device operation. When the gate and source terminal are set
the same potential (VGS =0), no channel is established in the p-base region, i.e. the channel region remain unmodulated. The lower
doping in the n-drift region is needed in order to achieve higher drain voltage blocking capabilities. For the drain–source current,
ID, to flow, a conductive path must be established between the n+ and n− regions through the p-base diffusion region.
A. On-state Resistance When the MOSFET is in the ON state (triode region), the channel of the device behaves like a
constant resistance, RDS(on), that is linearly proportional to the change between vDS Unlike the current-controlled bipolar device,
which requires base current to allow the current to flow in the collector, the power MOSFET device is a voltage-controlled unipolar
device and requires only a small amount of input (gate) current. As a result, it requires less drive power than the BJT. However, it is
a non-latching current like the BJT i.e. a gate source voltage must be maintained. Moreover, since only majority carriers contribute
to the current flow, MOSFETs surpass all other devices in switching speed with switching speeds exceeding a few megahertz.
Comparing the BJT and the MOSFET, the BJT has higher power handling capabilities and smaller switching speed, while the
MOSFET device has less power handling capabilities and relatively fast switching speed. The MOSFET device has higher on-state

12
resistor than the bipolar transistor. Another difference is that the BJT parameters are more sensitive to junction temperature when
compared to the MOSFET, and unlike the BJT, MOSFET devices do not suffer from second breakdown voltages, and sharing
current in parallel devices is possible
1.5.2 MOSFET Regions of Operation
Fig 1.14
Most of the MOSFET devices used in power electronics applications are of the n-channel, enhancement-type like that
which is shown in Fig. 4.6a. For the MOSFET to carry drain current, a channel between the drain and the source must be created.
This occurs when the gate-to-source voltage exceeds the device threshold voltage, VTh.
For vGS > VTh, the device can be either in the triode region, which is also called ―constant resistance‖ region, or in the
saturation region, depending on the value of vDS. For given vGS, with small vDS(vDS < vGS −VTh), the device operates in the
triode region(saturation region in the BJT), and for larger vDS(vDS > vGS − VTh), the device enters the saturation region (active
region in the BJT). For vGS <VTh, the device turns off, with drain current almost equals zero. Under both regions of operation, the
gate current is almost zero. This is why the MOSFET is known as a voltage-driven device, and therefore, requires simple gate
control circuit.
The characteristic curves in Fig.1.14 show that there are three distinct regions of operation labeled as triode region,
saturation region, and cut-off-region. When used as a switching device, only triode and cut-off regions are used, whereas, when it is
used as an amplifier, the MOSFET must operate in the saturation region, which corresponds to the active region in the BJT. The
device operates in the cut-off region (off-state) when vGS <VTh, resulting in no induced channel. In order to operate the MOSFET
in either the triode or saturation region, a channel must first be induced. This can be accomplished by applying gate-to-source
voltage that exceeds VTh, i.e. vGS > VTh Once the channel is induced, the MOSFET can either operate in the triode region (when
the channel is continuous with no pinch-off, resulting in the drain current proportioned to the channel resistance) or in the saturation
13
region (the channel pinches off, resulting in constant ID). The gate-to-drain bias voltage (vGD) determines whether the induced
channel enter pinch-off or not. This is subject to the following restriction. For triode mode of operation, we have
vGD > VTh
vGD < VTh
And for the saturation region of operation, Pinch-off occurs when vGD = VTh.
1.6 Gate turn-off thyristor (known as a GTO)
A gate turn-off thyristor (known as a GTO) is a three terminal power semiconductor device. GTOs belong to a thyristor
family having a four-layer structure. GTOs also belong to a group of power semiconductor devices that have the ability for full
control of on- and off-states via the control terminal (gate).
Like a conventional thyristor, applying a positive gate signal to its gate terminal can turn-on to a GTO. Unlike a standard
thyristor, a GTO is designed to turn-off by applying a negative gate signal.
The basic structure of a GTO consists of a four-layer-PNPN semiconductor device, which is very similar in construction to
a thyristor. It has several design features which allow it to be turned on and off by reversing the polarity of the gate signal. The most
important differences are that the GTO has long narrow emitter fingers surrounded by gate electrodes and no cathode shorts.
Fig 1.15
The turn-on mode is similar to a standard thyristor. The injection of the hole current from the gate forward biases the cathode p-base
junction causing electron emission from the cathode. These electrons flow to the anode and induce hole injection by the anode
emitter. The injection of holes and electrons into the base regions continues until charge multiplication effects bring the GTO into
conduction.

14
Fig 1.16
In order to turn-off a GTO, the gate is reversed biased with respect to the cathode and holes from the anode are extracted from the p-
base. This is shown in Fig. 7.2b. As a result a voltage drop is developed in the p-base region, which eventually reverses biases the
gate cathode junction cutting off the injection of electrons. As the hole extraction continues, the p-base is further depleted, thereby
squeezing the remaining conduction area. The anode current then flows through the most remote areas from the gate contacts,
forming high current density filaments. This is the most crucial phase of the turnoff process in GTOs,
Fig 1.17

15
1.6.2 GTO Thyristor Models

One-dimensional two-transistor model of GTOs is shown in Fig. 7.3.
Fig 1.18
where IA is the anode current and IG the gate current at turn-off, and αnpn and αpnp are the common-base current gains in the NPN
and PNP transistors sections of the device. For a non-shorted device, the charge is drawn from the anode and regenerative action
commences,
1.6.3 V-I Characteristics

In the on-state the GTO operates in a similar manner to the thyristor. If the anode current remains above the holding current level
then positive gate drive may be reduced to zero and the GTO will remain in conduction. However, as a result of the turn-off ability
of the GTO, it does posses a higher holding current level than the standard thyristor, and in addition, the cathode of the GTO
thyristor is sub-divided into small finger elements to assist turn-off. Thus, if the GTO thyristor anode current transiently dips below
the holding current level, localized regions of the device may turn-off, thus forcing a high anode current back into the GTO at a high
rate of rise of anode current after this partial turn-off. This situation could be potentially destructive. It is recommended, therefore,
that the positive gate drive is not removed during conduction but is held at a value IG(ON), where IG(ON) is greater than the
maximum critical trigger current (IGT ) over the expected operating temperature range of the GTO thyristor. Figure 7.5 shows the
typical on-state V–I characteristics
Fig 1.19

16
Gate Turn-Off Thyristor Applications
Due to the advantages like excellent switching characteristics, no need of commutation circuit, maintenance-free operation, etc
makes the GTO usage predominant over thyristor in many applications. It is used as a main control device in choppers and inverters.
Some of these applications are
 AC drives
 DC drives or DC choppers
 AC stabilizing power supplies
 DC circuit breakers
 Induction heating
 And other low power applications
1.7 TRIGGERING SCR

Triggering (Turn on) Methods of Thyristor:
Triggering:-
The turning on Process of the SCR is known as Triggering. In other words, turning the SCR from Forward-Blocking state
to Forward-Conduction state is known as Triggering. The various methods of SCR triggering are discussed here.
The various SCR triggering methods are
 Forward Voltage Triggering
 Thermal or Temperature Triggering
 Radiation or Light triggering
 dv/dt Triggering
 Gate Triggering
(a) Forward Voltage Triggering:-

 In this mode, an additional forward voltage is applied between anode and cathode.
 When the anode terminal is positive with respect to cathode (VAK) , Junction J1 and J3 is forward biased and junction J2 is
reverse biased.
 No current flow due to depletion region in J2 is reverse biased (except leakage current).
 As VAK is further increased, at a voltage VBO (Forward Break Over Voltage) the junction J2 undergoes avalanche breakdown
and so a current flows and the device tends to turn ON(even when gate is open)
(b) Thermal (or) Temperature Triggering:-

 The width of depletion layer of SCR decreases with increase in junction temperature.
 Therefore in SCR when VAR is very near its breakdown voltage, the device is triggered by increasing the junction temperature.
 By increasing the junction temperature the reverse biased junction collapses thus the device starts to conduct.
(c) Radiation Triggering (or) Light Triggering:-
 For light triggered SCRs a special terminal niche is made inside the inner P layer instead of gate terminal.
 When light is allowed to strike this terminal, free charge carriers are generated.
 When intensity of light becomes more than a normal value, the thyristor starts conducting.
 This type of SCRs are called as LASCR

17
(d) dv/dt Triggering:-

 When the device is forward biased, J1 and J3 are forward biased, J2 is reverse biased.
 Junction J2 behaves as a capacitor, due to the charges existing across the junction.
 If voltage across the device is V, the charge by Q and capacitance by C then
 ic =dQ/dt
Q=CV
ic =d(CV)/dt
 =C.dV/dt+V.dC/dt
as dC/dt = 0
ic = C.dV/dt
 Therefore when the rate of change of voltage across the device becomes large, the device may turn ON, even if the voltage
across the device is small.
(e) Gate Triggering:-
 This is most widely used SCR triggering method.
 Applying a positive voltage between gate and cathode can Turn ON a forward biased thyristor.
 When a positive voltage is applied at the gate terminal, charge carriers are injected in the inner P-layer, thereby reducing the
depletion layer thickness.
 As the applied voltage increases, the carrier injection increases, therefore the voltage at which forward break-over occurs
decreases.
 Three types of signals are used for gate triggering.
1. DC gate triggering:-
 A DC voltage of proper polarity is applied between gate and cathode (Gate terminal is positive with respect to Cathode).
 When applied voltage is sufficient to produce the required gate Current, the device starts conducting.
 One drawback of this scheme is that both power and control circuits are DC and there is no isolation between the two.
 Another disadvantage is that a continuous DC signal has to be applied. So gate power loss is high.
2. AC Gate Triggering:-
Here AC source is used for gate signals.
 This scheme provides proper isolation between power and control circuit.
 Drawback of this scheme is that a separate transformer is required to step down ac supply.
 There are two methods of AC voltage triggering namely (i) R Triggering (ii) RC triggering

18
Resistance Triggering
The following circuit shows the resistance triggering shown in fig 1.20
Fig 1,20
 In this method, the variable resistance R is used to control the gate current.
 Depending upon the value of R, when the magnitude of the gate current reaches the sufficient value (latching current of the
device) the SCR starts to conduct.
 The diode D is called as blocking diode. It prevents the gate cathode junction from getting damaged in the negative half cycle.
 By considering that the gate circuit is purely resistive, the gate current is in phase with the applied voltage.
 By using this method we can achieve maximum firing angle up to 90°.
(ii) RC Triggering
The following circuit shows the resistance-capacitance triggering shown in 1.21
Fig 1.21
 By using this method we can achieve firing angle more than 90°.
 In the positive half cycle, the capacitor is charged through the variable resistance R up to the peak value of the applied voltage.
 The variable resistor R controls the charging time of the capacitor.
 Depends upon the voltage across the capacitor, when sufficient amount of gate current will flow in the circuit, the SCR starts to
conduct.
 In the negative half cycle, the capacitor C is charged up to the negative peak value through the diode D2.
 Diode D1 is used to prevent the reverse break down of the gate cathode junction in the negative half cycle.
3. Pulse Gate Triggering:-
 In this method the gate drive consists of a single pulse appearing periodically (or) a sequence of high frequency pulses.
 This is known as carrier frequency gating.
 A pulse transformer is used for isolation.
 The main advantage is that there is no need of applying continuous signals, so the gate losses are reduced.
19
Advantages of pulse train triggering:

 Low gate dissipation at higher gate current.
 Small gate isolating pulse transformer
 Low dissipation in reverse biased condition is possible.So simple trigger circuits are possible in some cases
 When the first trigger pulse fails to trigger the SCR, the following pulses can succeed in latching SCR. This important while
 Triggering inductive circuits and circuits having back emf's.
1.8 Pulse Transformer

Pulse transformer designers usually seek to minimize voltage droop, rise time, and pulse distortion. Droop is the decline
of the put pulse voltage over the duration of one pulse. ... The magnetic flux in a typical A.C. transformer core alternates between
positive and negative values.
Pulse transformer is always used to be the isolator between gate driver and power MOSFET. There are many topologies about the
peripheral circuit.
Galvanic isolation
A pulse transformer usually has galvanic isolation between its windings. This allows for the primary driving circuit to operate at a
different electric potential from the secondary driven circuit. The isolation can be very high, e.g. 4 kV for small electronic
transformers. This is especially true for very high-power applications in which the output voltage can reach 200 kV. The galvanic
isolation also allows meeting safety requirements if one part of the circuit is unsafe to touch, due to the danger of higher voltage,
even if for a brief period of time (e.g. if current path is broken in series with inductance).
Pulse transformation
For a gate driving applications usually a rectangular voltage pulse with fast rising and falling edges is required. The frequency
bandwidth must be high enough for a given application, so that the delay in signal transmission is acceptably small and there are no
severe distortions of the signal. The frequency bandwidth and signal fidelity are dictated mostly by the non-ideal and parasitic
parameters of the transformer: inter-winding capacitance, self-capacitance of each winding, equivalent resistance, etc. Combination
of these parameters can cause a number of effects on the transformed pulse: overshoot, droop, back swing, rise time and fall time,
which appear as unwanted signal distortions.18)A good quality pulse transformer should have low leakage inductance and distributed
capacitance as well as high open-circuit inductance. The transformed pulse will be only a poorer copy of the input pulse. So the if
the driving circuit produces a non-ideal pulse then the pulse shape will suffer from additional distortions
Windings and turns ratio
In most low-power or applications the turns ratio is around unity 1:1 (or similar like 1:2). Only when the level of signal must be
changed to a different voltage then a significantly different turns ratio will be used, as it is the case for most transformers in forward
converters (low or high power).Pulse transformer can have more than two windings, which can be used for instance to drive several
transistors simultaneously, so that any phase shifts or delays between signals are minimized between signals are minimized.

20
Typical configurations of low-power pulse transformers shown in fig 1.22
Fig 1.22
1.9 Opto Isolator

An Opto coupler, also known as an Opto-isolator or Photo-coupler, is an electronic components that interconnects two
separate electrical circuits by means of a light sensitive optical interface.
We know from our tutorials about Transforms that they can not only provide a step-down voltage, but they also provide
―electrical isolation‖ between the higher voltage on the primary side and the lower voltage on the secondary side.
In other words, transformers isolate the primary input voltage from the secondary output voltage using electromagnetic coupling by
means of a magnetic flux circulating within the iron laminated core.

21
Fig 1.23
But we can also provide electrical isolation between an input source and an output load using just light by using a very common and
valuable electronic component called an Opto coupler.
The basic design of an opto coupler consists of an LED that produces infra-red light and a semiconductor photo-sensitive device that
is used to detect the emitted infra-red beam. Both the LED and photo-sensitive device are enclosed in a light-tight body or package
with metal legs for the electrical connections as shown.
An Opto coupler or Opto-isolator consists of a light emitter, the LED and a light sensitive receiver which can be a single photo-
diode, photo-transistor, photo-resistor, photo-SCR, or a photo-TRIAC with the basic operation of an Opto coupler being very simple
to understand. Shown fig 1.24
Opto coupler Types
Fig 1.24
Opto coupler Applications

Opto couplers and opto-isolators can be used on their own, or to switch a range of other larger electronic devices such as transistors
and triacs providing the required electrical isolation between a lower voltage control signal and the higher voltage or current output
signal. Common applications for opto couplers include microprocessor input/output switching, DC and AC power control, PC
communications, signal isolation and power supply regulation which suffer from current ground loops, etc. The electrical signal
being transmitted can be either analogue (linear) or digital (pulses).

22
In this application, the opto coupler is used to detect the operation of the switch or another type of digital input signal. This is useful
if the switch or signal being detected is within an electrically noisy environment. The output can be used to operate an external
circuit, light or as an input to a PC or microprocessor.
Triac Opto coupler Application
Fig 1.25
This type of opto coupler configuration forms the basis of a very simple solid state relay application which can be used to control
any AC mains powered load such as lamps and motors. Also unlike a thyristor (SCR), a triac is capable of conducting in both halves
of the mains AC cycle with zero-crossing detection allowing the load to receive full power without the heavy inrush currents when
switching inductive loads.
Opto couplers and Opto-isolators are great electronic devices that allow devices such as power transistors and triacs to be
controlled from a PC‘s output port, digital switch or from a low voltage data signal such as that from a logic gate. The main
advantage of opto-couplers is their high electrical isolation between the input and output terminals allowing relatively small digital
signals to control much large AC voltages, currents and power.
1.10 Resistance firing circuit and waveform

A simple resistance triggering circuit is as shown. The resistor R1 limits the current through the gate of the SCR. R2 is the
variable resistance added to the circuit to achieve control over the triggering angle of SCR. Resistor ‗R‘ is a stabilizing resistor. The
diode D is required to ensure that no negative voltage reaches the gate of the SCR shown fig 1.26 and fig 1.27
Fig 1.26

23
Fig 1.27
Case 1 : Vgp<Vgt
Vgp, the peak date voltage is less then V gt since R2 is very large. Therefore current I flowing through the gate is very small. SCR
will not turn on and therefore the load voltage is zero and Vscr is equal to Vs. This is because we are using a resistive network.
Therefore output will be in phase with input.
Case 2: Vgp> Vgt
The triggering value Vgt is reached much earlier than 90 .̊ Hence the SCR turns on earlier than Vs reaches its peak value. The
waveforms as shown with respect to Vs= Vm sinwt.
1.11 Resistance Capacitance Triggering

Capacitor ‗C‘ in the circuit is connected to shift the phase of the gate voltage. D1 is used to prevent negative voltage from
reaching the gate cathode of SCR. In the negative half cycle, the capacitor charges to the peak negative voltage of the supply Vm
through the diode D2. The capacitor maintains this voltage across it, till the supply voltage crosses zero. As the supply becomes
positive, the capacitor charges through resistor ‗R‘ from initial voltage of Vm, to a positive value. When the capacitor voltage is
equal to the gate trigger voltage of the SCR, the SCR is fired and the capacitor voltage is clamped to a small positive value. Shown
fig 1.28 and fig 1.29

24
Fig 1.28
Fig 1.29
Case 1: R Large.
When the resistor ‗R‘ is large, the time taken for the capacitance to charge from Vm to Vgt is large, resulting in larger firing angle and
lower load voltage.
Case 2: R Small
When ‗R‘ is set to a smaller value, the capacitor charges at a faster rate towards Vgt resulting in early triggering of SCR and hence
VL is more. When the SCR triggers, the voltage drop across it falls to 1 – 1.5V. This in turn lowers, the voltage across R & C. Low
voltage across the SCR during conduction period keeps the capacitor discharge during the positive half cycle .

25
1.12 Synchronized UJT Oscillator

A synchronized UJT triggering circuit is as shown in figure below. The diodes rectify the input ac to dc, resistor Rd lowers
Vdc to a suitable value for the zener diode and UJT. The zener diode ‗Z‘ functions to clip the rectified voltage to a standard level VZ
which remains constant except near Vdc 0. This voltage VZ is applied to the charging RC circuit. The capacitor ‗C‘ charges at a rate
determined by the RC time constant. When the capacitor reaches the peak point VP the UJT starts conducting and capacitor
discharges through the primary of the pulse transformer. As the current through the primary is in the form of a pulse the secondary
windings have pulse voltages at the output. The pulses at the two secondary‘s feed SCRs in phase. As the zener voltage VZ goes to
zero at the end of each half cycle the synchronization of the trigger circuit with the supply voltage across the SCRs is archived,
small variations in supply voltage and frequency are not going to effect the circuit operation. In case the resistor ‗R‘ is reduced so
that the capacitor voltage reaches UJT threshold voltage twice in each half cycle there will be two pulses in each half cycle with one
pulse becoming redundant shown fig 1.30 and fig 1.31
fig 1.30
Waveform
fig 1.31

26
1.13 Ramp-Pedestal UJT-SCR Control Circuit:

The circuit, shown below, uses a UJT to trigger a SCR. The UJT is used to more accurately trigger the SCR.
Shown fig 1.32
fig 1.32
When the source voltage exceeds 20V, the zener diode (D Z) will begin to conduct, applying a DC voltage across the base
connections of the UJT. At the same time, diode D1 will be forward biased, and the capacitor will quickly charge through
R1 and R2. This represents the left-hand pedestal portion of the of the emitter voltage. Once the capacitor charges to the
voltage across R3, D1 will become reverse biased and the capacitor will continue to slowly charge through R 4. This
represents the ramp portion of the emitter voltage. The capacitor continues to charge until the UJT fires. At this point the
capacitor will quickly discharge through R6, and this represents the right-hand pedestal of the emitter voltage. The
capacitor discharge is sufficient to trigger the SCR.

The point at which the UJT fires can be adjusted by varying the pot R 3. With a large setting on R3, the capacitor
must charge to a larger value before D2 becomes reverse biased. This causes the UJT to fire faster, resulting in more of the
source voltage appearing across the SCR. This can be seen graphically shown fig fig 1.32
fig 1.33

27
Model Questions
PART – A
1. Define Holding current and latching current of SCR.
2. Draw the symbols for the following:
(i) SCR (ii) IGBT (iii) MOSFET (iv) GTO
3. Define di/dt and dv/dt rating of SCR
4. Mention the applications of SCR.
5. What is forward blocking region and forward breakover voltage of SCR?
6. What are the positive attributes combined in IGBT.
7. State the applications of IGBT.
8. How does a GTO differ from a conventional SCR?
9. List the different methods of gate triggering of SCR.
10. What are the basic requirements of a gate triggering cicuit?
11. What are the methods used for triggering the SCR?
12. State the necessity of a opto isolator used in triggering circuit with its working.
13. Define gate trigger voltage and gate power loss.
14. Mention the applications of MOSFET.
15. Mention the use of pulse transformer in the triggering circuit.
16. Give the advantages of RC firing circuit over R firing circuits.
PART – B
1. Explain the principle of operation of SCR with neat diagram.
2. Draw the VI characteristics of SCR.
3. Explain the characteristics of IGBT with its circuit diagram.
4. Draw the basic structure and symbol of MOSFET.
5. Explain the operation of resistance firing circuit.
6. Explain pulsed gate signal triggering.
7. Explain opto coupler.
8. Draw the circuit diagram of ramp and pedestal triggering for AC load.
PART- C
1. Explain the working of SCR with its characteristics.

28
2. Draw and explain the working of GTO and its characteristics.
3. Explain the operation of MOSFET with necessary diagrams.
4. What is the purpose of isolation between the control and power? what are the devices used for isolation?
5. Draw and explain the circuit diagram for the synchronized UJT triggering. Also draw the associated voltage waveforms.
6. Explain the operation of RC firing circuit with necessary waveforms.
7. Draw the circuit diagram for the ramp and pedestal trigger circuit and explain its operation with appropriate waveforms.
#######################

29
II UNIT
CONVERTERS
Many Industrial applications make use of controlled dc power. Examples of such applications are as follows
(a) Steel-rolling mills, paper mills, printing presses and textile mills demploying dc motor drives.
(6) Traction systems working on dc.
(c) Electrochemical and electrornetallurgical processes,

(d) Magnet power supplies.
(e) Portable hand tool drives.
(f) High-voltage dc transmission.
Earlier, dc power was obtained from motor-generator (MG) sets or ac power was converted to de power by means of
mercury-arc rectifiers or thyratrons. The advent of thyristors has changed the art of ac to dc conversion. Presently,
phase-controlled ac to dc converters employing thyristors are extensively used for changing constant ac input voltage to
controlled do output voltage. In an industry where there is a provision for modernization, mercury-arc rectifiers and
thyratrons are being replaced by thyristors.
In phase-controlled rectifiers, a thyristor is turned off as ac supply voltage reverse biases it provided anode current has
fallen to a level below the holding current. The turning-off, or commutation, of a thyristor by supply voltage itself is called
natural, or line commutation.,
In industrial applications, rectifier circuits make use of more than one SCR. In such circuits, when an incoming SCR is turned
on by triggering, it immediately reverse biases the outgoing SCR and turns it off. As phase-controlled rectifiers need no
commutation circuitry, these are simple, less expensive and are therefore widely used in industries where controlled dc power
is required.
In the study of thyristor systems, SCRs and diodes are assumed ideal switches which means that (i) there is no
voltage drop across them, (ii) no reverse current exists under reverse voltage conditions and (iii) holding current is zero.
2.2 PRINCIPLE OF PHASE CONTROL

2.2.1 Single phase Half controlled bridge converter with resistive load
The simplest form of controlled rectifier circuits consist of a single thyristor feeding dc power to a resistive load R as
shown in Fig. 2.1 (a). The source voltage is = V„, sin tat, Fig. 2.1 (b). An SCR can conduct only when anode voltage is positive'and
a gating signal is applied. As such, a thyristor blocks the flow of load 'current i0 until it is triggered. At some delay angle α, a
positive gate signal applied between gate and cathode turns on the SCR, Immediately, full supply voltage is applied to the
load as yo , Fig. 2.1 (b). At the instant of delay angle a, vo rises from zero to V, sin a as shown. For resistive load, current i 0 is
in phase with 0 0.
Firing angle of a thyristor is measured from the instant it would start conducting if it were replaced by a diode. In Fig. 2.1, if
Ihyristor is replaced by diode, it would begin conduction at cot 0, 27c, 47t etc. ; fixing angle is therefore measured from these

30
instants. A firing angle may thus be defined as the angle between the instant thyristor would conduct if it were a diode and the
instant it is triggered.
Fig. 2.1
A firing angle may also be (termed as follows: A firing angle is measured from the angle that gives the largest average output
voltage, or the highest load voltage. A firing angle may thus be defined as the angle measured from the instant that gives the lamest
average output voltage to the instant it is triggered.
Once the SCR is on, load current flows, until it is turned-off by reversal of voltage, 3n etc. At these angles of n, 3n, 5n etc,
load current falls to zero and soon after the supply voltage reverse biases the SCR, the device is therefore turned off. It is seen from
Fig. 2.1 (b) that by varying the firing angle α, the phase relationship between the start of the in a.c current aid the supply voltage can be
controlled; hence the term Male control is used for such a method of controlling the load currents
A single-phase half-wave circuit is one which produces only one puIse of load current during one cycle of source voltage.
As the circuit shown in Fig. 61 (a) produces only one load current. pulse for one cycle of sinusoidal source voltage, this circuit
represents a single-phase half-wave thyristor circuit

31
2.2.2 Single-phase Half-wave Circuit with RL Load

A single-phase half-wave thyristor circuit with RL load is shown in Fig. 2.2 (a). Line voltage u, is sketched in the top of Fig,2
.2 (b). At wt =α, thyristor is turned on by gating signal. The load voltage u o at once becomes equal to source voltage as shown..
But the inductance L forces the load, or output, current io to rise gradually. After some time, 40 reaches maximum value and then begins to
decrease. At wt = Π, Vo=0. but io is not zero because of the load inductance L. After wt = Π, SR is subjected to reverse anode
voltage but it will not be turned off as load current i o is not lees than the holding current. At some angle > i reduces'to zero
and SCR is -turned off as it is already reverse biased, After tot f3, tic = 0 and 4, = 0. At tot =27t + a, SCR is triggered again, ri ']
is applied to the load and load
Fig. 2.2
Current develops as before. Angle β is called extinction angle.

32
Average load voltage is
2.2.3 Single-phase Half-wave Circuit with RL Load and Freewheeling Diode

The waveform of load current i 0 in Fig.2.3 can be improved by connecting a freewheeling ( or flywheeling )
diode across load. A freewheeling diode is also called by-pass or commutating diode.
At wt = 0, source voltage is becoming positive. At some delay angle α, forward biased SCR is triggered and source voltage
vs appears across load,
At source voltage wt = Π is zero and just after this instant, freewheeling diode FD is forward biased through the conducting. SCR_
As a result, load current is is immediately transferred from SCR to FD. At the same time, SCR subjtcted to reverse voltage and
zero current it is turned off at wt = Π
Fig.2.3
It is also seen from Figs 2.3 that load current waveform is improved with FD .Thus the advantages of using freewheeling
diode are (1) input pi is improved
(ii) load current waveform is improved and
(iii) as a result of load performance is better.

33
2.3 SINGLE-PHASE FULL WAVE BRIDGE CONVERTERS

Phase controlled single phase or three phase, full-wave converters are primarily of three types; namely (1) uncontrolled
converters,
(2) half controlled converters and
(3) fully-converters.
An uncontrolled converter or rectifier uses only diodes and the level of dc output voltage cannot be controlled. A half-
controlled converter or semi-converter uses a mixture of diodes and thyristors and there is a limited control over the level of dc
output voltage.A fully-controlled converter or full converter uses thyristors only and there is a wider control over the level of dc
output voltage.
A semiconverter is one-quadrant converter. A one-quadrant converter has one polarity of dc output voltage and current at
its output terminals as shown in figure 2.4
Fig 2.4
(a) One quadrant converter (b) two quadrant converter
A two-quadrant converter is one in which voltage polarity can reverse but current direction cannot reverse because of the unidirectional
nature of thyristors fig(b) shown above
2.3.1 Single phase full wave bridge converters ( B-2 Connection) with R load
A single phase full converter bridge using four SCRs is shown in figure 2.5
Fig 2.5
Single phase full wave controlled bridge rectifier with R load
Figure 2.5 hows a single phase fully controlled (i.e both half cycles are phase controlled ) bridge converter, supplying a resistive
load. During the +ve half cycle thyristors T1 and T2 are forward biased. When T1 & T2 are triggered at ωt = α, they start

34
conducting and supplying the load current. At ωt=Π, current is zero, the supply voltage reverses and T1,T2 are turned off by natural
commutation. In the –ve half cycle T3 & T4 conduct from ωt =Π+α toωt =2Π. At ωt =2Π, current is zero, the supply voltage
reverses and T3 &T4 are turned off by natural commutation. The above sequence of events is repeated in each cycle. The wave
forms of input, firing pulse, output voltage and load currents are also shown below Fig 2.6
Fig 2.6
Voltage and current waveform for single phase full-wave controlled rectifier
The expressions for Vo, IoVrms are same as that of given in M -2 connection.
2.3.2 Single phase Fully controlled Bridge Circuit with R-L Load:
The single phasefully controlledbridge circuit with R-L load is shown in figure 2.7. Conduction doesnot take place unitl the
thyristors are fired and in order for current to flow, thyristors T1 and T2 must be fired together, as must T3 and T4 in the next half
cycle. Inductance L is used in the circuit to reduce the ripple. A large value of L will result in a continuous steady current in the
load. A small value of L will produce a discontinuous load current for large firing angles. The wave forms are given in figure 2.8

35
Fig 2.7
Fully controlled single phase bridge with R-L load
The voltage waveform at the dc terminals comprises a steady d.c component on to which is superimposed an a.c ripple
component, having a fundamental frequency equal to twice that of a.c supply.
Fig 2.8

36
Load current io is assumed continuous over the working range.i.e load is alaways connected to the ac voltage source through the
thyristors. 0<α<ωt, T1,T2 are forward biased through the already conducting SCRs T3,T4 and block the forward voltage. For
continuous current, T3,T4 conduct after ωt = 0 eventhough these are reverse biased. When forward biased SCRs T1,T2 are triggered
at ωt = α, they get turned on. As a result, supply voltage V m sinα immediately appears across thyristors T3,T4 as a reverse bias,
these are therefore turned off by natural, or line commutation.at the same time load current i o flowing through T3,T4 is transferred
to T1,T2 at ωt = α. When T1,T2 are gated at ωt = α, these SCRs will get turned on only if V m sinα > E. SCR T1,T2 conduct
from ωt = α to Π +α. At ωt= Π +α,
forward biased SCRs T3,T4 are triggered. The supply voltage turns off T1, T2 by natural commutation and the load current is
transferred from T1,T2 to T3,T4.
Voltage across T1,T2 is shown as vT1,vT2, and that across T3,T4 as vT3,vT4.
Source current isis taken as +ve in the arrow direction. Hence source current is shown +ve when T1,T2 are conducting and –ve when
T3,T4 are conducting.
During α to Π, both vs and is are +ve, power flows from source to load. During Π to Π +α, vs is –ve but is +ve, hence load returns
some of its energy to the supply system. But the net power flow is from ac source to dc load because (Π –α) > α.
The average value of output voltage Vois given by
1   2V
V0   Vm sin t.d (t )  m cos 
   (1)
RMS value of output voltage for single phase M-2 or B-2 controlled converter can be obtained as below.
1/ 2
 1   2 2 
Vor    Vm sin t.d (t )
  
 Vm 2 / 2  Vs
Vor  Vs
Equation (1) shows that if α > 90º, Vo is –ve. This is illustrated in fig 2.9, where α is shown greater than 90°. In this V o is –ve. if the
load circuit emf E is reversed, this source E will feed power back to ac supply. This operation of full converter is known as inverter
operation of the converter. The full converter with firing angle delay greater than 90º is called line commutated inverter.Such
an operation is used in the regenerative breaking mode of a dc motor in which case then E is counter emf of the dc motor.

37
Fig 2.9
Fig (c ). Voltage and current waveform for single phase full converter for α> 90°
During 0 to α, ac source voltage vsis +ve but ac source current isis –ve , power flows from dc source to ac source. From α to Π, both
vs&is are +ve hence power flows from ac source to dc source. But the net power flow is from dc to ac source because (Π-α) < α.
In converter operation, the average value of output voltage V 0 must be greater than load circuit emf E. during inverter operation,
load circuit emf when inverted to ac must be more than ac supply voltage. In other words, dc source voltage E must be more than
inverter voltage V0 , only then power would flow from dc source to ac supply system. But in both converter and inverter modes,
thyristors must be forward biased and current through SCRs must flow in the same direction as these are unidirectional devices.
This is the reason output
Current iois shown +ve in fig 2.9. As before source current i s +ve when T1,T2 are conducting.
The variation of voltage across thyristors T1,T2,T3 or T4 reveals that circuit turn-off time for both converter and inverter
operations is given by
 
tc  sec


38
Advantages of single phase bridge converter over mid point converter

1. SCRs are subjected to a peak inverse voltage 2Vm in mid point converter and Vm in bridge converter. Thus for the same
voltage and current ratings of SCRs, power handled by mid point configuration is about half of that handled by bridge
converter.
2. In mid point converter, each secondary should be able to supply the load power. As such the transformer rating in mid
point converter is double the load rating.
From these above, we can conclude that bridge converter is preferred over mid point configuration
Average output voltage as a function of firing angle
Fig 2.10
EFFECT OF SOURCE INDUCTANCE
It has been assumed that the source has no impedance. In actual practice the converter is invariably connected to ac mains
through a transformer so that the voltage input to the converter can be adjusted to the desired value. The leakage impedance of the
transformer (i.e source) should be taken into account for exact analysis.
The source impedance is partly resistive and partly inductive. The effect of source resistance is to reduce the input voltage
by an amount equal to voltage drop across resistance. Since source resistance is small this resistance voltage drop can usually be
neglected.
However the effect of source inductance must be taken into account. An important property of inductance is that current
through an inductance cannot change instantaneously. This affects converter operation. In a converter, the current is transferred
from one thyristor to another frequently. Because of source inductance the current in the outgoing thyristor cannot change from full
value to zero instantaneously. moreover, the current through the incoming thyristor cannot increase from zero to full value
instantaneously. Therefore after the triggering gate pulse is applied to a thyristor, the current of the outgoing thyristor decreases
from full value to zero over a time ωt = µ. During this time interval the current through incoming thyristor rises from zero to full

39
value. During this period µ known as commutating period, both the outgoing and incoming thyristors are conducting. µ is
also known as overlap angle. The overlapping of currents causes a reduction in output voltage.
2.4 THYRISTOR COMMUTATION TECHNIQUES

In practice it becomes necessary to turn off a conducting thyristor. (Often thyristors are used as switches to turn on and off
power to the load). The process of turning off a conducting thyristor is called commutation. The principle involved is that either the
anode should be made negative with respect to cathode (voltage commutation) or the anode current should be reduced below the
holding current value (current commutation).
The techniques to turn off a SCR can be broadly classified as
Natural Commutation
Forced Commutation.
2.4 .1 Natural Commutation (CLASS F)

This type of commutation takes place when supply voltage is AC, because a negative voltage will appear across the SCR in the
negative half cycle of the supply voltage and the SCR turns off by itself. Hence no special circuits are required to turn off the SCR.
That is the reason that this type of commutation is called Natural or Line Commutation shown fig 2.11 and fig 2.12
.
Fig 2.11
Fig 2.12

40
This type of commutation is applied in ac voltage controllers, phase controlled rectifiers and cyclo converters.
2.4 .2 Forced Commutation

When supply is DC, natural commutation is not possible because the polarity of the supply remains unchanged. Hence special
methods must be used to reduce the SCR current below the holding value or to apply a negative voltage across the SCR for a time
interval greater than the turn off time of the SCR. This technique is called FORCED COMMUTATION and is applied in all circuits
where the supply voltage is DC - namely,
Choppers (fixed DC to variable DC), inverters (DC to AC). Forced commutation techniques are as follows:
Self Commutation
Resonant Pulse Commutation
Complementary Commutation
Impulse Commutation
External Pulse Commutation.
Load Side Commutation.
Line Side Commutation.
2.5 THREE-PHASE CONTROLLED CONVERTERS

The converter operating from a single-phase supply produces a relatively high proportion of a.c ripple-voltage at its d.c terminals.
This ripple is generally undesirable because of its heat producing effect. Therefore, a large outlay of smoothing reactor is necessary
to smoothen the output voltage as well as to reduce the possibility of discontinuous operation. The need for smoothing can be
minimised by increasing the number of pulses. A three phase a.c supply with a suitable transformer connection permits an increase
in the pulse number. When the number of pulses of the converter is increased, the number of segments that fabricate the
output voltage also increases and consequently the ripple content decreases. Higher the pulse number, smoother is the
output voltage.
Three-phase rectifier circuits are used for large power applications. Generation of the three-phase a.c. Power is now universal
and in some countries, only generation frequencies may be different. Now-a-days, 11kV, 33 kV, 66kV three-phase a.c. Supply is
available to the industries. These voltages are suitably stepped down using transformers. These transformers are generally delta-
connected on primary side and star-connected on the secondary side. Three-phase controlled converter circuits canbe studied
under following categories :
(1) Three-pulse converters

(2) Six-pulse converters
(3) Twelve-pulse converters
THREE-PULSE CONVERTERS (M 3 CONNECTION)
Three pulse converters are also known as the three-phase half-wave controlled rectifier . The simplest type of
phase-controlled converter operating from a three-phase supply is the three-pulse midpoint converter.
2.5.1Three-Phase Half-Wave Controlled Rectifier with Resistive Load
Figure 2.13 shows the power-diagram of a three-phase half-wave controlled rectifier with resistive load. This
configuration is called as the mid-point configuration because all the phase emfs can have a common terminal which may
considered as the neutral point or the mid-point.As shown in figure, the primary is connected in a delta fashion and

41
secondary in star. The load is connected to the neutral point. For the analysis of the circuit, the leakage inductance and on
state SCR drops are assumed to be zero. The wave forms are shown in figure 2.14.
Fig 2.13
Fig 2.14
(a) line to neutral source voltage, load voltage waveform for (b) 0 < α < 30° and (c) α > 30°
If firing angle is zero degree, SCR T1 would begin conducting from ωt = 30º to 150º , T2 from ωt = 150º to 270º and T3 from ωt
= 270º to 390º and so on. In other words firing angle for this controlled converter would be measured from ωt = 30º for T1, from
ωt = 150º for T2 and from ωt = 270º for T3 as in figure 2.14 (a) . For zero degree firing angle delay, thyristor behaves as a diode.

42
The operation of this converter is now described for α < 30º and for α > 30º
Firing angle <30º
The output voltage waveform v0 for firing angle <30º (say 15º) is shown in fig 2.14(b) where T1 conducts from ωt = 30º +α to ωt =
150º +α, T2 from ωt = 150º +α to ωt = 270º +α and so on. Each SCR conducts for 120º. The waveform of load current i 0 would be
identical with voltage wave form v0.
5

3 6
Average value output voltage V0 
2
 Vmp sin td (t )


6
3 3 3V
 Vmp . cos   ml . cos 
2 2
Where Vmp = maximum value of phase (line to neutral) voltage
Vml = maximum value of line voltage = 3.Vmp

α = firing angle delay
V0 3Vml
average load current I0   . cos 
R 2R
Rms value of output , or load voltage is
3V 2 mp  2 3 
   cos 2 
4  3 2 
1 3 3 
or Vor  Vmp   cos 2 
 2 8 
1/ 2 1/ 2
1 3  1 3 
 3Vmp   cos 2   Vml   cos 2 
 6 8   6 8 
1/ 2
V V 1 3 
Rms load current Ior  or  ml   cos 2 
R R  6 8 
Firing angle >30°
When firing angle is more than 30°, T1 would conduct from 30°+α to 180°, T2 from 150°+α to 300° and so on in fig. 2.14(b). For R
load, when phase voltage va reaches zero at ωt=180°, current io =0, T1 is therefore turned off. Thus T1 would conduct from 30°+α to
180°. Same is true for other SCRs. This shows that each SCR, for firing angle >30º, conducts for (150°-α) only. This also implies
that for R load, maximum possible value of firing angle is 150º. Waveform of i o agrees with vo waveform, fig. 2.14(c).
Average value of load voltage:

43
3 
V0   Vmp sin td (t )
2 

6
3Vmp
 1  cos(  30)
2
1/ 2
 
 3  2 
RM S value of output voltage Vor    V mp sin t.d (t )
2
2 
 
6

1/ 2
3.Vmp  5  1 
Vor   6     2 sin(2   / 3)
2    
1/ 2
V  5  1 
 ml      sin(2   / 3)
2   6  2 
2.5.2 Three phase Full Converter
The figure shows a 6 pulse bridge converter.this converter is most widely used in industrial applications upto the 120kW level,
where two quadrant operation is required. Shown fig 2.15
Fig 2.15
The load is fed via 3 phase half wave connection to one of the 3 supply lines, no neutral being required. Hence transformer
connection is optional. However, for isolation of output from the supply source, or for higher output requirements, the
transformer is to be connected.If transformer is used, then one winding isconnected in delta because the delta connection gives the
circulating path for third harmonic current. Therefore, third harmonic current doesnot appear in line which is an advantage.
This circuit consists of two groups of SCRs, positive group and negative group. Here, SCRs T1, T3, T5 forms positive
group, whereas SCRs T4,T6,T2 forms a negative group. The positive group SCRs are turned on when the supply voltages are

44
positive and negative group SCRs are turned on when the supply voltages are negative. Inorder to start the circuit functioning, two
thyristors must be fired at the same time inorder to commence current flow, one of the upper arm and one of the lower arm.
For describing the operation of the circuit, the following things to be remembered.
(i) Each device should be triggered at a desired firing angle α
(ii) Each SCR can conduct for 120º
(iii) SCR must be triggered in the sequence T1,T2,T3,T4,T5,T6
(iv) The phase shift between the triggering of the two adjacent SCR is 60º
(v) At any instant 2 SCRs can conduct and there are such 6 pairs. The 6 pairs are (T6,T1), (T1,T2), (T2,T3), (T3,T4),
(T4,T5), (T5,T6).
(vi) Each SCR conducts in two pairs and each pair conducts for 60º
(vii) The incoming SCR commutates the outgoing SCR,i.e SCR T1 commutates SCR T5, SCR T2 commutates SCR T6 and
so on.
(viii) When the two SCRs are conducting, i.e one from +ve (upper) group and one from –ve (lower) group, the
corresponding line voltage is applied across the load.
(ix) When the upper SCR of a half bridge conducts, the current of that phase is +ve whereas when the lower SCR conducts,
the current is –ve.
2.5.3 Three phase Full Converter with Resistive load
Three phase fully controlled bridge rectifier with resistive load is shown in figure 2.16
Fig 2.16
For six pulse operation, each SCR has to be fired twice in its conduction cycle, that is firing intervals should be 60º. The ouput
voltage waveforms for different values of α are shown in figure 2.17

45
Fig 2.17
The following points can be noted:
(1) The output voltage waveform for any value of α is a 6 pulse wave with a ripple frequency of 300Hz.
(2) Continuous conduction mode (0 ≤ α ≤ Π/3) when the phasor AB is allowed to conduct at α between 0 to Π/3, it continuous
to conduct by 60º when the phasor AC is fired. The conduction is shifted from SCR T6 to T2. T6 is commutated off by the
reverse voltage of phase C and B across it. The phasor AC conduct after another 60º after which it is replaced by phasor
BC when phase B voltage assumes greater value than C or A. hence load current is continuous for α between 0 to Π/3.
(3) Discontinuous conduction mode : (Π/3 ≤ α ≤ 2Π/3)

46
When Π/3 ≤ α ≤ 2Π/3, the phasor AB conducts upto an angle Π after which both the thyristors T1 & T6 are commutated
off because phase B becomes +ve w.r.to phase C and after 60º, when T2 & T1 are fired, phase AC conducts also upto angle
Π, hence load current remains zero from angle Π to the next firing pulse and becomes discontinuous, therefore the fully
controlled bridge circuit produces a ripple frequency of 6 times the supply frequency at all trigger angles.
(4) For α =120º, the ouput voltage is zero and hence α max = 120(2Π/3)
(a) Continuous conduction mode: (α <60º). The general equation for the average load voltage is given by
1 2
Edc 
2 0
 Edc (t ).d (t )


1 2
Edc  6 
2 
 E AB (t ).d (t )

6
Where the line to line Voltage EAB is given by
E AB  3Em sin(t   / 6)
 2
 
3 2 3 3Em 3
 Edc   3Em sin(t   / 6).d (t )   sin(t ).d (t )
  
 
6 3
3 3 Em
 cos 

3 3Em
Average load current Id  cos 
.R
(b) Discontinuous conduction mode (α˃60°)

5
1 6 3 3Em 
Edc  6   3Em sin(t   / 6)d (t )   sin(t ).d (t
2   
 
6 3
3 3Em
 (1  cos(   / 3))

3 3 Em
or  max, Edc  0,  (1  cos(   / 3))  0

hence  max  1200
3 3 Em
Average load current I d  (1  cos(   / 3))
.R

47
2.6 Dual Converter

Dual converter is a combination of a rectifier and inverter in which the conversion of A.C to D.C happens and followed by D.C
to A.C where load lies in between. A dual converter can be of a single phase or a three phase. A dual converter consists of two
bridges consisting of thyristors in which one for rectifying purpose where alternating current is converted to direct current
which can be given to load. Other bridge of thyristors is used for converting D.C to A.C
Single phase dual converter uses a single phase as source which is given to converter 1 of dual converter for rectification followed
to load shown in fig 2.18
Fig 2.18
Principle of Operation:
A.C input given to converter 1 for rectification in this process positive cycle of input is given to first set of forward biased
thyristors which gives a rectified D.C on positive cycle, as well negative cycle is given to set of reverse biased thyristors which
gives a D.C on negative cycle completing full wave rectified output can be given to load. During this process converter 2 is blocked
using an inductor. As thyristor only start conducting when current pulse is given to gate and continuous conducting until supply of
current is stopped. Output of Thyristor Bridge can be as follows when it is given to different loads shown in fig 2.19
Fig 2.19

48
Applications of Dual Converter

 Direction and Speed control of DC motors.
 Applicable wherever, the reversible DC is required.
 Industrial variable speed DC drives
Modes of Operation of Dual Converter

There are two function modes . 1 Non Circulating Current Mode and 2. Circulating Current Mode
Non Circulating Current Mode
One converter will perform at a time . So there no circulating current between the converters.
During the converter 1 operation firing angle (α1) will be 0< α1<90̊ . Vdc and I dc are positive.
During the converter 2 operation firing angle (α2) will be 90< α2<180̊ . Vdc and I dc are negative
. Circulating Current Mode
Two converters will be in ON condition at the same time. So Circulating Current is present.
The firing angles are adjusted such that firing angle of converter 1(α1) + firing angle of converter 2(α2)=180̊. converter 1 performs
as a controlled rectifier when firing angle will be 0< α1<90̊ and converter 2 performs as a Inverter when firing angle will be 90<
α2<180̊ In this condition Vdc and I dc are positive.
converter 1 performs as a Inverter when firing angle will be 90< α1<180̊ and converter 2 performs as a controlled
rectifier when firing angle will be 0< α2<90̊ In this condition Vdc and I dc are negative..
Model Questions
PART – A
1. What is converter? What are the types of phase controlled converter?
2. What are the advantages of phase controlled converter?
3. What is overlap angle? What are the factors affecting overlap angle?
4. What are the advantages of flywheel diode?
5. What is called inversion in converters?
6. What is meant by commutation? Mention the types of commutation.
7. What is self commutation?
8. List the types of forced commutation.
9. Mention the two modes of dual conversion.
10. Name the three configurations of dual converters.
PART – B
1. Draw the circuit diagram and waveforms of single phase half controlled bridge converter with resistive load.
2. Draw the circuit diagram and waveforms of single phase half controlled bridge converter with RL load.
3. Draw the circuit diagram and waveforms of single phase fully controlled bridge converter with resistive load.
4. Draw the circuit diagram and waveforms of single phase fully controlled bridge converter with RL load.

49
5. Draw the circuit diagram and waveforms of single phase half controlled bridge converter with flywheel diode.
6. Explain the effect of source inductance in converter circuit.
7. Explain natural commutation.
8. Explain forced commutation.
9. State the advantages and applications of three phase half controlled converter.
10. What is four quadrant control and mention the conditions needed to design DC motor?
11. Draw the circuit diagram of dual converter.
12. Explain non circulating current mode in dual converter.
13. Explain circulating current mode.
PART – C
1. With the necessary diagrams explain the operation of single phase half controlled bridge converter with resistive load.
2. With the necessary diagrams explain the operation of single phase half controlled bridge converter with RL load.
3. With diagram explain the importance of flywheel diode.
4. Briefly explain the operation of single phase half controlled bridge converter with flywheel diode with its waveforms.
5. With the diagram explain the operation of single phase fully controlled bridge converter with resistive load.
6. With the diagram explain the operation of single phase half controlled bridge converter with RL load.
7. With proper circuit diagrams explain the effect of discontinuous current operation in converter.
8. Explain the effect of overlap angles in single phase fully controlled converter.
9. Explain line commutation in converters.
10. With suitable diagrams explain three phase half controlled bridge converter.
11. With suitable diagrams explain three phase fully controlled bridge converter.
12. Explain the different modes of dual converter
%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%

50
III UNIT
CHOPPERS
3.1 INTRODUCTION Modern electronic systems require high quality, small, lightweight, reliable, and efficient power
supplies. Linear power regulators, whose principle of operation is based on a voltage or current divider, are inefficient. They are
limited to output voltages smaller than the input voltage. Also,their power density is low because they require low-frequency (50 or
60 Hz) line transformers and filters. Linear regulators can, however, provide a very high quality output voltage. Their main
area of application is at low power levels as low drop-out voltage (LDO) regulators..
At higher power levels, switching regulators are used. Switching regulators use power electronic semiconductor switches
in on and off states. Since there is a small power loss in those states (low voltage across a switch in the on state, zero current through
a switch in the off state), switching regulators can achieve high energy conversion efficiencies.
Modern power electronic switches can operate at high frequencies. The higher the operating frequency, the smaller and
lighter the transformers, filter inductors, and capacitors. In addition, dynamic characteristics of converters improve with increasing
operating frequencies. The bandwidth of a control loop is usually determined by the corner frequency of the output filter.
Therefore, high operating frequencies allow for achieving a faster dynamic response to rapid changes in the load current and/or the
input voltage. High-frequency electronic power processors are used in dc–dc power conversion. The functions of dc–dc converters
are: to convert
1. a dc input voltage VS into a dc output voltage VO;
2. to regulate the dc output voltage against load and line variations;
3. to reduce the ac voltage ripple on the dc output voltage below the required level;
4. to provide isolation between the input source and the load (isolation is not always required);
5. to protect the supplied system and the input source from electromagnetic interference (EMI);
6. to satisfy various international and national safety standards.
The process of convert from fixed d c to variable d c is called CHOPPER
3.2 Principle of operation

The circuit of the buck converter (dc-dc) or step-down chopper using thyristor, with inductive (R-L) and battery (or back
emf = E) load, is shown in Fig.3.1 The output (load) voltage and current waveforms for both (a) discontinuous, and (b) continuous
conduction are shown in Fig. 3.2.(a) and (b)
Fig 3.1

51
Fig 3.2 (a) Discontinuous load current

3.3 Control Strategies
In all cases, it is shown that the average value of the output voltage can be varied. The two types of control strategies (schemes) are
employed in all cases. These are:
(a) Time-ratio control, and
(b) Current limit control.
Time-ratio Control In the time ratio control the value of the duty ratio, k =ON/T is varied. There are two ways, which are constant
frequency operation, and variable frequency operation.
Constant Frequency Operation In this control strategy, the ON time, is varied, keeping the frequency ( or time period constant. This
is also called as pulse width modulation control (PWM) shown in fig 3.3
Fig 3.3

52
Variable Frequency Operation In this control strategy, the frequency (f = 1/ T), or time period T is varied, keeping either (a) the ON
time, constant, or (b) the OFF time, constant. This is also called as frequency modulation control. Two cases with (a) the ON time,
constant, and (b) the OFF time, constant, with variable frequency or time period shown in Fig.3.4. The output voltage can be varied
in both cases, with the change in duty ratio
k = Ton / T
Fig.3.4
There are major disadvantages in this control strategy. These are:
(a) The frequency has to be varied over a wide range for the control of output voltage in frequency modulation. Filter design for
such wide frequency variation is, therefore, quite difficult.
(b) For the control of a duty ratio, frequency variation would be wide. As such, there is a possibly of interference with systems
using certain frequencies, such as signaling and telephone line, in frequency modulation technique.
(c) The large OFF time in frequency modulation technique, may make the load current discontinuous, which is undesirable.
Thus, the constant frequency system using PWM is the preferred scheme for dc-dc converters (choppers).
Current Limit Control
As can be observed from the current waveforms for the types of dc-dc converters described earlier, the current changes between the
maximum and minimum values, if it (current) is continuous. In the current limit control strategy, the switch in dc-dc converter
(chopper) is turned ON and OFF, so that the current is maintained between two (upper and lower) limits. When the current exceed
upper (maximum) limit, the switch is turned OFF. During OFF period, the current freewheels in say, buck converter (dc-dc) through
the diode, , and decreases exponentially. When it reaches lower (minimum) limit, the switch is turned ON. This type of control is
possible, either with constant frequency, or constant ON time, . This is used only, when the load has energy storage elements, i.e.
inductance, L. The reference values are load current or load voltage. This is shown in Fig.3.5. In this case, the current is continuous,
varying between and , which decides the frequency used for switching. The ripple in the load current can be reduced, if the
difference between the upper and lower limits is reduced, thereby making it minimum. This in turn increases the frequency, thereby
increasing the switching losses.

53
Fig.3.5
3.4 Types of Chopper
Requirements A thyristor can be turned ON by applying a positive voltage of about a volt or a current of a few tens of
8
milliamps at the gate-cathode terminals. However, the amplifying gain of this regenerative device being in the order of the 10 , the
SCR cannot be turned OFF via the gate terminal. It will turn-off only after the anode current is annulled either naturally or using
forced commutation techniques. These methods of turn-off do not refer to those cases where the anode current is gradually reduced
below Holding Current level manually or through a slow process. Once the SCR is turned ON, it remains ON even after removal of
the gate signal, as long as a minimum current, the Holding Current, I , is maintained in the main or rectifier circuit.
h
In all practical cases, a negative current flows through the device. This current returns to zero only after the reverse
recovery time t , when the SCR is said to have regained its reverse blocking capability.
rr
SCRs have turn-off times rated between 8 - 50 μsecs. The faster ones are popularly known as 'Inverter grade' and the slower ones as
'Converter grade' SCRs.
3.4. TYPES OF CHOPPER CIRCUITS
Power semiconductor devices used in chopper circuits are unidirectional devices, polarities of output voltage V o and the
direction of output Io are, therefore, restricted.
A chopper can, however, operate in any of the four quadrants by an appropriate arrangement of semiconductor devices.
This characteristic of their operation in any of the four quadrants forms the basis of their classification as type-A chopper, type-B
chopper etc. Some authors describe this chopper classification as class A, class B, ... in place of type-A, type-B, ... respectively.
In the chopper-circuit configurations drawn henceforth, the current directions and voltages polarities marked in the power
circuit would be treated as positive. In case current directions and voltage polarities turn out to be opposite to those shown in the
circuit, these currents and voltages must be treated as negative.
In this section, the classification of various chopper configurations is discussed

54
3.4.1. First-quadrant, or Type-A, Chopper

This type of chopper is shown in Fig.3.6 (a). ), When CH1 is off, V o = Vs and current io flows in the arrow direction shown.
When CH1 is off, Vo = 0 but io in the load continues flowing in the same direction through freewheeling diode FD. It is thus seen
that average values of both load voltage and current, i.e. V o and io are always positive : this fact is shown by the hatched area in the
first quadrant of Vo - Io plane in Fig. 3.6 (b).
Fig.3.6
The power flow in type-A chopper is always from source to load. This chopper is also called step-down chopper as average
output voltage Vo is always less than the input dc voltage Vs.
3.4.2. Second-quadrant, or Type-B, Chopper
Power circuit for this type of chopper is shown in Fig.3.7 (a). Note that load must contain a dc source E, like a battery (or a
dc motor) in this chopper. When CH2 is on, V 0 = 0 but load voltage E drives current through L and CH2. Inductance L stores energy
during Ton (=on period) of CH2. When CH2 is off
Fig.3.7
As a result, diode D2 is forward biased and begins conduction, thus allowing power to flow to the source. Chopper CH2
may be on or off, current Io flows out of the load, current io us therefore treated as negative. Since Vo is always positive and Io is
negative, power flow is always from load to source.
Both type-A and type-B chopper configurations have a common negative terminal between their input and output circuits
3.4.3. Two-quadrant type-A Chopper, or Type-C Chopper

This type of chopper is obtained by connecting type-A and type-B choppers in parallel as shown in Fig. 3.8 (a).

55
Fig. 3.8
The output voltage Vo is always positive because of the presence of freewheeling diode FD across the load. When chopper
CH2 is on, or freewheeling diode FD conducts, output voltage V o= 0 and in case chopper CH1 is on or diode D2 conducts, output
voltage Vo = Vs, The load current io can, however, reverse its direction. Current i o flows in the arrow direction marked in Fig. 3.8
(a), i.e. load current is positive when CH1 is on or FD conducts, Load current is negative if CH2 is on or D2 conducts. In other
words, CH1 and FD operate together as type-A chopper in first quadrant. Likewise CH2 and D2 operate together as type-B chopper
in second quadrant.
Average load voltage is always positive but average load current may be positive or negative as explained above.
Therefore, power flow may be from source to load (first-quadrant operation) or from load to source (second-quadrant operation).
Chopper CH1 and CH2 should not be on simultaneously as this would lead to a direct short circuit on the supply lines. This type of
chopper configuration is used for motoring and regenerative braking of dc motors. The operating region of this type of chopper is
shown in Fig. 3.8 (b) by hatched area in first and second quadrants.
3.4.4. Two-quadrant Type-B Chopper, or Type-D Chopper
The power circuit diagram for two-quadrant type-B Chopper, or type-D chopper, is shown in Fig. 3.9. (a). & (b)
Fig. 3.9
The output voltage Vo=Vs when both CH1 and CH2 are on and Vo=-Vs when both choppers are off but both diodes D1 and
D2 conduct. Average output voltage Vo is positive when choppers turn-on time Ton is more than their turn-off time Toff .Average
output voltage Vo is negative when their Ton < Toff .The direction of load current is always positive because choppers and diodes can
conduct current only in the direction of arrows shown in Fig. 3.9. (a). As V o is reversible, power flow is reversible. The operation of
this type of chopper is shown by the hatched area in first and fourth quadrants in Fig. 3.9. (b).
3.4.5. Four-quadrant Chopper, or Type-E Chopper
The power circuit diagram for a four- quadrant chopper is shown in Fig. 3.10 & 3.11 It consists of four
semiconductor switches CH1 to CH4 and four diodes D1 to D4 in antiparallel.

56
Fig. 3.10 Fig. 3.11

First quadrant : For first-quadrant operation of Fig. 3.10 (a), CH4 is kept on, CH3 is kept off and CH1 is operated. With
CH1, CH4 on, load voltage Vo =Vs (source voltage) and load current io begins to flow. Here both Vo and io are positive giving first
quadrant operation. When CH1 is turned off, positive current freewheels through CH4, D2. In this manner, both V o,Io can be
controlled in the first quadrant.
Second quadrant : Here CH2 is operated and CH1, CH3 and CH4 are kept off. With CH on, reverse (or negative) current
flows through L, CH2, D4 and E. Inductance L stores energy during the time CH2 is on. When CH2 is turned off, current is fed
𝑑𝑖
back to source through diodes D1,D4. Note that here 𝑉𝑜 = 𝐸 + 𝐿 is more than the source voltage Vs. As load voltage Vo is
𝑑𝑡
positive and Io is negative, it is second quadrant operation of chopper. Also, power is fed back from load to source.
3.5 Step Up Chopper
A boost converter (dc-dc) is shown in Fig.3.12. Only a switch is shown, for which a device belonging to transistor family is
generally used. Also, a diode is used in series with the load. The load is of the same type as given earlier. The inductance of the load
is small. An inductance, L is assumed in series with the input supply. The position of the switch and diode in this circuit may be
noted, as compared to their position in the buck converter .
Fig.3.12
Fig.3.13
The operation of the circuit is explained. Firstly, the switch, S (i.e., the device) is put ON (or turned ON) during the period, , the ON
period being . The output voltage is zero (), if no battery (back emf) is connected in series with the load, and also as stated earlier,

57
the load inductance is small. The current from the source () flows in the inductance L.. As the current through L increases, the
polarity of the induced emf is taken as say, positive, the left hand side of L being +ve.
3.6 Jones Chopper

Jones chopper is an example of class D commutation in which a charged capacitor is switched by an auxilary SCR to
commutate the main SCR. In this circuit SCR1 is the main switch and SCR2 is the auxilary switch which is of lower capacity than
SCR1 and is used to commutate SCR1 by a reverse voltage developed across the capacitor C. "The special feature of the circuit is
the tapped autotransformer T through a portion of which the load currentflows".
Fig3.14
Working
Shown Fig 3.14 When T1 is ON, capacitor C discharges resonantly through T1, L1, D1 . This discharge current doesnot flow
through L2 and back to the battery because of transformer action of T. The load current is picked up by T1 and the freewheel diode
D1 is reverse biased. As the capacitor voltage swings negative, the reverse bias on diode D2 decreases. This continues upto a
time pi(L1C)^1/2.
When T2 is on the negative voltage on capacitar C is applied across T1 and it becomes OFF.The load current which is
normally constant starts to flow in T2 and capacitor C. The capacitor C charged positively at first upto a voltage equal to supply
voltage Vdc.The freewheel diode become forward bias and begins to pickup load current. And capacitor current starts to reduce.
After this the energy 1/2LI^2 is the inductance L2 is forced in to the capacitor C.Charging is positively to 1/2CV^2 the capacitor
current continues to decrease as a result current through T2 decreases gradually become OFF. The cycle repeat when T1 is again
turnedON.
Advantage
The main advantage of JONES chopper over other the circuit is that
* It allows the use of higher voltage and lower microfarad commutating capacitor. This is because the trapped energy of inductor L2
can be forced in to the commutating capacitor rather than simply charging the capacitor by supply voltage.
* In this circuit there is no starting problem and anyone of the SCR can be turned on initialy there is great flexibility in condrol also.

58
3.7 Morgan Chopper

Figure 3.15 shows the power-circuit of Morgan chopper. In this circuit, T1 is the main thyristor, whereas capacitor C, saturable
reactor SR and diode D1 forms the commutating circuit. The exciting current of the saturable reactor is assumed to be
negligible small. When the saturable reactor is saturated, it has very low inductance. The voltage and current waveforms of the
Morgan-chopper is shown in Fig.3 .15 .
Fig.3.15.
When the main SCR T1 is OFF, capacitor C8will charge to the supply voltage Ede with the polarity as shown in Fig.
8.34 and the saturable reactor is placed in the positive saturation condition. The capacitor charging path is Ede+ -C -SR -
Load -Ede-· As shown in Fig. 8.35, thyristor T1 is triggered at time t :: t1• When thyristor T1 is turned-on, the capacitor
voltage appears across the saturable reactor and the core flux is driven from the positive saturation towards negative
saturation. The capacitor voltage remains essentially constant with the samepolarity,till the negative saturation point is reached.
This is due to the negligible exciting current of the SR. When the core flux reaches the negative saturation, the capac;tor
discharges through the SCR T1 and the post-saturation inductance of SR. This forms a resonant circuit with a
discharging time of 1CJ L C seconds, where Ls is the post-saturation inductance of the reactor. Thus, the discharging time
of the capacitor is comparatively small and the reversal of tbe polarity of the capacitor takes. place very quickly. After this,
the capacitor voltage which is now -Ede is impressed on the saturable reactor in the reverse direction and the core i s driven
from negative saturation towards positive saturation
After a fixed interval of time, the core flux reaches the positive saturation after which the capacitor discharges very
quickly through SCR T 1 in the reverse direction and the post-saturation inductance as before. The discharge current first
passes through SCR T1 , turning it OFF and then through diode D 1 When SCR T1 is turned-off the load current flows
through the freewheeling diode D1 Since the volt-time integral to saturate the core is constant, the ON period of SCR T1 is
fixed. The ON period is a function of Ls C and the average output voltage can be altered only by varying the operating
frequency. Output voltage is lowered by lowering the frequency and increases by increasing the frequency. The ON period,
however, can be controlled by varying the volt time product of the saturable reactor by means of d.c. controlled current
through it. Also, the total ON time of SCR T1 is determined by the time required for the saturable reactor to move from
positive saturation to negative saturation and back to positive saturation again. Hence, the use of saturable reactor in place of

59
linear reactor is advantageous in two ways: At the time of tum-off and charging of the capacitor, the inductance (saturated) is
low and for on-time, it is high (unsaturated). The circuit cost is low due to the use of only one thyristor.
3.8 Pulse Width Modulation

PWM is a technique that is used to reduce the overall harmonic distortion (THD) in a load current. It uses a pulse wave in
rectangular/square form that results in a variable average waveform value f(t), after its pulse width has been modulated. The time
period for modulation is given by T. Therefore, waveform average value is given by
3.9 Sinusoidal Pulse Width Modulation

In a simple source voltage inverter, the switches can be turned ON and OFF as needed. During each cycle, the switch is turned on
or off once. This results in a square waveform. However, if the switch is turned on for a number of times, a harmonic profile that is
improved waveform is obtained.
The sinusoidal PWM waveform is obtained by comparing the desired modulated waveform with a triangular waveform of high
frequency. Regardless of whether the voltage of the signal is smaller or larger than that of the carrier waveform, the resulting
output voltage of the DC bus is either negative or positive.
The sinusoidal amplitude is given as Am and that of the carrier triangle is give as Ac. For sinusoidal PWM, the modulating index m is given
by Am/Ac.

60
3.10 PWM control circuit for driving MOSFET in chopper
Advantages and Disadvantages of HVDC Transmission

The advantages lies in the fact HVDC links are able to connect to two asynchronous network, a typical example is a 60Hz and
50Hz power system network. For long distance transmission the HVDC links are less expensive and do not suffer a lot of electrical
losses. For underground transmission system HVDC is much better because it avoids the heavy currents that are required to charge
and discharge the cable due the capacitance effect of the cable. Because the power flow can be controlled independently of the
phase angle between the source and the load, it has the capability to stabilize a network if there is any disturbance due to any
changes in power demand. Also it has the capability of connecting remote generation to a distribution grid.
Other advantages are the ability to transmit large amount of power over long distance. There is lower capital cost since the number
of lines is fewer and a reduction in the profile configuration in the number of pylons required and fewer conductors.
Come with the great advantages, there are also disadvantages and that include a high capital cost for the converters and the
converters generate a lot of harmonics and characteristics harmonics and also requires a lot of reactive power consumptions which
warrants the installation of harmonic filters to eliminate the harmonics and also to provide the reactive power requirement at
fundamental frequency. For a multi-terminal HVDC, it is so complex and requires complex and costly communication system. They
also have an overload capability limitation. Also for certain type of HVDC configuration, a close in AC fault on the AC side can
affect the DC side. Also the radio noise generated can affect communication system that is close by.

61
Model Questions
PART – A
1. Define chopper.
2. Mention the applications of chopper.
3. Mention the types of chopper.
4. Why class B chopper is called step up chopper?
5. Mention the two different modes of operation of class D choppers.
6. What is energy recovery diode? Why it is called so?
7. Mention the control strategies used in chopper.
8. Define duty cycle and chopper frequency.
9. What is meant by step up chopper?
10. Mention the advantages of DC transmission.
11. List the drawbacks of DC transmission.
12. State the principle of DC transmission.
13. Mention the different types of DC transmission.
PART – B
1. Explain constant frequency control in DC chopper.
2. Draw the circuit diagram and waveforms of class B chopper.
3. Explain the operation of class A chopper with neat sketch.
4. Explain mode 1 operation in class D chopper.
5. Explain mode2 operation in class D chopper.
6. Draw the circuit and waveforms of Morgan chopper.
7. Draw the circuit diagram of chopper using MOSFET.
8. Explain the principle of DC transmission.
PART – C
1. Explain in detail the different control techniques used in chopper.
2. Explain the operation of class C chopper in detail with necessary diagrams.
3. Explain the operation of class D chopper in detail with necessary diagrams.
4. Explain the operation of class E chopper in detail with necessary diagrams.
5. Explain the operation of Jones chopper in detail with necessary diagrams.

62
6. Explain the operation of Morgan chopper in detail with necessary diagrams.
7. Draw and explain the circuit diagram of PWM control circuit for driving MOSFET in chopper.
8. Draw and explain chopper circuit using MOSFET.
9. With neat block diagram explain DC transmission and mention its advantages.
%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%

63
IV UNIT
INVERTERS
4.1 INTRODUCTION Definition It is a circuit which converts DC in to AC.

Requirement One of the most important thing that you must know before buying an inverter is your ―power requirement‖. In
simple words- what all electrical appliances (like CFL, tube lights, fan, television, computer, refrigerator etc.) you will run at the
time of power cut.
Some Industrial applications are adjustable speed drives stand by air craft power supply UPS for computers , hvdc
transmission lines etc…
4.2 SINGLE-PHASE VOLTAGE SOURCE INVERTERS OPERATING PRJNCIPLE

Single-phase bridge inverters are of two types, namely (1) single-phase half-bridge inverters and (14) single-phase
full-bridge inverters, Basic principles of operation of these two types are presented here
Power circuit diagrams of the two configurations of single-phase bridge inverter, as stated above, are shown in Fig. 4.1 (a)
for half-bridge inverter and in Fig, 4.1 (a) for full-bridge inverter, In these diagrams, the circuitry for turning-on or turning-off of
the thyristors is not shown for simplicity. The gating signals for the thyristors and the resulting output voltage waveforms are
shown in Figs, 4.1 (b) and 4.1 (b) for half-bridge and full-bridge inverters respectively. These voltage waveforms are drawn on
the assumption that each thyristor conducts for the duration its gate pulse is present and is commutated as soon as this pulse
is removed. In Figs, 4.1 (b) and 4.1 (b), i g 4 are gate signals applied respectively to thyristors T1-T4
Fig. 4.1
Single-phase half bridge inverter, as shown in Fig. 4.1 (a), consists of two SCRs, two diodes and three-wire supply. It is
seen from Fig. 4.1. (b) that. far 0 < K T/2, thyristor T1 12,.tg2 conducts and the load is subjected to a voltage V/2 due to the
upper voltage source V/2., At t = T/2, thyristor T1 is commutated and T2 is gated or uring the period T/2 < T, thyristor T2
conducts and the load is subjected to a voltage {— V./2) due to the lower voltage. source V1/2. It is seen from Fig. 81 (b) that lead
voltage is an alternating voltage waveform of amplitude V/2 and of frequency 1/T H2. Frequency of the inverter output voltage can
be changed by controlling T.

64
The main drawback of half-bridge inverter is that it requires 3-wire do supply. This difficulty can, however, be overcome by
the use of a full-bridge inverter shown in Fig. 4,2 (a). It consists of four SCRs and four diodes. In this inverter, number of thyristors
and diodes is twice of that in a half bridge inverter, This, however, does not go against full inverter because the amplitude of output
voltage as well as its output power is doubled in this inverter as compared to their values in the half-bridge inverter. This is
evident from Figs. 4.2 (6) and 4.2 (6).
Figs. 4.2
For full-bridge inverter, when T1, T2 conduct, load voltage is V, and when T3, T4 conduct load voltage is — Y1 as shown in Fig.
4.2 (b). Frequency of output voltage can be controlled by varying the periodic time T.
In Fig. 4.1 (a), thyristors TI, T2 are in series across the source ; in Fig. 4.2 (a) thyristors TI, T4 or T3, T2 are also in series
across the source. During inverter operation, it should be ensured that two SCRs in the same branch, such as T1, T2 in Fig, 4.1 (ez), do
not conduct simultaneously as this would lead to a direct short circuit of the source.
For a resistive load, two SCRs in Fig. 4.1 (a) and four SCRs in Fig. 4.2 (a) would suffice, because load current io and load voltage [to
would always be in phase with each other.
This, however, is not the case when the load is other than resistive, For such types of loads, current it will not be in phase
with voltage uo and diodes connected in anti parallel with thyristors will allow the current to flow when 'the main thyristors are turned
off. These diodes are called feedback diodes
4.3 Modified McMurray full-bridge inverter

A single-phase modified McMurray full-bridge inverter is shown in Fig, 4.3, The number of thyristors, diodes and
other components in full-bridge inverter is double of those in half-bridge inverter. The operation of this inverter during
commutation process is similar to that described in the previous section for a single-phase half-bridge inverter. For example, for
mode 1, thyristors Ti. T2 are conducting and the load current completes its path through source V,„ T1, load, T2 and back to source.
For mode 11, TA1 and TA2 are triggered together for commutating main SCRs T1 and T2. For mode 111, commutating current i s
in both the circuits goes beyond load current 4 so that T1 and T2 are turned of and so on.

65
Fig, 4.3
Power circuit diagram of a modified McMurray Bedford half-bridge inverter is Fig. 4.3. It uses less number of thyristors and
diodes as compared to modified McMurray half -bridge inverter, The number of capacitors and inductors is, however, large.
This inverter, Fig. 8.15. consists of main thyristors T1, T2 and feedback diodes D1, D2. Commutation circuitry
consists of two capacitors Cl, C and magnetically coupled inductors -Li, L2. Actually L1 and L2 constitute one inductor with a
centre tap so that LI =. L2 = L.
In a branch consisting of two tightly coupled inductors in series with two thyristors, if one thyristor is turned
on, the other conducting thyristor gets turned of this type of commutation is called .complementary commutation.
The simplifying assumptions are the same as for the inverter discussed in previous section.
The working of this inverter can be explained in different modes as follows
Mode I
In this mode, thyristor T l is conducting and upper dc source supplies load current 1 0 to the load, Fig, 8.16 (a).
As the load current is almost constant, voltage drops across across L l and T i. Voltage across C1. is zero and
voltage across C 2 . Is zero because point g is effectively connected to point .13 through Ll and T1 and lower plate of C2 is
connected to point f. The equivalent circuit for this anode is as shown in Fig. 8.16 (a). In this figure, voltage of node g
with respect to point f is K. The potential of points d and c i.e the same as that of pointing with respect to f. In other
words, the potential of all the three nodes g, d, c with respect to point f V this is shown in Fig, 4.3.
Mode II.
When t = 0 thyristor T 2 is triggered to initiate the -commutation of T i. With the turning-on of T 2, point d gets
connected to e f, i.e. to the negative supply terminal. Voltage across 01 acid C2 cannot change instantaneously, therefore a
voltage V. appears across L2. As Ll and L2 are magnetically coupled, an equal voIta.ge is induced across L l with terminal 42
positive. Voltage o n across terminals of thyristor T i can he found by traversing the loop b a fe el e, Fig. 4.3 ;
This shows that point c is positive with respect to b by V volts, i.e, Ti is subjected to a reverse voltage of - V ; it is
therefore turned off at t = 0 + . Load current 4 flowing through 1'1 and LI. io at once transferred to 12 anti T2 so as to maintain
constant (proportional to Li, _TO in the centre tapped inductor as per the constant flux linkage theorem. Current directions for i",
are shown in Fig. 4.3 (c). KVL for the loop consisting of CI, 02 and the source V for this figure gives

66
Mode III.
At t 1 . capacitor Cl is charged to supply voltage V. and therefore no current can flow through Cl. i.e. i d = 0. After
one-fourth of a cycle from t = 0. i.e. att1,0. Just after ti, (10 + .1„,)/2 through C2 tends to charge it with bottom plate positive. As
a result, diode D2 gets forward biased at tl. Thus, now entire current (I D +.1) is transferred to D2 so that both i., 1= ia= 0 just.
after t i but 4 12 to + fr „ ; this is shown in the equivalent circuit of Fig. 4.3. (e), Diode current i D2 =10 + Im.
The energy stored in inductor L. at f 1 is dissipated in the closed circuit made up of L2, T2 and D2. At time t 2, this energy
is entirely dissipated, therefore current in decays to zero and as a result.. T2 is turned off at t 2, Fig. 8.17. Sometimes, a small
resistance is included in series with the diode to speed up the dissipation of stored energy in 142. As in decays from 4, at ti to
zero at t2, /D2 also decays from 10+ .1„ at ti to 422 = io = cab at t9
Mode IV.
When the current. i n through L2 and T2 has decayed to zero the equivalent eirc-uit is as shown in Fig_ 8,16 (f). A
load current ici = ID2 still continues flowing through the diode D2 as f in during (t a - ta) interval, fig_ 4.3
Mode V
Finally, load current t o through the diode 1)2 and load decays to zero at t a and is then reversed_ As soon as i c, equal to
iD2, tends to reverse, 1)2 is blocked. The reverse bias across D2, due to voltage drop in V2 no longer exists. Therefore, thyriator
T2 already gated during the interval ta - t gets turned on to carry the load current in the reversed direction. The capacitor Cl,
now charged to the source voltage V a, Fig. 4.3 (e), is ready for commutating the main thyristor T2.
4.4 THREE PHASE BRIDGE INVERTERS

For providing adjustable-frequency power to industrial applications, three-phase inverters are more common than
single-phase inverters. Three-phase inverters, like single-phase inverters, take their dc supply frOm a battery or mare usually
from a rectifier_
A basic three-phase inverter is a six-step bridge inverter. It uses a minimum of six thyristors. hi inverter terminology,
a step is defined as a change in the firing from one thyristor to the next thyristor in proper sequence, For one cycle of 360',
each step would be of 60' interval for a six-step inverter_ This means that thyristors would be gated at regular intervals of 60° in
proper sequence so that a 3-phase ac voltage is synthesized at the output terminals of a six-step inverter.
Fig. 4.4 shows the power circuit of a three-phase bridge inverter using six thyristors and six diodes As stated earlier, the
transistor family of devices is now very widely used in inverter circuits. Presently, the use of 'Galls in single-phase and three-
phase inverters is on the rise. The basic circuit configuration of inverter, A large capacitor connected at the input terminals tends
to make the input do voltage constant. This capacitor also suppresses the harmonics fed back to the source.
There are two possible patterns of gating the thyristors. In one pattern, each thyristor conducts for 180' and in the other,
each thyristor conducts for 1200. But in both these patterns,

67
Fig 4.4
Gating signals are applied removed at 60 ̊ intervals of the output voltage waveforms
4.4.1 Three-phase 120 Degree Mode

Pow er circuit diagram of this inverter is the same as that shown in Fig.4.4. For the 120 degree mod e each
thyristor conducts for 120° of a cycle. Like 180° mode, 120° mode inverter also requires six steps, each of 60°
duration, for completing one cycle of the output ac voltage.
A table giving the sequence of firing the six thyristors is prepared as shown in the top of Fig.8.22.Jn Thls table,
first rows shows that Tl conducts for 120° and for the next 60•, neither Tl nor T4 conducts. Now T4 turned on at wt =
180 and further conducts for 120°, 1.e. from wt >t = 180° to wt. =3000. This means that for so interval from wt = 120° to
wt = 180°. series connected SCRs do not conduct. At w t = 300°, T4 is turned off, then so interval elapses before Tl
is turned on again at wt = 360".In the second row, T3 is turned on at wt = 180° mode inverter. Now T3 conducts for
120°, then 60° interval elapses during which neither T3 nor T6 conducts. At wt = 300', TS is turned on, it conducts
for 120' and then S0° interval elapses after which T3 is turned on again. The third row is also completed
similarly. This table shows that T6, Tl should be gated for step l; Tl, T2 for step ll ; T2, T3 for step 11I and so on.
The sequence of firing the six thyristors is the same as for the 180° mod e inverter. During each step, only two
thyristors conduct for this inverter -one from the upper group and one from the lower group ; but in 180° mode
inverter, three thyristor conduct in each step.
The circuit models for steps are shown I n Fig., where load is assumed to be resistive and star connected. During step
I, thyristors 6, l are conducting and a such load terminal a is connected to the p.os1tive bus of de source whereas
terminal b is connected to negative bus of de source, Fig. 8.23 (a). Load terminal c is not connected to de bus. The line
to nut ral voltages, from Fig. are

68
Merits and Demerits
(i) In the 180° mode inverter, when gate signal i61 is cut-off to turn off Tl at .oot = 180°, gating signal i14 is
simultaneously applied to tum on T4 in the same leg. In practice, a commutation interval must exist between the
removal of 111 and application of i114, because otherwise de source would experience a direct short-circuit
through SCRs Tl and T4 in the same leg.
This difficulty is overcome considerably in 120-degree mode inverter. In this inverter, there is a 60° interval
between the turning off of Tl and turning on of T4. During this 60° interval, Tl can be commutated safely.In general,
this angular interval of 60° exists between the turning-off of one device and turning-on of the complementary device in
the same leg. .This 60° period provides sufficient time for the outgoing thyristor to regain forward blocking capability.
ii) In the 120° mode inverter, the potentials of only two output terminals connected t.o the de source are defined at any
time of the cycle.

69
4.5 Parallel inverter using IGBT.

Paralleling IGBTs become necessary for power conversion equipment with higher output power ratings, where a single
IGBT cannot provide the required load current. This TI Design implements a reinforced isolated IGBT gate control module to drive
parallel IGBTs in half-bridge configuration. Paralleling IGBTs introduces challenges at both the gate driver (insufficient drive
strength) as well as at system level in maintaining equal current distribution in both the IGBTs while ensuring faster turnon and
turnoff.
System Description
Insulated gate bipolar transistors (IGBTs) are considerably used in three-phase inverters that have numerous applications like
variable-frequency drives that control the speed of AC motors, uninterruptible
power supplies (UPS), solar inverters, and other similar inverter applications. IGBTs have the advantages of high-input impedance
as the gate is insulated, has a rapid response ability, good thermal stability, simple driving circuit, good ability to withstand high
voltage, snubber-less operation, and controllability of switching behavior providing reliable short-circuit protection. The IGBT is a
voltage controlled device, which gives it the ability to turn on and off very quickly. Paralleling IGBT modules becomes necessary
when the output current requirement cannot be provided by a single IGBT module. A single module of an IGBT is capable of
handling currents up to 600 A in the dual onfiguration. Higher currents in the range of kilo amperes are required in case of high
power rated equipments. Higher currents can be obtained either by paralleling inverters or by paralleling the IGBT modules inside
the inverter as shown in Figure 1. An advantage of paralleling includes distributing heat sources so that higher levels of power loss
can be dissipated.
This isolated gate driver circuit is designed for low voltages and medium power drives, operating from a three-phase AC supply up
to 480 VAC. Medium power drives rated for greater than 100 kW can have IGBT modules with gate charges up to 10 μC,
necessitating high peak currents to turn on and off the IGBT. Gate driver ICs have a limited peak current capability; typical values
are 2.5 A for source and 5 A for sink.

70
4.6 UPS
An uninterruptible power supply, also uninterruptible power source, UPS or battery/flywheel backup, is an electrical
apparatus that provides emergency power to a load when the input power source or mains power fails. A UPS differs from an
auxiliary or emergency power system or standby generator in that it will provide near-instantaneous protection from input power
interruptions, by supplying energy stored in batteries, super capacitors, or flywheels. The on-battery runtime of most uninterruptible
power sources is relatively short (only a few minutes) but sufficient to start a standby power source or properly shut down the
protected equipment.
A UPS is typically used to protect hardware such as computers, data centers, telecommunication equipment or other electrical
equipment where an unexpected power disruption could cause injuries, fatalities, serious business disruption or data loss. UPS units
range in size from units designed to protect a single computer without a video monitor (around 200 volt-ampere rating) to large
units powering entire data centers or buildings. The world's largest
Offline/standby
Offline/Standby UPS: The green line illustrates the flow of electric power. Typical protection time: 0–20 minutes. Capacity
expansion: Usually not available
The offline/standby UPS (SPS) offers only the most basic features, providing surge protection and battery backup. The protected
equipment is normally connected directly to incoming utility power. When the incoming voltage falls below or rises above a
predetermined level the SPS turns on its internal DC-AC inverter circuitry, which is powered from an internal storage battery. The
UPS then mechanically switches the connected equipment on to its DC-AC inverter output. The switchover time can be as long as
25 milliseconds depending on the amount of time it takes the standby UPS to detect the lost utility voltage. The UPS will be
designed to power certain equipment, such as a personal computer, without any objectionable dip or brownout to that device.

71
Online/double-conversion
In an online UPS, the batteries are always connected to the inverter, so that no power transfer switches are necessary. When power
loss occurs, the rectifier simply drops out of the circuit and the batteries keep the power steady and unchanged. When power is
restored, the rectifier resumes carrying most of the load and begins charging the batteries, though the charging current may be
limited to prevent the high-power rectifier from overheating the batteries and boiling off the electrolyte. The main advantage of an
on-line UPS is its ability to provide an "electrical firewall" between the incoming utility power and sensitive electronic equipment.
The online UPS is ideal for environments where electrical isolation is necessary or for equipment that is very sensitive to power
fluctuations. Although it was at one time reserved for very large installations of 10 kW or more, advances in technology have now
permitted it to be available as a common consumer device, supplying 500 W or less. The initial cost of the online UPS may be
higher, but its total cost of ownership is generally lower due to longer battery life. The online UPS may be necessary when the
power environment is "noisy", when utility power sags, outages and other anomalies are frequent, when protection of sensitive IT
equipment loads is required, or when operation from an extended-run backup generator is necessary.
The basic technology of the online UPS is the same as in a standby or line-interactive UPS. However it typically costs much more,
due to it having a much greater current AC-to-DC battery-charger/rectifier, and with the rectifier and inverter designed to run
continuously with improved cooling systems. It is called a double-conversion UPS due to the rectifier directly driving the inverter,
even when powered from normal AC current.
Need for UPS
An Uninterruptible Power Supply (UPS) is used to protect critical loads from mains supply problems, including spikes, voltage
dips, and fluctuations and complete power failures using a dedicated battery. A UPS system can also be used to 'bridge the gap'
whilst a standby generator is started and synchronized.

72
Comparison Chart
Here is a comparison chart of Online and Offline UPS mentioning advantages (+) and disadvantages (-)
Topology Reliability Cost Input Output

+
- +/-
+ Lower initial cost
Extreme voltage Output frequency
Fewer parts (fewer parts)
Offline distortion can varies within a
lower operating Lower operating
require frequent configurable
temperature cost (less
battery usage range
electricity)
-
+
- Higher initial +
Accepts extreme
Many parts cost (more parts) Output fixed to a
Online voltage distortion
higher operating Higher operating configurable
without going to
temperature cost (more frequency
battery
electricity)
Model Questions
PART - A
1. What is inverter?
2. What are the requirements of inverter?
3. What are the methods used to obtain sine wave output from an inverter?
4. What are the advantages of McMurray inverter?
5. Define UPS.
6. What is the need for UPS?
7. What are the types of UPS?
8. Mention the applications of inverters.
9. State the different modes of three phase inverter.
10. Mention the advantages of online UPS.
PART – B
1. Draw the circuit diagram and waveforms of single phase inverter with resistive load.
2. Draw the circuit diagram and waveforms of single phase inverter with RL load.
3. What are the methods used for reducing harmonics at the output of inverters?
4. Explain PWM in inverters.
5. Draw the circuit diagram of through pass inverter.
6. Draw the circuit diagram and waveforms of parallel inverter using IGBT.

73
7. Draw the block diagram of OFF line UPS.
8. Draw the block diagram of ON line UPS.
9. Compare ON line and OFF line UPS.
PART – C
1. With suitable diagrams explain the operation of single phase inverter with resistive load.
2. With suitable diagrams explain the operation of single phase inverter with RL load.
3. Briefly explain the output voltage control in inverters.
4. Briefly explain the various methods of obtaining sinewave output from an inverter.
5. Explain in detail about McMurray inverter.
6. Explain in detail about Through pass inverter.
7. Explain in detail about three phase inverter.
8. Explain in detail about parallel inverter using IGBT.
9. With necessary diagrams explain ON line UPS.
10. Explain in detail about OFF line UPS
%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%

74
V UNIT
NUMERICALLY CONTROLLED SYSTEMS
Definition
A numerical control system is defined by the Electronics Industries Association EIA as ―A system in which actions are controlled
by the direct insertion of numerical data at some point. The system must automatically interpret at least some portion of the data.‖
5.1 Basic Concepts of Numerical Control
Numerical control is the controlling of a machine tool by means of prepared program which consists of blocks or series of
numbers. These numbers define the required position of each slide, its feeds, cutting speeds, etc. The numbers are defined from the
dimensions of the part that are taken from the drawing of the machined product. In the manufacturing of complicated parts,
additional data points are calculated by the system using an interpolator.
Input format of the numerical data in N/C system
In a numerical control system the numerical data required to produce a part is maintained on a punchedtape. The data is
arranged in the form of blocks of information, where each block contains the numerical data information required to produce one
segment of the work piece. The block contain sin coded form the information need for processing a segment of workpiece ,such as
the segment length, the feed, the cutting speed ,etc.
The dimensional information like the length, breath radii of the circles and the contour form like linear or circular are
taken from the drawing. Dimensions are given separately for each(X, Y, etc.) axis of motion. cutting speed, feed and auxiliary
functions like coolant ON/OFF, spindle directions, clamp, gear changes are programmed according to the surface finish and
tolerance requirements.
The preparation of the data requires a parts programmer .The parts programmer must have knowledge and experience in
the mechanical engineering fields. He should have the knowledge of tools , cutting fluids, fixture design techniques, use of
machinability data and process engineering. He should be familiar of the functions of the N/C processes. The programmer writes the
sequence of the optimal operations as a program either in manual or in a computer language called APT .The program is punched on
a tape using a flexowriter.
5.2 Block diagram of a numerical control system
A N/C machine tool system consists of the Machine Control Unit (MCU) and the machine tool The MCU consists of two
main units. The Data Processing Unit (DPU) and the Control Loops Unit (CLU).
The DPU consists of the data input device, data reading circuits the parity checking logic, decoding circuits and an
interpolator. The DPU reads the punched tape using a tape reader. The coded information from the tape reader passes to the
decoding circuits.

75
The data contains the required new position of each axis, its direction of motion, feed and auxiliary function control signals
.The decoding circuits distribute the data among the controlled axes. The interpolator supplies current velocity commands between
two different points from the drawing .This data is then sent to the control loops unit .
The CLU operates the driving devices of the machine lead screws and receives the feedback signals about the position and
velocity of each of the axes. Each lead screw under each axis of control has a separate driving device and a separate feedback
device.
Fig 5.1 Block diagram of a Numeric Control system
The driving device can be a dc motor, a stepper motor or a hydraulic system The feedback devices are the measuring
devices such as the encoders, digitizers, resolvers, inductosyn, tachometers and digital to analog converters. The CLU has position
control loops, velocity control loops, decelerating and backlash take-up circuits and auxiliary function control.
5.2.1 Advantages of a N/C system
1. A full flexibility in the production of a new part.

2. Accuracy through all range of speeds and feeds.
3. A shorter production time.
4. Possibility of manufacturing part of any contour
5. An easy adjustment of the machine.
6. The need for highly skilled and experienced operator is avoided.
7. The operator can also see the other machine operations.
8. The part production is economical

76
5.2.2 Disadvantages of a N/C system
1. The price is costly.

2. Complicated maintenance required.
3. A highly skilled parts programmeris required.
5.2.3 Applications
The applications of an N/C system are
1. Sequence control
2. Drilling machine
3. Boring machine
4. Punching
5. Turning
6. Flame welding
7. Filament winding
8. Wire processing
9. Knitting and textile cutting
10. Spark erosion machine
11. Lathe / Turning Centre
12. Milling / Machining Centre
13. Turret Press and Punching Machine
14. Wire cut Electro Discharge Machine (EDM)
15. Grinding Machine
16. Laser Cutting Machine
17. Water Jet Cutting Machine
18. Electro Discharge Machine
19. Coordinate Measuring Machine
20. Industrial Robot
5.3 Driving devices
5.3.1 Hydraulic systems

They are used to drive the machine tools. They can deliver high powers in the range of hundreds of horse power with a
relatively small size and can be easily adapted for electrical control. The hydraulics system has higher maximum angular
acceleration and smooth operation of the machine tool slides. The disadvantages are oil leakages at the transmission systems and
components. The oil should be kept free from contamination. Dynamic lags may introduce undesirable changes in control actions.
The hydraulic system consists of the
1. A hydraulic power supply

2. Servo valve

77
3. Sump
4. Hydraulic motor
The hydraulic power supply is a source of high pressure oil for the hydraulic motor, servo valves and the auxiliary
components. The main components of the hydraulic power supply are
1. The pump which supplies the pressurised oil.

2. The pump is driven by a three phase induction motor.
3. A check valve to restrict reverse flow of the oil to the pump.
4. The supply has a fine filter and a coarse filter to remove dirt and prevent contamination to the oil.
5. A pressure controlling valve to control the supply pressure to the servo systems.
6. An accumulator for storing the hydraulic energy.
The electro hydraulic servo valve controls the flow of the pressurised oil. The motion of the servo valve is controlled by an
amplified electrical signal. The input voltage to the valve is proportional to the velocity of the hydraulic motor.
The sump receives the used oil through the return line. The oil is feedback to the hydraulic power supply.
The prime mover is the hydraulic motor for rotary motion or the hydraulic cylinder for linear motion. The hydraulic motor
operates at high speeds and is geared to the lead screw which drives the table.
5.3.2 Stepper motor

The stepper motor translates an input pulse sequence into proportional angular movements, rotating one angular increment
or step angle for each input pulse. The stepper motor has ‗m‘ phase stator windings and a rotor with no windings. The specifications
of the stepper motor are
(1) The phases equal to the number of the stator windings
(2) The number of poles of the stator and the rotor.
The number of steps per revolution of the stepper motor is determined by the number of phases and poles of the stator and the rotor.
The shaft is connected to therotor. The shaft position is determined by the number of pulses and the velocity of the motor is given
by the pulse frequency. The shaft speed in steps per second is equal to the incoming frequency of the pulses per second .
Fig 5.2 Stepper motor as a driving device

78
The stator windings are excited by the successive switching of the voltage supplied to the phase windings in a particular
sequence using the driving circuit .The driving circuit consists of a steering circuit or a logic circuit which converts the incoming
pulses into the correct switching sequence needed to step the motor and a power amplifier.
The stepper motor can be constructed for unidirectional or bi-directional rotation. The stepper motor is designed for small
N/C systems with open loop control. The limitation of the stepper motor is the small torque output. They cover a wide range of
performance.
5.4 Data Processing Unit

The data processing unit connects the punched tape with the control loops unit.The DPU consists of the tape reader, data
storing registers, distribution circuits, decoders and the converters to convert the data into a form acceptable by the CLU. In
contouring control systems the DPU consists of the interpolator.
The DPU consists of the digital circuits for storing, translation and distribution of the information .It has the relays to
initiate the auxiliarycommands. The interpolator has the DDA units and additional digital circuits.
Fig 5.3 Block diagram of a Data processing unit

Data reading:
The tape readers are classified as the mechanical readers and the photoelectric readers. The operation
of the mechanical reader senses the pins that make or break the electrical contacts by the presence or absence
of the tape holes. The photoelectric reader has determines the presence or absence of the holes based on light
sensing.The photoelectric reader can read 300 to 600 characters per second.
The reading circuit:
The reading circuit
1. Supplies the actuating control signals to start or stop the tape reader
2. Stores the read data temporarily
3. Provides a parity check for each character.
4. Identifies the End of Character and the minus sign.
79
Fig 5.4 Tape reading circuit

Each character is read from a row on the punched tape and is temporarily stored in the read register. To avoid
the possibility of errors in the punched code or in the reading of the tape, EIA code makes each character code
combination to have odd number of holes.
Whenever a parity error is detected the machine and the reading process are stopped and the parity light is
illuminated. Whena End of Block character is read, it is identified and stops the reading process and halts the pulse
generator. At the same time a start control is sent to the CLU which begins to perform the instructions. The identifier is
a combinational circuit that identifies the digits, Tab and the Minus sign based on conditions in the tape format.
The tape format is an agreed order in which the various types of words will appear within the block. The
purpose of the words are identified based on the tape format and the data is distributed to the appropriate locations
using the digital circuits that are designed to do it. The data is decoded and sent to the CLU.
Contouring system are equipped with an interpolator. The interpolators in a N/C systems are of three types,
linear, circular and parabolic.
5.5 Part Programming of N/C systems
Part programming for N/C production includes all data required to produce the part, the calculations of the
tool path along which the machine operations will be performed, the arrangement of the given and calculated data in
the standard format, which should be converted into an acceptable form for a particular MCU.
The necessary data for producing a part are
1. Data directly taken from the drawing:
i. Dimensions like length, width height, radius etc.
ii. Segment shape: Linear ,circular or parabolic
iii. Diameters of holes to be drilled.

80
iv. The tool path can be calculated from these information.

2. Data established according to surface quality, required tolerance, type of work piece and cutting tools: Feeds,
cutting speeds and auxiliary functions like turn ON or OFF the coolant.
3. Data determined by the programmer such as direction of cutting a circle, toolchange. etc..
4. The part programmer must establish the optimal sequence of operations which are required to produce a part.
He must be familiar with the N/C processes and the characteristics of that particular N/C systems.
Information depends on the particular N/C system and is varied with any MCU and CLU combinations.
All data fed to the N/C system is in the form that can be read and processed
by the DPU .The punched tape is used as the control medium .
The two types of data processing techniques employed to produce the punched tape are
1. Manual
In manual programming the data required for machining a part is written in
a standard format on a manuscript.The manuscript is a planning chart or list of instructions which describe the
operations to produce the part. The manuscript is typed using a flexowriter .and the punched tape is produced .
2. Computer assisted preparation of the tape

The computer allows the programming of the tool cutter path of complexparts that could not be manually
programmed. The computer performs mathematical calculations quickly and accurately. They are also reliable. The
computer languages were developed and APT (Automatic ProgrammedTools) system is a comprehensive language
for part programming. Thelanguage has English like words and mathematical notations and is simple to use.
Computations that
Each N/C system and machine tool combination has a post processer program that will receive the APT
output as an input and makes additional computations that are necessary to ensure that the specific machine
tool/control unit combination will produce the part of the prescribed tolerance, at the desired feed rate, etc. The post
processor generates as output either the control tape or information that can be translated on a punched tape by using
a standard equipment.
5.5 .1 Post Processor
The post processor is an additional computer program which accepts as input the partially and generally
processed data and generates as output either the control punched tape for a particular machine tool/control unit
combination or information suitable for preparing the tape.
The post processor output must be able to produce a part in the specified tolerance, at programmed feed s and
control dynamic effects as overshoot or undershoot. The post processor has to take into account the dynamic and
geometric constraints of the machine tool.
There is an individual post processor for each type of machine tool/control unit combination. Any number of
post processor programs can be associated with a single part programming APT system .

81
a- Print of unprocessable data
Tolerance e –Preparatory functions

Machine dynamics
Geometric f –Miscellaneou functions

constraints
Fig 5.5 Post processor elements

The post processor elements are the input, motion, auxiliary, output and control.
1 .The input element reads the information which is the APT output. Reading may be performed directly with
punched cards, punched tape or the magnetic tape.
2. The motion element performs all the instructions concerned with the tool movement. The motion element includes
two functions denoted as the dynamic and geometric portion of the package.
3. The auxiliary element is fed by the preparatory and miscellaneous functions that can be performed by the machine
tool /control unit combination and accepts from the input element all data concerning these functions.
4. The output element receives the output data from the motion and auxiliary elements. The data is converted into the
format acceptable by the MCU.
5. The control element generates the timing of the post processor and adapts all elements and permits program flow.
It also controls the flow of data to the external output.
5.5.2 Programming systems

82
The part programming systems for the N/C systems are

1. ADAPT -Adaptation of APT
2. EXAPT -EXtended subset of APT
3. AUTOSPOT –AUTOmatic System POsitioning Tools
4. AUTOPROMPT
5. SPLIT
5.6 Basic Concepts of CNC, DNC and AC systems
5.6.1 CNC-Computer Numeric Control
The EIA definition of computer numerical control (CNC): A numerical control system wherein a dedicated, stored program
computer is used to perform some or all of the basic numerical control functions in accordance with control programs stored in the
read-write memory of the computer
It consists of a Machine Control Unit (MCU) and machine tool itself. MCU is a computer and is the brain of a CNC
machine. It reads the part programs and controls the machine tools operations. Then it decodes the part program to provide
commands and instructions to the various control loops of the machine axes of motion.
CNC part program contains a combination of machine tool code and machine-specific instructions. It consists of
(a) Information about part geometry
(b) Motion statements to move the cutting tool
(c) Cutting speed and (d) Feed
(e) Auxiliary functions such as coolant on and off, spindle direction
Fig 5.6 Block diagram of a CNC system

83
5.6.2 DNC –Direct Numeric Control
The DNC system operates the N/C systems in time shared mode.
The EIA definition of DNC:A system connecting a set of numerically controlled machines to a common memory for part program
or machine program storage with provision for on-demand distribution of data to machines.
It consists of a central computer to which a group of CNC machine tools are connected via a communication network. The
communication is usually carried out using a standard protocol such as TCP/IP or MAP. DNC system can be centrally monitored
which is helpful when dealing with different operators, in different shifts, working on different machines .
Fig 5.7 Block diagram of a DNC system
A common drawback of the CNC systems is that their machining control variables, such as speeds or feed rates, arc
prescribed by a part programmer and consequently depend on his or her experience and knowledge
5.6.3 Adaptive Control

The availability of a dedicated computer in the control system and the need for higher productivity has greatly accelerated
the development of adaptive control (AC) systems for metal cutting. These systems are based on real-time control of the cutting
variables with reference to measurements of the machining process state-variables. The adaptive control is basically a feedback
system that treats the CNC as an internal unit and in which the machining variables automatically adapt themselves to the actual
conditions of the machining process.

84
Fig 5.8 Adaptive control

AC systems for machine tools can be classified into two types
(1) Adaptive control with optimization (ACO),
(2) Adaptive control with constraints (ACC),
ACO refers to systems in which a given performance index (usually an economic function) is optimized subject to process and
system constraints.
With ACC, the machining variables are maximized within the region bounded by theprocess and system constraints, such as
maximum force or power. ACC systems do not utilize a performance index and are based on maximizing a machining variable (e.g.,
feed rate) subject to process and machine constraints (e.g., allowable cutting force on the tool, or maximum power of the machine).
5.6.4 Adaptive Control with Optimization

The block diagram of the Bendix system is shown. The system consists of a milling machine, NC controller, sensors unit
and adaptive controller. The sensors measure the cutting torque, tool temperature, and machine vibration. These measurements are
used by the adaptive controller to obtain the optimal feed rate and spindle speed values.
The adaptive controller contains a data reduction subsystem (DRS) fed by the sensor measurements as well as by the calculated feed
rate and spindle speed and a set of constraints. The DRS produces two signals: a metal removal rate (MMR) and a tool wear rate
(TWR).

85
Fig 5.9 Adaptive Control with Optimization

The user needs to perform off-line experiments to determine the values of these constants for every combination of tool
and work piece material. The time and effort needed for these experiments may override the economic benefits of the ACO system.
5.6.5 Adaptive Control with Constraints

The objective of ACC type of system is to increase the MRR (Metal Removal Rate) during rough cutting operations. This
is achieved by maximizing one or more machining variables within a prescribed region bounded by process and system constraints.
One example, is to maximize the machining feed rate while maintaining a constant load on the cutter, despite variations in width
and depth of cut.
Fig 5.10 Adaptive control with constraints

86
With the ACC system, the maximum allowable load (e.g., cutting force) on the cutter is programmed. As a result, when the
width or depth of cut are small the feed rate is high; when either the width or depth of cut (or both) are increased, the feed rate is
automatically reduced, and consequently the allowable load on the cutter is not exceeded. The result is, the average feed with ACC
is much larger than a CNC system.
The ACC system guarantees maximum productivity while minimizing the probability of cutting tool breakage. The most
commonly used constraints in ACC systems are the cutting force, the machining power, and the cutting torque .
5.7 A Typical CNC system

A typical CNC system for a three axis machine tool with adaptive control is shown in the diagram. It includes
1. The machine tool with DC servo motors as feed drives and resolvers as feedback devices. The transducer is added for adaptive
control.
Fig 5.11 Block diagram of a typical CNC system
2. The computer can control the machine drives through the auxiliary controller .It contains a TBG(Time Base Generator)and
analog to digital converters. The TBG includes the main clock of the system, 2.5 KHz pulse generator. The three functions
performed by the TBG are the direct feeding of the control loops, producing interrupt pulses and generating reference signals for
the stators of the resolvers.
3. There is a computer for storing the data and performing the N/C and A/C programs. The interrupt system of the computer takes
care on the running of both programs.
4. Tape reader reads the two programs and the N/C data.

87
The CNC system can be operated in both closed loop and open loop modes. The position control and velocity control are carried
out in the closed loop mode. In open loop mode the axis control in N/C system is done using the stepper motors.
5.8 Comparison of NC and CNC systems.

A. Numeric Control System
1. Numerical control (NC) is a form of flexible (programmable) automation in which the process is controlled by numbers,
letters, and symbols.
2. In a numerical control machine, the program is fed to the machine through magnetic tapes or other such media.
3. The original NC machines are essentially basic machine tools which were modified to have motors for movement along the
axes.
4. In a NC machine, for a variation in the output there is a change made in the program in the tape and then fed to the
machine again
B. Computer Numeric Control
1. In a computer numerical controlled machine, the machines are interfaced with computers.
2. The CNC uses a dedicated microprocessor to perform the MCU function. This makes them more versatile, suppose a change
in dimension of a part is required in a CNC machine, just change a variable in the computer program.
3. Subroutine macros can be stored in memory and called by the part-program to execute frequently-used cutting sequence.
4. Metric conversions, sophisticated interpolation functions (such as cubic interpolation) can be easily accomplished in CNC.
a. Absolute or incremental positioning (the coordinate systems used in locating the tool relative to the work piece) as
well as PTP or contouring mode can be selected.
b. The part-program can be edited (correction or optimization of tool path, speeds, and feeds) at the machine site.
c. Tool and fixture offsets can be computed and stored.
5. Tool path can be verified using graphic display
6. Diagnostics are available to assist maintenance and repair.
Model Questions
PART – A
1. Define CNC.
2. Mention the different units of numerical control system.
3. State the disadvantages of numerical control system.
4. Name the different types of driving devices.
5. Mention the different units in hydraulic system.
6. What is stepper motor?
7. Mention the names of programming systems.
8. State the types of data processing techniques.
9. List the different elements of post processor.
10. What is APT language?
11. Mention the types of AC system.

88
12. What are the advantages of CNC system?
13. What are the types of numerical control system?
PART – B
1. Draw the block diagram of basic concepts of numerical control system.
2. Explain DPU in NC system.
3. Explain CLU in NC system.
4. Mention the advantages and applications of NC system.
5. Draw the structure of hydraulic system.
6. What are the different types of stepper motor? Mention its applications.
7. Explain computer programming.
8. Draw the structure of post processor.
9. Draw the block diagram of SCO.
10. Compare NC and CNC.
11. Draw the block diagram of ACC.
12. Draw the block diagram of CNC.
PART – C
1. Explain the basic concepts of numerical control.
2. Draw and explain the block diagram of NC system in detail.
3. With diagrams explain hydraulic system.
4. With necessary diagrams explain the principle of operation of stepper motor.
5. Explain the steps for part programming.
6. Explain manual programming.
7. With diagram explain post processor system.
8. Briefly explain APT language.
9. Briefly explain the characteristics of numerical control system.
10. With block diagram explain CNC typical system.
11. With relevant diagram explain CNC programming.
12. With block diagram explain ACO.
13. With block diagram explain ACC.
14. With block diagram explain direct numerical control.

Industrial Power Electronics PDF

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Industrial Power Electronics PDF

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Industrial Power Electronics PDF

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

1

STATE PROJECT COORDINATION UNIT

Diploma in Instrumentation and Control Engineering

Convener for ICE Discipline:

Team Members for Industrial Instrumentation:

Mr.K. Annamalai M.E.,

Mrs.N.Noor Aisha Nasreen M.E.,

INDUSTRIAL POWER ELECTRONICS

34273 - INDUSTRIAL POWER ELECTRONICS

UNIT NAME OF THE TOPIC Page No.

CONVERTERS (Qualitative treatment only)

NUMERICALLY CONTROLLED SYSTEMS

INDUSTRIAL POWER ELECTRONICS

INDUSTRIAL POWER ELECTRONICS

1.2 Thyristor and Family

1.3 Silicon Controlled Rectifiers ( SCR)

INDUSTRIAL POWER ELECTRONICS

1.3.1 Basic Structure and Operation

INDUSTRIAL POWER ELECTRONICS

INDUSTRIAL POWER ELECTRONICS

INDUSTRIAL POWER ELECTRONICS

1.4.1 Basic Structure and Operation

INDUSTRIAL POWER ELECTRONICS

1.5 The Power MOSFET

INDUSTRIAL POWER ELECTRONICS

1.9 (a) n-channel enhancement-mode; 1.9 (b) p-channel enhancement-mode;

1.9 c)n-channel depletion-mode; 1.9 d) p-channel depletion-mode.

1.5.1 MOSFET Structure

INDUSTRIAL POWER ELECTRONICS

Fig 1.10 a Fig 1.10 b

INDUSTRIAL POWER ELECTRONICS

INDUSTRIAL POWER ELECTRONICS

INDUSTRIAL POWER ELECTRONICS

1.6.2 GTO Thyristor Models

1.6.3 V-I Characteristics

INDUSTRIAL POWER ELECTRONICS

Gate Turn-Off Thyristor Applications

1.7 TRIGGERING SCR

(a) Forward Voltage Triggering:-

(b) Thermal (or) Temperature Triggering:-

INDUSTRIAL POWER ELECTRONICS

(d) dv/dt Triggering:-

INDUSTRIAL POWER ELECTRONICS

Advantages of pulse train triggering:

1.8 Pulse Transformer

Windings and turns ratio

INDUSTRIAL POWER ELECTRONICS

Typical configurations of low-power pulse transformers shown in fig 1.22

1.9 Opto Isolator

INDUSTRIAL POWER ELECTRONICS

Opto coupler Types

Opto coupler Applications

INDUSTRIAL POWER ELECTRONICS

Triac Opto coupler Application

1.10 Resistance firing circuit and waveform

INDUSTRIAL POWER ELECTRONICS

Case 2: Vgp> Vgt

1.11 Resistance Capacitance Triggering

INDUSTRIAL POWER ELECTRONICS