Electrical Circuits & Machines Theory Semester Polytechnic

GOVERNMENT OF TAMILNADU
DIRECTORATE OF TECHNICAL EDUCATION

CHENNAI – 600 025
STATE PROJECT COORDINATION UNIT
Diploma in Instrumentation and Control Engineering

Course Code: 1042
M – Scheme
e-TEXTBOOK
on
ELECTRICAL CIRCUITS AND MACHINES
for
III Semester DICE
Convener for ICE Discipline:
Dr.S.Rajakumari,
Head of Department/ECE,
Dr.Dharmambal Govt. Polytechnic College for Women,
Tharamani, Chennai - 600 113
Team Members for Industrial Instrumentation:
Mr.N. MOHANKUMAR M.E.,

Lecturer ,
Instrumentation and Control Engineering,
177, Government Polytechnic College for Women,
Madurai – 625 011
Mrs.O.KALEESWARI M.E.,
Lecturer (Sr.Gr.),
178, Bharathiyar Centenuary Memorial Women’s Polytechnic
College, Ettayapuram.
Mr. S. MURALI RAJAN M.E.,

Lecturer,
306, Sri Ram Polytechnic College,
Chennai – 602 024
Validated By
Dr. N.SHANMUGAVADIVOO M.E, Ph.D,

Assistant Professor,
Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering,
Thiagarajar College of Engineering, Madurai.
1
M-SCHEME
(Implements from the Academic year 2015-2016 onwards)
Course Name :DIPLOMA IN INSTRUMENTATION AND CONTROL ENGINEERING

Course Code : 1042
Semester : III
Subject Code : 34232
Subject : ELECTRICAL CIRCUITS AND MACHINES
Teaching and Scheme of Examinations: No. of Weeks per Semester: 15
Subject Code &

Instruction Examination
Name
Hours/ Hours/ Marks Duration
Week Semester
Electrical in Hours
Continuous End
Circuits and Total
Assessment Semester
Machines 6 90 3
Examination
25 75 100
Topics and Allocation of Hours:

Unit No Topics Hours
I DC circuits and DC Networks Theorems 16
II AC circuits 16
III Resonance and Three phase AC circuits 16
IV DC Machines and AC Machines 16
V Transformers 16
Test & Revision 10
Total 90
RATIONALE:
The fundamental knowledge about Electrical circuits both AC and DC is essential for
diploma holders. The working principles of DC machines, AC machines and transformers are
prerequisite for technicians in their workplace. This subject helps in this way.
OBJECTIVES:
 Define voltage, current, resistance, resistivity, power, energy and their units.
 State and explain ohm's law and Kirchoff‟s law and solve simple problems
 Derive equivalent resistance of series and parallel circuits
 Solve problems in mesh current and nodal voltage method
 State and explain super position theorem, Thevenin‟s theorem, Norton‟s theorem
 and maximum power transfer theorem and solve problems in theorems
 Explain 3ϕ power measurement by two watt meter method
 Explain constructional details of dc machines
 Explain the construction, working and starting methods of 1 &3 induction motors
 Explain the principle and working of different types of induction motor
 Explain the principle and working of transformer
2
DETAILED SYLLABUS
Unit Name of the Topic Hours
DC Circuits and DC Network Theorems
Concept of electrical quantities – Voltage – current – resistance –
I power – energy – ohm‟s law – Kirchhoff‟s laws- 16
Resistances in series –Resistances in parallel – series parallel circuits-
Thevenin‟s, Norton‟s, Super position and maximum power transfer
theorems – Statement and explanations – Simple problems.
AC Circuits
AC fundamentals – AC waveform – sinusoidal and non-sinusoidal
– period – frequency – cycle – amplitude – phase – peak value – average value –
RMS value (effective value) – form factor – crest factor
II AC Through pure resistor, inductor and Capacitor – Concept of 16

impedance – RL, RC and RLC series circuits vector diagram.
– derivation – simple problems.
Power in AC circuits – power factor–power triangle- simple problems.
Introduction of Harmonics -Effects of Harmonics
Resonance and 3  AC circuits

Resonance – condition for resonance – series and parallel
resonance – resonance curve – effect of resistance on resonance
curve – selectivity – Q factor and bandwidth – applications of
III 16
resonance – simple problems in resonance.
Concept of 3 supply – line and phase voltage and current in star
and delta connected circuits – three phase power – Measurement
of three phase power by two watt meter method – simple
problems – advantages of three phase over single phase system.
D.C Machines and A.C Machines
DC machines – Types – constructional details of DC machines –
DC generators – principle – types – emf equation –
characteristics of shunt, series and compound generators
DC motor – types – motor action – back emf – torque speed
characteristics – starting of motors using 3 and 4 point starters –
IV speed control of DC motor-applications. 16
AC machines – 3 alternator – construction and working – relation
between speed and frequency. 3 Induction motor – construction
– types – principle of operation – methods of starting of 3
induction motor – slip. Single phase induction motor – principle of
operation – capacitor start - motors – Applications – principle of
operation -Stepper motor .
Transformers
Transformer – Ideal transformer – principle of working –constructional details –
emf equation – turns ratio – core loss and copper loss – efficiency – regulation –
V 16
OC and SC tests problems.
Transformer on No load – Transformer on load – condition of maximum
efficiency – All-day efficiency(simple problems).
Auto transformer – construction and working – applications.
Revision and Test 10
3
Text books:
1. Theraja. B.L., “A text book of Electrical Technology, Vol. I & II”, S.Chand & Co., Year
2. Nagoor Gani, “Circuit Theory”, RBA Publications.
Reference books:
1. Arumugam & Prem kumar, “Circuit Theory”, Khanna Publishers, Year
2. Louis M.M., “Elements of Electrical Engineering”, Khanna Publishers, Year
3. Gupta M.L. ,S.K.Kataria & Sons, “Elementary of Electrical Engineering”, Year
4
UNIT – 1 - DC CIRCUITS AND DC NETWORK THEOREMS
1.1 CONCEPT OF ELECTRICAL QUANTITIES
Electrical Energy is measured by quantities like electric charge, current and potential difference
(voltage).
Charge :
Electric charge is the physical property of matter that causes it to experience a force when close to
the other electrically charged matter. There are two types of charges Positive and Negative. Like charges
repel and unlike charges attract.
In an Atom, Electron carries negative charge. The Proton carries positive charge. Since, the
number of protons is equal to the number of electrons; the charges are equal and opposite. Hence, atom is
neutral and carries no charge.
An electric charge occurs when the number of protons differs from the number of electrons. i.e.
when there is an excess (or) deficiency of electrons, occur the atom is said to be charged.
The unit of charge is Coulomb.
The charge of an electron is;
e = -1.6 x 10-19 Coulomb
Voltage :
A force of attraction exists between positive and negative charges. Certain amount of energy is
required to overcome the force and to move the charge. All opposite charges posses potential energy
because of the separation between them. The difference in potential energy of the charge is called Potential
Difference. The Potential difference is called voltage. The unit of the potential difference is volt. It is
denoted by V.
If the work done in moving a charge of one coulomb between the two points is one Joule, the
potential difference between the two points is one volt.
V=
Where Q is the charge in Coulomb and W is the work done in Jules.
Current :
There are free electrons available in all semi conductive and conductive materials. These free
electrons move random in all directions. If voltage is applied across the material, all free electrons move in
one direction. This movement of electron constitutes current. It is denoted by I. The conventional direction
of current is opposite to the flow of negative charges(electrons).
5
Current is defined as the rate of flow of charge in unit time. If one coulomb of charge is transferred in one
second, the current is said to be one Ampere.
i= ; I=
dq is change in charge and dt is change in time.
Resistance :
Electrical Resistance is the property of material which opposes the flow of current through it.
(i.e.) Resistance property reduces the current flow through it.
The unit of Resistance is ohm, denoted by Ω. The resistance of the conductor depends upon its
material, length, cross sectional area and the temperature.
R=
𝝆 – Specific resistance of the material (ohm-meter)

l – Length of conductor (m)
A – Cross sectional area (m2)
Example Problem:
Find the resistance of a copper wire 0.5km long and 1cm dia. Given the specific resistance of
copper is 1.7 x 10-8 Ω-m.
1cm
0.5km
Solution :
r= = = 0.5 cm = 0.5 x 10-2m
Cross sectional area = πr2
= π x (0.5 x 10-2)2
= 7.853 x 10-5
R=
= 0.1082 Ω
6
Power and Energy :
Energy is the capacity of doing work. Energy is the work stored. It is denoted by E.
Power is the rate of change of Energy. It is denoted by P. If certain amount of energy is used over
a time then
Power =
= =
It can also be given as
P= = x
P=VxI
Energy is measured in Jules, time in seconds and power in watts.
By definition, one watt is the amount of power generated when one Jule of energy is consumed in
one second.
Example problem:
What is the power in watts if energy equal to 100 J is used in 1 sec?
Solution :
P= = = 100 watts
Circuit:
If there is a closed path exists for the flow of current, it is called circuit. The electric circuit
consists of three parts.
1. Energy source
2. Load
3. Connecting wire
Example :
Consider the simple circuit shown in fig.1.1

Lamp (Load)
Wire
+ -
7
(Source) Battery
fig.1.1
A Battery is connected to a lamp with wires. There is a closed path exists from positive terminal to
negative terminal of the battery through the lamp. The purpose of the circuit is to transfer energy from the
source to load.
Resistor :
When the current flows through a conducting material the free electrons collide with atoms. The
collisions cause the electrons to lose their energy. The loss of energy per unit charge is the drop in potential
across the material. The collisions restrict the movement of electrons is called resistance and the material is
called a Resistor. It is denoted by R. The unit of resistance is ohm. The symbol of Resistor is shown in
fig.1.2
fig.1.2
1.2 OHM’S LAW

The law connecting voltage, current and resistance was established by G.S. Ohm, is known as
ohm‟s law.
Statement :
Temperature remaining constant, the potential difference across the conductor is proportional to
the current flowing through it.
V I
V = IR
Where, the constant proportionality R is the Resistance in ohms.
According to ohm‟s law, the current is directly proportional to voltage and inversely proportional
to Resistance.
I=
The fig. shows the relation between three parameters V, I and R.
I R
Power dissipated in the Resistor

P = V.I
= I2R
8
P = VI =I2R =
Energy dissipated in the resistor
E = Power x time
=Pxt
= I2R t
Example Problem :
A 10Ω resistor is connected across a 20V Battery. How much current flows through the resistor ?
V = IR
I= = = 2A.
Example Problem :
Current through a 5 Ω resistor is 2A. What is the power consumed by the resistor ?
I = 2A; R = 5 Ω
Power = I2R = 22x 5 =4 x 5 = 20 Watts
Inductor :
When the wire is twisted into a coil, it is called an Inductor. If current is made to pass through an
Inductor, electromagnetic field is formed. A change in the magnitude of current produces change in
magnetic field, which induces voltage across the coil according to Faraday‟s laws of electromagnetic
Induction.
Inductance is denoted by L. The unit of inductance is Henry.
Definition for Henry :

The Inductance is one Henry when current through the coil, changing at the rate of one Ampere
per second, induces one voltage across the coil.
The symbol of Inductance is shown in fig.1.3
fig.1.3
The current voltage relation is given by
V=L
V-Voltage across the coil

L – Inductance of the coil
9
rate of change of current with time
We can rewrite the equation as
di =
Integrating both sides, we get
 di =  vdt
i=  vdt
Where i is the current through the coil. The power absorbed by inductor is
P = V. I = L. .i
Energy accepted by Inductor is
P=
W = Pdt
=  L . i. .dt
= L  i di
Capacitor :
Two conducting surfaces separated by an insulating medium is called capacitor. The conducting
surfaces are called electrodes and the insulating medium is called dielectric.
A capacitor stores energy in the form of an electric field. The amount of charge per unit of voltage
that a capacitor can store is its capacitance, denoted by C. The unit of capacitance is Farad.
By definition, one farad is the amount of capacitance when one coulomb of charge is stored with
one volt across the plates.
The symbol of capacitance is shown in fig.1.4
fig.1.4
10
Capacitance C = =
Q-charge stored in a capacitor

V-Voltage across the capacitor
We know
i=
dq = idt
q =  idt
we can rewrite the equation
C= ; V=
V=  idt
From the above equation, current through the capacitor is
V=  idt
CV =  idt
Differentiating on both sides,
C =i
Power absorbed by the capacitor is given by
P = VI
P = V. C
Energy stored in the capacitor is
W =  Pdt
= V.C dt
= C  V.dv
W=
11
1.3 KIRCHHOFF’S LAWS
Kirchhoff stated two laws. One for currents meeting at any junction in the circuit and other for
voltage around closed loop.
Kirchhoff’s Voltage law :

Statement :
The algebraic sum of the voltages around any closed path in the circuit is equal to zero.
Potential rise = Potential drop

Consider the circuit shown in fig.1.5
+ - + - + -
fig.1.5
Current I leaves the positive terminal of the battery, and passes through resistors R1, R2 & R3 and enters
into the negative terminal. As the current passes in the circuit, the sum of the voltage drops around the loop
is equal to the supply voltage.
Let the voltage drop across R1, R2 & R3 as V1, V2 & V3 . Supply voltage is V.
V1 = IR1; V2 = IR2; V3 = IR3
V = V1 +V2 + V3
=IR1 + IR2 + IR3

= I (R1 + R2 + R3)
I =
Example Problem :
For the circuit shown in figure, Validate the Kirchhoff‟s voltage law.
fig.1.6
12
1Ω
1Ω
fig.1.6
V1 = IR1 = 1A x 1Ω = 1V
V2 = IR2 = 1A x 1 Ω = 1V
According to Kirchhoff‟s voltage law,
V1 + V2 = 1 + 1 = 2 V = V
Example Problem:
Find the current flowing through the given circuit fig.1.7
1V
1Ω
fig.1.7
According to ohm‟s law;

I= = = 1A
13
Example Problem:
Find the current in the circuit shown in fig.1.8. Determine the voltage drop across each Resistor.
4Ω
2Ω
4Ω
Fig 1.8
Let the voltage drop across the Resistors are V1, V2 & V3
By applying ohm‟s law, we can write V1 = 4I; V2 = 2I; V3 = 4I
By applying Kirchhoff‟s voltage law, we can write
V = V1 + V2 + V3
10 = 4I + 2I + 4I
10 = 10 I
I = = 1A
Voltage drop across each Resistor
V1 = 4I = 4V
V2 = 2I = 2V
V3 = 4I = 4V
Kirchhoff’s current law :

Statement :
Sum of the currents entering into any junction is equal to the sum of the currents leaving that
junction. For example consider the circuit shown in Fig 1.9.
Fig 1.9
14
I is the current entering into the junction. I1 and I2 are currents leaving that junction. According to
Kirchhoff‟s current law,
I = I1 + I2
In general Kirchhoff‟s current law states that the algebraic sum of currents entering into the
junction and currents leaving that junction is equal to zero as shown in Fig 1.10
I5
I4
I3
I1
I2
Fig 1.10
I1 - I2 – I3 + I4 + I5 = 0
I1 + I4 + I5 = I2 + I3
Example Problem:
Find the current I in the given circuit.
1Ω 1Ω
Fig 1.11
By applying ohm‟s law
I1 = = =1A
I2 = = = 1A
According to Kirchhoff‟s current law,

I = I1 + I2
= 1A + 1A
= 2A
15
Current division :
In Parallel circuit current divides and flows in all branches. The total current entering into the
circuit is divided into the branches according to the resistance values. The branch having higher resistance
allows lesser current, and the branch with lower resistance allows more current. Consider the circuit in
Fig.1.12.
Fig 1.12
According to Kirchhoff‟s Current Law,
I = I1 + I2
= +
= =
_________________
R= 1
R - Total Resistance
Total current
_________________
I= = 2
According to KVL, we can write
V = I1R1
substituting in Eq2
I = R1+ R2
I1 = ( .I
similarly, we can prove
I2 = ( .I
16
Example Problem:
Find the current I1 and I2 in the given circuit in Fig 1.13
4Ω
2Ω
Fig 1.13
I1 =( XI
= x 0.75 = 0.5A
I2 = XI
= x 0.75 = 0.25A
R1 < R2 hence I1 > I2
Kirchhoff‟s current law is verified as

I = I1 + I2
0.75 =0.5 + 0.25
1.4 RESISTANCE CONNECTED IN SERIES :
When the Resistors are connected together end to end so that the same current passes from one to
other, they are said to be connected in series. Consider the circuit shown in Fig 1.14
V1 V2 V3
Fig 1.14
17
According to Kirchhoff‟s voltage law, we can write
V = V1 + V2 + V3
V = IR1 + IR2 + IR3
V = I (R1 + R2 + R3)
R= = R1 + R2 + R3
R is the equivalent Resistance
Hence, the circuit can be redrawn as
Fig 1.15
1.5 RESISTANCE CONNECTED IN PARALLEL :
When the resistances are connected across one another, so that the same voltage is applied to each
resistance, then they are said to be in parallel. Consider the circuit shown in Fig 1.16
Fig 1.16
According to Kirchhoff‟s current law, we can write,
I = I1 + I2 + I3
= + +
=V[ + +
18
= = + +
R=
R is the Total equivalent Resistance
1.6 RESISTANCE CONNECTED IN SERIES & PARALLEL :
Example : Find the equivalent Resistance for the circuits shown in Fig.1.17
(i)
Fig.1.17
Solution :
R 2& R3 are in parallel hence it can be written as R2 R3 / R2 +R3
Fig.1.18
19
Example Problem:
Find the equivalent resistance between A & B in Fig.1.19
A
1Ω 1Ω
1Ω 1Ω
B
Fig.1.19
2Ω 2Ω
Fig.1.20
1Ω = = 1Ω)
Fig.1.21
20
Exercise Problem:
Find the current through the 10Ω Resistor and the power consumed by the 10Ω Resistor in Fig.1.22.
10Ω
5Ω 20Ω
30Ω
Fig.1.22
Example Problem:
Find the total Resistance between A & B in Fig.1.23.
1Ω 1Ω
1Ω
2Ω
1Ω
2Ω
Fig.1.23
We can redraw the circuit by
1Ω 1Ω
1Ω
1Ω 1Ω
Fig.1.24
21
2Ω
1Ω
2Ω
Fig.1.25
1Ω 1Ω
2Ω
Fig.1.26
Answer: Total Resistance between A & B is 2Ω
Example Problem:
Determine the total current in the given circuit in Fig.1.27.
8Ω
5Ω 4Ω
8Ω
Fig.1.27
Solution :
Resistances R2, R3 and R4 are in parallel Let the Equivalent resistance be R5
R5 = + +
R5 =
22
R5 =
R5 = = 0.5 Ω
R1 & R5 are in series
Hence total resistance = R1 + R5
= 5 + 0.5 = 5.5Ω
Total current I = V/R
=10/5.5
=1.8A
I = 1.8A
Example Problem:
Find the current IL through the 6Ω Resistor and calculate the power consumed by 6Ω Resistor in
Fig.1.28.
2Ω
4Ω 6Ω
Fig.1.28
R2 & R3 are in parallel
R2 ||l R3 = = = 2.4Ω
Total equivalent resistance Req = R1 + R2 || l R3
= 2 Ω + 2.4 Ω
= 4.4 Ω
Total current I = = = 2.27A
Current through 6Ω Resistor
IL = XI
= X 2.27
IL = 0.908A
23
Power consumed by 6Ω Resistor
P = I2 R
= (0.908) 2 x 6
P = 4.95W
Example Problem :
Find the current IL through the load Resistance RL in Fig.1.29.
1Ω 1Ω
1Ω 1Ω
Fig.1.29
To find the total equivalent resistance reduce the resistance from the load side towards the source.
R3 and RL are in series. Hence it is reduced as R3 + RL
1Ω
1Ω 2Ω
Fig.1.30
1 Ω & 2 Ω resistance are in parallel

1Ω
0.66 Ω
0.66
Fig.1.31
1Ω and 0.66Ω are in series
24
1.66Ω
Fig.1.32
Total Current I = = = 0.6 A
1Ω
0.6A
1Ω
1Ω
Fig.1.33
IL = = 0.2 A
Example Problem:
Find total current, resistance and voltage drop across each resistances in the following circuit.
10Ω 20Ω
30Ω
Fig.1.34
Total Resistance = + 10
Req = 22Ω
Total current I = = = 4.54A
Current through 20Ω Resistance
25
I1 = XI
= X 4.55 = 2.73A
current through 30Ω Resistance is
I2 = XI
= X 4.55 = 1.82A
Voltage drop across R1 = IR1
= 4.54 X 10
= 45.4V
Voltage drop across R2 = I1R2
= 2.73A X 20Ω
= 54.6 V
Voltage drop across R3 = I2R3
= 1.82A X 30Ω
= 54.6 V
Example Problem:
Three Resistors 2Ω, 4Ω, 10Ω are connected in parallel across 12V battery in Fig.1.35. Find the
current through each resistor. Also find the power dissipated in each resistor.
2Ω 4Ω 10Ω
Fig.1.35
Total Resistance
RT = = = 0.85 Ω
Total Current I = = = 14.12A
26
Current flowing through 2Ω Resistor
I1 = X 14.12A = 8.31A
Current flowing through 4 Resistor\
I2 = X 14.12A = 4.14A
Current flowing through 10 Resistor
I3 = X 14.12A = 1.657A
Power dissipated in R1
P1 = I12 R1
= (8.31)2 X 2 = 138.11W
P2 = I22 R2
= (4.14)2 X 4 = 68.56W
P3 = I32 R3
= (1.657)2 X 10Ω = 27.46W
Mesh current method :
Loop is a closed path. Mesh is defined as a loop which does not contain any other loops within it.
Mesh analysis is applied to the network which has one or many voltage sources and it does not have any
feedback.
Method:
Step1 : Confirm that circuit does not have any feed back
Step2 : Assign mesh currents.
Step3 : Write Kirchhoff‟s voltage law equation for each mesh.
Step4 : Solve the equation to find unknown.
Consider the circuit shown in figure 1.36
27
Fig.1.36
Step1: There is no feed back.
Step2: There are two mesh 12561 and 23452 in the network. Let us assign mesh currents I1 and I2 with
directions as indicated in the figure.
Step3: Considering the mesh 12561 alone we observe that current I1 is passing through R1 and I1- I2 is
passing through R2. By applying Kirchhoff‟s voltage law, we can write
V = I1 R1 + (I1 – I2 )R2
V = I1(R1 + R2) – I2 R2 ---------------------1
Similarly consider the mesh 23452, current I2 is passing through R3 and R4 and (I2 – I1) is passing through
R2. By applying Kirchhoff‟s voltage law, we can write,
R2(I2 - I1) + R3I2 + R4I2 = 0
I2(R2 + R3 + R4) – I1 R2 = 0 ---------------------2
By solving the above equations 1 & 2 we can find currents I1 & I2
Example Problem:
Find the current flowing through each resistor using mesh current method for the circuit shown in
figure 1.37
1Ω 1Ω
1V
1Ω 1Ω
Fig.1.37
28
The mesh equations are,
1V = 1.I1 + 1.(I1-I2)
O = 1.(I2-I1) + (1I2 + 1I2)
We can rearrange the above equations as
1 = 2I1 - I2
0 = - I1 + 3I2
The above equations can be written in Matrix form as follows .
V=IR
We can solve this matrix equation by applying Grammer‟s rule .
I1 =
= 3/5 = 0.6A
I2 =
= 1/5 = 0.2A
Current flowing through R1 = I1 =0.6A
Current flowing through R2 = |I1 - I2 |=0.4A
Find the current „I‟ using mesh current analysis for the given circuit
2Ω
2Ω
I
4Ω
Fig.1.38
29
The mesh equations are
In the mesh 1
10 – 2I1 – 4(I1 – I2) = 0
10 – 6I1 + 4I2 = 0
10 = 6I1 – 4I2 ________________ 1
In the mesh 2
-4(I2 – I1)-2I2 – 20= 0
-4I2 + 4I1 -2I2 -20 = 0
-20 = -4I1 + 6I2 ________________ 2
Equation 1 & 2 can be written in matrix form as follows.
I1 =
I1 = = -1A
I2 =
I2 = = = -4A
Hence
I = I1 – I2
=-1 –(-4) = -1 + 4 = 3A
30
Example Problem:
Find the load current and power delivered to the load using mesh current method for the circuit shown in
Fig.1.39
Fig.1.39
The mesh equations are,
In mesh 1
I20 -4I1 – 12(I1-I2) = 0
120=16 I1 – 12 I2 ---------------------1
In mesh 2
-12(I2- I1) - 6 I2 - 9(I2- I3) = 0
-12 I2 +12 I1-6 I2-9 I2+9 I3=0
0 = 12 I1-27 I2+9 I3 ------------------2
In mesh 3
-9(I3- I2 )-3 I3-15 I3 = 0
-9 I3+9 I2 -3 I3-15 I3 = 0
9 I2-27 I3 = 0 ----------------------------3
Equations 1,2 & 3 can be written in matrix form
I3 =
31
=
= 2A
power dissipated in the load
P = I2 RL
= 22 x 15
=60 watts
Mesh equations by Inspections method
The mesh equations can be written in matrix form by inspection without going through detailed
step.
consider the circuit shown in Fig.1.40
Fig.1.40
R11 – Self Resistances in mesh 1

R22 – Self Resistances in mesh 2
R12 – Mutual Resistance between mesh 1 & mesh 2
R21 – Mutual Resistances between mesh 2 & mesh 1
Hence,
Since, mesh currents I1 & I2 flows in opposite direction through R2, it is given –ve sign.
32
Example Problem:
Find the current I through 20 Ω resistance in the given circuit in Fig.1.41.
40Ω 60 Ω
20Ω
Fig.1.41
Mesh equations in the matrix form can be written by inspecting the circuit
I1= = 1.89A
I2= = -0.34A
Current through 20 resistor is
I = I1 – I2
= 1.89 + 0.34
= 2.23A
33
1.7-THEVENIN’S THEOREM
Statement :
Thevenin‟s theorem states that any circuit having a number of voltage sources, resistances can be
replaced by a simple equivalent circuit consisting of a single voltage source in series with resistance, where
the value of voltage source is equal to the open circuit voltage across the output terminals, and resistance is
equal to the resistance seen into the network across the output terminals, as shown in Fig.1.42.
Circuit having
Voltage Sources
and Resistances
Fig.1.42
Vth – Open circuit voltage across the output terminals
Rth – Total equivalent Resistance seen into the network.
Example:
Consider the given circuit shown in Fig.1.43
Fig.1.43
Let us find the current through RL.
By applying Thevenin‟s Theorem, the given circuit can be replaced by the Thevenin‟s equivalent circuit
shown in Fig.1.44
34
Fig.1.44
Current through load Resistance I =
Method :
Step 1: Find Thevenin‟s equivalent resistance Rth for the given circuit. To find Rth open the load resistance
and replace the voltage source by its internal resistance (or) replace by short if it‟s internal
resistance is zero. Circuit is redrawn as in Fig.1.45 to find Rth.
Fig.1.45
Rth = R1||lR2 + R3
= + R3
= R1 R2 + R3 (R1+R2)
R1 + R2
Rth =
Step 2: Find open circuit voltage Vth. To find Vth, open the load resistance and find the voltage across the
output terminals. Circuit is redrawn as follows in Fig.1.46.
35
Fig.1.46
Vth = .V
Step 3: Draw Thevenin‟s equivalent circuit and find current through load resistance.
Fig.1.47
Current flowing through load resistance
I=
Example Problem :
Find the current I through load resistance in Fig.1.48. using Thevenin‟s Theorem :
1Ω 1Ω
1Ω 1Ω
Fig.1.48
36
Step 1: To find Thevenin‟s Resistance Rth open the load resistance and Voltage source is replaced by short
and circuit is redrawn as follows in Fig.1.49.
1Ω 1Ω
1Ω
Fig.1.49
Rth = +1 = 1.5 Ω
Step 2: To find the open circuit voltage Vth , open the load resistance and find the voltage across the
terminals
1Ω 1Ω
1Ω
Fig.1.50
i1 = = 0.5 A
Vth = 0.5 x 1 Ω = 0.5V
Step 3: Thevenin‟s equivalent circuit is drawn as follows.
1.5Ω
1Ω
Fig.1.51
I= = =
I = 0.2A
37
Example Problem:
Find the current through 4 Ω resistor using Thevenin‟s theorem
2Ω 2Ω
4Ω
Fig.1.52
Step 1: To find Thevenin‟s Resistance Rth , open the load resistance & voltage source is replaced by short
and the circuit is redrawn as follows
2Ω 2Ω
1Ω
Fig.1.53
Step 2: To find the open circuit voltage vth open the load resistance and find the voltage across the
terminals AB circuit is redrawn as follows.
2Ω 2Ω
Fig.1.54
38
Applying Kirchoff‟s Voltage law,
We can write
10 – 2I – 2I – 20 = 0
- 4I = 10
I = -2.5A
„-‟ sign indicates the direction of current. Current flows in anticlockwise direction from 20v source towards
10v source.
2Ω 2Ω
Fig.1.55
Open circuit voltage vth between the terminals A & B is
Vth = 20V – 5V = 15V
Step 3: Thevenin‟s equivalent circuit is drawn in the following circuit.
1Ω
4Ω
Fig.1.56
I= = = 3A
39
Example Problem:
Find the current I flowing through the load resistance RL using Thevenin‟s theorem for the circuit shown in
Fig.1.57
1Ω 1Ω 1Ω
1Ω 1Ω 1Ω
Fig.1.57
Step 1: To find Thevenin‟s resistance Rth open the load resistance & voltage source is replaced by short
circuit and the circuit is redrawn as follows.
1Ω 1Ω 1Ω
1Ω
1Ω
Rth
Fig.1.58
40
1Ω 1Ω
0.5Ω 1Ω
Fig.1.59
1Ω
1.5Ω 1Ω
Fig.1.60
1Ω
0.6Ω
1.6Ω
Fig.1.61
41
Step 2: To find Vth open the load resistance and find the voltage across AB and the circuit is redrawn.
1Ω 1Ω
1Ω
1Ω
1Ω
Fig.1.62
I2 =------------------------- = 0.2 A
open circuit voltage across A,B

Vth = 0.2A x 1
= 0.2 V
Step 3: Thevenin‟s equivalent circuit is drawn to find current
A
1 .6Ω
1Ω
Fig.1.63
I= = = 0.0769 A
I = 0.076A
42
Example Problem:
Find the current using Thevenin‟s Theorem flowing through the load resistance 1Ω in the given circuit in
Fig.1.64
2Ω 4Ω
1Ω
6Ω 8Ω
10V
Fig.1.64
Step 1: To find Thevenin‟s resistance Rth open the load resistance & voltage source is replaced by its
internal resistance and the circuit is redrawn as follows.
2Ω
4Ω
6Ω 8Ω
Fig.1.65
43
2Ω 4Ω
4.76Ω
6Ω 8Ω
Fig.1.66
Rth = 4.76Ω
Step 2: To find Vth open the load resistance and find the voltage across AB and the circuit is redrawn
2Ω 4Ω
A
6Ω 8Ω
10V
2Ω 4Ω
6Ω 8Ω
10V
Fig.1.67
44
I1 = = 0.714A
I2 = = 1.66A
Potential at A = 1.66A x 4 = 6.64V
Potential at B = 0.714A x 8 = 5.712V
Potential difference between A & B is
=6.64 – 5.712 V
Vth = 0.93 V
Step 3: Thevenin‟s equivalent circuit is drawn to find current flowing throguh load resistance RL
4.76 Ω
1Ω
Fig.1.68
I= = = 0.162A
I = 0.162A
45
1.8 NORTON’S THEOREM
Statement :
Any circuit with voltage source, resistances can be replaced by a single current source in
parallel with single resistance, where the value of current source is equal to the current passing through the
short circuit output terminals and the value of resistance is equal to the resistance seen into the output
terminals, as shown in Fig.1.69.
Circuits having
voltage Sources & Isc Rth
Rth
Resistances
Fig.1.69
Isc – Short circuit current flowing through output terminals.
RNorton – Total equivalent resistance seen into the network
Example:
Fig.1.70
Let us find the current through RL. By applying NORTON‟S Theorem, the given circuit can be replaced by
the NORTON‟S equivalent circuit shown in Fig.1.71
Isc
Fig.1.71
46
Isc = I Norton + IL
IL = X Isc
Method :
Step 1: Find Norton‟s equivalent resistance RNorton for the given circuit. To find RNorton , open the load
resistance and replace the voltage source by its internal resistance (or) replace by short if it‟s internal
resistance is zero. Circuit is redrawn as follows to find RNorton.
Fig.1.72
RN = R1||lR2 +R3
= + R3
RN =
Step 2: Find short circuit current Isc. To find Isc, short the load resistance and find the current flowing
through the output terminals. Circuit is redrawn a follows.
Fig.1.73
Isc = I2 = xI
47
Step 3 : Draw the Norton‟s equivalent and find the current flowing through load resistance.
IN
Isc
Fig.1.74
Current flowing through load resistance
IL = x Isc
Example Problem :
Find the current flowing through load resistance in Fig.1.75 using Norton‟s theorem.
1Ω 1Ω
1Ω 1Ω
Fig.1.75
Step 1: To find Norton‟s resistance RN , open the load resistance & voltage source is replaced by short and
circuit is redrawn as follows.
1Ω 1Ω
1Ω
Fig.1.76
RN = 1.5 Ω
48
Step 2: To find the short circuit current Isc short the load resistance and find the current flowing through
the output terminals.
1Ω 1Ω
1Ω
Fig.1.77
Isc =
Isc = 1/3 = 0.33A
Step 3: Norton‟s equivalent circuit is drawn to find the load current.
0.33A
Ω 1Ω
1.5 Ω
Isc
Fig.1.78
IL = x 0.33
IL = 0.2A
49
Example Problem :
Find the current I flowing through load resistance using Norton‟s theorem
40 Ω 60 Ω
20 Ω
Fig.1.79
Step 1: To find Norton‟s resistance RN open the load resistance & voltage source is replaced by short and
circuit is redrawn as follows in Fig1.80.
40 Ω 60 Ω
Fig.1.80
RN = = 24 Ω
Step 2: To find the short circuit current Isc, short the load resistance and find the current flows through the
output terminals.
40 Ω 60 Ω
Fig.1.81
50
=
I1 = = = 3A
I2 = = = -1.083A
Ish = I1- I2= 3-(-1.083) = 4.083A
Step 3: Norton‟s equivalent circuit is drawn to find the load current
24 Ω 20Ω
4.083A
Fig.1.82
IL = . Ish
= X 4.083
IL = 2.22A
Example Problem:
Find the current I flowing through the load resistance RL using Norton‟s theorem for the circuit shown in
Fig.1.83
1Ω 1Ω 1Ω
1V 1Ω 1Ω 1Ω
Fig.1.83
51
Step 1: To find Norton‟s resistance RN, open the load resistance & voltage source is preplaced by short
and circuit is redrawn as follows in Fig.1.84.
1Ω 1Ω 1Ω
1Ω 1Ω RN
Fig.1.84
1Ω 1Ω
0.5 Ω 1Ω
Fig.1.85
1Ω
1.6 Ω
0.6 Ω RN
Fig.1.86
52
Step 2: To find the short circuit current Isc, short the load resistance and find the current flows through the
output terminals.
1Ω 1Ω 1Ω
1Ω
1Ω
Fig.1.87
I3 =
Isc = I3 = = 0.11A
Step 3: Norton‟s equivalent circuit is drawn to find the load current
1.6 Ω 1Ω
0.11A
Ω
Fig.1.88
53
IL = X Isc
= X 0.11
= 0.07 A
1.9 SUPER POSITION THEOREM
Statement
Any circuit containing two (or) more sources, the current in any resistor is equal to the
algebraic sum of the separate currents in the resistor when each source acts separately. While one source is
applied, the other voltage and current sources are replaced by short circuit and open circuit across their
terminals.
This theorem is valid only for linear circuit.
Example :
Fig.1.89
Let us find the current through RL. By applying super position theorem, the current IL flowing through load
resistance can be found as given below.
+
Ω
Fig.1.90 Fig.1.91
IL = I1 ± I2
54
When V1 & V2 is in such a way that I1 and I2 flows in the same direction, they are added together,
otherwise the difference between I1 & I2 is the resultant current.
Method :
Step 1: To find the current I1 through the load resistance RL, due to the source V1, the other source V2 is
replaced by short (internal resistance) and circuit is redrawn as follows.
Fig.1.92
IT =
IT =
I1 = X IT
Step 2: To find the current I2 through the load resistance RL, due to the source V2, the other source V1 is
replaced by short and circuit is redrawn as follows.
Fig.1.93
IT =
I2 = X IT
55
Step 3: The algebraic sum (or) difference of I1 & I2 is the load current IL based on the direction of I1 & I2.
If I1 & I2 flows in same direction.
IL = I1 + I2
other wise IL = I1 - I2
Example problem :
Find the current flowing through load resistance using super position theorem.
1Ω 1Ω
1Ω
Fig.1.94
Step 1: To find the current I1 through the load resistance, due to 1V source, 2V source is replaced by short
and the circuit is redrawn as follows.
1Ω 1Ω
1Ω
Fig.1.95
Req =1 + = 1.5 Ω ; IT = = 0.66A
I1 = X 0.66 = 0.33A
Step 2: To find the current I2 through load resistance, due to 2V source, 1V source is replaced by short and
the circuit is redrawn as follows.
1Ω 1Ω
1Ω
Fig.1.96
56
Req =1 + = 1.5 Ω ; IT = = 1.33A
I2 = X 1.33 = 0.665A
Step 3: Since, I1 and I2 flows in the same direction,
IL = I1 + I2
= 0.33 + 0.665 = 0.995A
IL = 0.995A
Example Problem:
Find the current flowing through load resistance using super position theorem.
10 Ω 20 Ω
5Ω
Fig.1.97
Step 1:
10 Ω 20 Ω
5Ω
Fig.1.98
Req =10 + ; IT = = 1.428A
Req = 14 Ω
I1 = X 1.428 = 1.142A I1 = 1.142A
57
Step 2:
10 Ω 20 Ω
5Ω
Fig.1.99
Req =20 + = 23.3Ω ; IT = = 0.644A
I2 = X 0.644 = 0.429A
I2 = 0.429A
Step 3: Since the current I1 & I2 flows in the opposite direction,

IL = I1 – I2
= 1.142 – 0.429 = 0.713 A
IL = 0.713A
Example Problem:
Find the current flowing through 4Ω resistor using super position theorem
Fig.1.100
58
Step 1: considering 12V source, while other source is shorted
Fig.1.101
IT = 2.75A
I1 =
I1 = 1.618A
Step 2: considering 24V source, while other source is shorted.
Fig.1.102
IT = 2.88A
I2 =
I2 = 0.514A
Step 3 : Since I1 & I2 flows in the same direction through 4 resistor.
IL = I1 + I2
= 1.618IL+= 0.514
2.132AA
59
1.10 MAXIMUM POWER TRANSFER THEOREM
In any electric circuit, the electrical energy from the supply is delivered to the load where it is
converted into a useful work. Practically, the entire supplied power will not present at load due to the
heating effect and other constraints in the network. Therefore, there exist a certain difference between
drawing and delivering powers.
The load size always affects the amount of power transferred from the supply source, i.e., any
change in the load resistance results to change in power transfer to the load. Thus, the maximum power
transfer theorem ensures the condition to transfer the maximum power to the load.
Maximum Power Transfer Theorem Statement
The maximum power transfer theorem states that in a linear, bilateral DC network, maximum
power is delivered to the load when the load resistance is equal to the internal resistance of a source.
If it is an independent voltage source, then its series resistance (internal resistance Rs) or if it is
independent current source, then its parallel resistance (internal resistance Rs) must be equal to the load
resistance RL to deliver maximum power to the load.
Fig.1.103
60
Proof of Maximum Power Transfer Theorem
The maximum power transfer theorem ensures the value of the load resistance, at which the
maximum power is transferred to the load.
Consider the below DC two terminal network (left side circuit), to which the condition for
maximum power is determined, by obtaining the expression of power absorbed by load with use of mesh
or nodal current methods and then deriving the resulting expression with respect to load resistance RL.
But this is quite a complex procedure. But in previous articles we have seen that the complex part of the
network can be replaced with the Thevenin‟s equivalent as shown below.
Fig.1.104
The original two terminal circuit is replaced with the Thevenin‟s equivalent circuit across the
variable load resistance. The current through the load for any value of load resistance is
…………….(1)
Form the above expression the power delivered depends on the values of RTH and RL. However the
Thevenin‟s equivalent is constant, the power delivered from this equivalent source to the load entirely
depends on the load resistance RL. To find the exact value of RL, we apply differentiation to PL with
respect to RL and equating it to zero as
61
Therefore, this is the condition of matching the load where the maximum power transfer occurs
when the load resistance is equal to the Thevenin‟s resistance of the circuit. By substituting R th = RL in
equation 1 we get
The maximum power delivered to the load is,
Total power transferred from source is
PT = IL2 (RTH + RL)
= 2 IL2 RL …………….(2)
Hence , the maximum power transfer theorem expresses the state at which maximum power is
delivered to the load , that is , when the load resistance is equal to the Thevenin‟s equivalent resistance of
the circuit. Fig.1.105 shows a curve of power delivered to the load with respect to the load resistance.
Note that the power delivered is zero when the load resistance is zero as there is no voltage drop across the
load during this condition. Also, the power will be maximum, when the load resistance is equal to the
internal resistance of the circuit (or Thevenin‟s equivalent resistance). Again, the power is zero as the load
resistance reaches to infinity as there is no current flow through the load.
62
Fig.1.105
Power Transfer Efficiency
We must remember that this theorem results maximum power transfer but not a maximum
efficiency. If the load resistance is smaller than source resistance, power dissipated at the load is reduced
while most of the power is dissipated at the source then the efficiency becomes lower.
Consider the total power delivered from source equation (equation 2), in which the power is
dissipated in the Thevenin‟s equivalent resistance RTH by the voltage source VTH.
Therefore, the efficiency under the condition of maximum power transfer is
Efficiency = Output / Input × 100
= IL2 RL / 2 IL2 RL × 100
= 50 %
Hence, at the condition of maximum power transfer, the efficiency is 50%, that means a half percentage of
generated power is delivered to the load and at other conditions small percentage of power is delivered to
the load , as indicated in efficiency verses maximum power transfer curves below.
Fig. 1.106
63
For some applications, it is desirable to transfer maximum power to the load than achieving high
efficiency such as in amplifiers and communication circuits.
On the other hand, it is desirable to achieve higher efficiency than maximised power transfer in
case of power transmission systems where a large load resistance (much larger value than internal source
resistance) is placed across the load. Even though the efficiency is high the power delivered will be less in
those cases.
Maximum Power Transfer Theorem for AC Circuits
It can be stated as in an active network, the maximum power is transferred to the load when the
load impedance is equal to the complex conjugate of an equivalent impedance of a given network as
viewed from the load terminals.
Fig. 1.107
Consider the above Thevenin‟s equivalent circuit across the load terminals in which the current flowing
through the circuit is given as
I = VTH /( ZTH + ZL)
Where ZL = RL + jXL
ZTH = RTH + jXTH
Therefore, I = VTH / (RL + jXL + RTH + jXTH )
= VTH / ((RL+ RTH) + j(XL + XTH ))
The power delivered to the load,
PL = I2 RL
PL = V2TH × RL / ((RL+ RTH)2 + (XL + XTH )2) ……(1)
64
For maximum power the derivative of the above equation must be zero, after simplification we get
XL + XTH = 0
XL = – XTH
Putting the above relation in equation 1, we get
PL = V2TH × RL / ((RL+ RTH )2
Again for maximum power transfer, derivation of above equation must be equal to zero, after
simplification we get
RL+ RTH = 2 RL
RL = RTH
Hence, the maximum power will transferred to the load from source, if RL = RTH and XL = – XTH in
an AC circuit. This means that the load impedance should be equal to the complex conjugate of equivalent
impedance of the circuit,
ZL = ZTH
Where ZTH is the complex conjugate of the equivalent impedance of the circuit.
This maximum power transferred, Pmax = V2TH / 4 RTH or V2TH/ 4 RL
Applying Maximum Power Transfer Example to DC circuit
Consider the below circuit to which we determine the value of the load resistance that receives the
maximum power from the supply source and the maximum power under the maximum power transfer
condition.
65
Fig. 1.108
1. Disconnect the load resistance from the load terminals a and b. To represent the given circuit as
Thevenin‟s equivalent, we are to determine the Thevenin‟s voltage V TH and Thevenin‟s equivalent
resistance RTH.
Fig. 1.109
The Thevenin‟s voltage or voltage across the terminals ab is Vab = Va – Vb
Va = V × R2 / (R1 + R2)
= 30 × 20 /×(20 + 15)
= 17.14 V
Vb = V × R4/ (R3 + R4)
= 30 × 5 /(10 + 5)
= 10 V
Vab = 17.14 – 10
66
= 7.14 V
VTH = Vab = 7.14 Volts
2. Calculate the Thevenin‟s equivalent resistance RTH by replacing sources with their internal resistances
(here assume that voltage source has zero internal resistance so it becomes a short circuited).
Thevenin‟s equivalent resistance or resistance across the terminals ab is
RTH = Rab = [R1R2 / (R1 + R2)] + [R3R4 /(R3 + R4)]
= [(15 × 20) / (15 + 20)] + [(10 × 5) / (10+ 5)]
= 8.57 + 3.33
RTH = 11.90 Ohms
Fig. 1.110
The Thevenin‟s equivalent circuit with above calculated values by reconnecting the load resistance is
shown below.
67
Fig. 1.111
From the maximum power transfer theorem, RL value must equal to the RTH to deliver the maximum power
to the load.
Therefore, RL = RTH= 11.90 Ohms
And the maximum power transferred under this condition is,
Pmax = V2TH / 4 RTH
= (7.14)2 / (4 × 11.90)
= 50.97 / 47.6
= 1.07 Watts
68
REVIEW QUESTIONS
2 MARK QUESTIONS:
1. Define voltage
2. Define current
3. Define energy
4. Define power
5. What is the relation between energy and power?
6. What is resistance?
7. What is the power in watts if energy equal to 200 J is used in 1 sec?
8. What is a circuit?
9. State Ohm‟s Law
10. A 20Ω resistor is connected across a 20V Battery. How much current flows through the Resistor ?
11. Define inductance
12. Define capacitance
13. State Kirchoff‟s voltage law
14. State Kirchoff‟s current law
15. What is the equivalent resistance when two resistors R1 & R2 are connected in series?
16. What is the equivalent resistance when two resistors R1 & R2 are connected in parallel?
17. State Thevenin‟s Theorem
18. State Norton‟s Theorem
19. State Super position Therorem
20. State Maximum power Transfer Theroem
3 Mark Questions:
1. Current through a 10 Ω resistor is 2A. What is the power consumed by the resistor ?
2. Derive the energy stored in an inductor
3. Derive the energy stored in capacitor
4. Validate Kirchoff‟s voltage law for the given circuit
5. Find the equivalent resistance when R1=2Ω, R2=5Ω, R3=5Ω
6. Draw the Thevenin‟s Equivalent circuit

7. Draw the Norton‟s Equivalent circuit
69
10 Mark Questions:
1. Three resistors 2Ω, 4Ω and 10Ω are connected in parallel across 12V battery. Find the current
through each resistor. Also find the power dissipated in each resistor
2. A 10Ω resistor is connected in series with a parallel combination of three resistors 4Ω,10Ω and
20Ω respectively and is connected with a 50V DC power supply. Calculate the current through
each resistor and total power dissipated.
3. A Wheatstone bridge ABCD is arranged as follows: AB=1Ω. BC=2Ω, CD=3Ω and DA=4Ω. A
Galvanometer of resistance 10Ω is connected between B and D. A Battery of 4V is connected
between A and C. Calculate the current in the Galvanometer by using Kirchoff‟s law.
4. A Wheatstone bridge ABCD is arranged as follows: AB=1Ω. BC=2Ω, CD=3Ω and DA=4Ω. A
Galvanometer of resistance 10Ω is connected between B and D. A Battery of 4V is connected
between A and C. Calculate the current in the Galvanometer by using Thevenins Theroem
5. Find the current flowing through each resistor using mesh current method for the circuit shown in
the following figure.
2Ω 2Ω
Ω Ω
2V 2Ω
2Ω
Ω
Ω
6. Find the current flowing through each resistor using Thevenin‟s Theroem for the circuit shown in
figure 1.37
7. Find the current flowing through each resistor using Norton‟s Theroem for the circuit shown in
figure 1.37
70
UNIT – II- A C CIRCUITS
2.1 AC FUNDAMENTALS
2.1.1 AC WAVE FORMS
An alternating voltage and current wave forms are defined as voltage and current that
fluctuate with time periodically with change in polarity & direction.
SINUSOIDAL WAVE AND NON-SINUSOIDAL WAVE
Alternating voltages and currents are represented by sinusoidal wave. The sinusoidal wave is
generally referenced as sine wave.
Non-sinusoidal waveforms are waveforms that are not pure sine waves. Examples of non-
sinusoidal waveforms include square waves, rectangular waves, triangle waves, spiked waves, trapezoidal
waves and sawtooth waves.
Voltage (or)
Current
+
- Time t(sec)
T
Fig.2.1
 The sinusoidal waveform changes its magnitude and direction with time. If we start at time
t = 0, the wave goes to a maximum value and returns to zero, and then decreases to a negative
maximum value before returning to zero as shown in Fig.2.1.
 During the positive portion of voltage, the current flows in one direction and during the
negative portion of voltage, the current flows in opposite direction.
 The complete positive and negative portion of the sine wave is called one cycle of the sine
wave.
 The time taken for one wave to complete one full cycle is called period T
 The frequency of a wave is defined as the number of cycles that a sine wave completes in one
second. Frequency is measured in Hertz.
Frequency 1 Hz
1Sec
Fig.2.2
71
Frequency 3 Hz
1 sec
Fig.2.3
The relation between period and frequency is given by
f=
Example Problem:
Find the period and frequency of given sine wave.
t
20msec
10msec
V
V
Fig.2.4
The sine wave takes 10m seconds to complete one period in each cycle.
T = 10msec.
Frequency f = = = 100 Hz
2.1.2 ANGULAR RELATION OF A SINE WAVE
A sine wave can be expressed in terms of an angular measurement. This angular measurement
is expressed in degrees (or) radians.
A radian is defined as the angular distance measured along the circumference of a circle
which is equal to the radius of the circle. One radian is equal to 57.3o. In a 360 o revolution, there are 2
radians.
V 180o 270o 360o
90o
Fig.2.5
72
V π 3π/2 2π
π/2
ωt (rad)
Fig.2.6
2.2 PHASE OF A SINE WAVE
The phase of a sine wave is an angular measurement that specifies the position of the sine wave relative to
a reference. The wave shown in Fig. 2.7 is taken as the reference wave.
π 3π/2 2π
0
ωt
Fig.2.7
When the sine wave is shifted right (or) left with reference to the wave, as shown in Fig.2.8 (or) Fig.2.9,
there occurs a phase shift.
A B
90O
θ(degree)
Fig.2.8
sine wave is shifted right by 90O shown by dotted lines. B is lagging behind wave form A by 90O
B A
-90o θ (degree)
Fig.2.9
sine wave is shifted left by 90O shown in dotted lines. B is leading wave form A by 90O
73
Sine wave equation :
Let the sine wave of voltage is represented as shown in Fig.2.10
vm
V(t)
ωt
Fig.2.10
The amplitude of sine wave is V m represented in vertical axis. The angular measurement is
represented on horizontal axis. Sine wave of voltage is represented by the equation
V(t) = Vm sinωt
V(t) = Instantaneous value
Vm = Maximum value
ω= angular frequency
Example Problem:
If the peak value is 10V, find the instantaneous value at a point π/4 radians.
V(t) = Vm sinωt
= 10 sin (π/4)
= 10 x 0.707
= 7.07V
2.3 INSTANTANEOUS VALUE

Consider the sine wave shown in figure 2.11
12
3
V(t)
volts 1.5
10 12
-1.5 1 3
t(sec)
Fig.2.11
74
At any given time, it has some instantaneous value. The value varies continuously with respect to time.
The value is different at different instant of time.
2.4 PEAK VALUE
The peak value of the sine wave is the maximum value of the sine wave during positive (or) negative
half cycle. Since, the value of these two are equal in magnitude, a sine wave is characterized by a single
peak value.
V(t)
2V
-2V
Fig.2.12
The peak value of the sine wave shown in figure is 2V.
2.5 PEAK TO PEAK VALUE
The peak to peak value of the sine wave is the value from the positive to the negative peak as
shown in figure 2.13
V(t)
+2V
-2V
Fig.2.13
Here the peak to peak value is 4V
2.6 AVERAGE VALUE

The average value of a sine wave over one complete cycle is always zero. So, the average
value of a sine wave is defined over a half cycle and not a full cycle period.
75
The average value of a sine wave is the total area under the half cycle curve divided by the
distance of the curve. The average value of sine wave V(t) = Vm sin ωt is given as follows:
Vav =
= [ -Vm cos t]π

0
=
= 0.637Vm
The average value of sine wave is shown by the dotted line in figure 2.14
Vm
Vm
Vav 0.637 Vm
ωt
Fig.2.14
2.7 ROOT MEAN SQUARE (RMS) VALUE OF SINE WAVE(RMS
The root mean square value of a sine wave is a measure of the heating effect of the wave. When a
resistor is connected across DC voltage source as shown in figure 2.15, a certain amount of heat is
produced in the resistor in a given time.
Fig.2.15
A similar resistor is connected across a AC voltage source for the same time. The value of the AC
voltage is adjusted such that the same amount of heat is produced in the resistor in the case of DC source.
This value is called RMS value.
The RMS value is given by
T
Vrms =
o
76
T
= o
2π
=
o
= = 0.707Vm
2.8 FORM FACTOR
Form factor of a waveform is defined as the ratio of RMS value to the average value of the wave.
Form factor =
For the sinusoidal wave
Form factor = = 1.11
2.9 PEAK FACTOR (CREST FACTOR)
The peak factor of a wave form is defined as the ratio of the peak value to the RMS value of the
wave.
Peak factor =
Peak factor = 1.414
It is also called as crest factor.
2.10 RECTANGULAR AND POLAR FORMS OF COMPLEX NUMBER
There are two basic forms of complex numbers notation. They are polar and rectangular.
Rectangular form is where a complex number is denoted by its horizontal and vertical components. The
horizontal component is referred to as the real component and the vertical component is referred to as the
imaginary component.
Example Problem:
Let us represent the complex number p = x + iy in rectangular form as shown in figure 2.16.
Imaging axis
x P
x
Real axis
Fig.2.16
77
Polar form is where a complex number is denoted by the length and the angle of its vector. The
length of the vector is absolute value (or) modules of the complex number. The angle with x axis is called
the direction angle (or) argument of x + iy
Example Problem:
The complex number P is represented in polar form as shown in figure 2.17

Y
P
x
Fig.2.17
Complex number P is referred in polar form as r ∠ θ
Where r = distance between origin and point P. It is magnitude.
θ = angle between x axis and phasor.
Example Problem:
Convert 2+j8 into polar form.
Solution:
R=
= 8.2
θ =
= 76
Example Problem :
Convert given polar to Rectangular form: 5∠300
Solution:
r = 5; θ = 300
= 5 Cos 300
= 4.3301
Y = r sin θ
= 5 Sin 300 = 2.5
Answer = 4.33 + j 2.5
78
2.11 AC THROUGH PURE RESISTOR
Fig.2.18
When a sinusoidal voltage V(t) is applied to a resistor, sinusoidal current I(t) passes through it. The
voltage current relation in the case of resistor is linear.
As per ohm‟s law,
V(t) =i(t).R
we know, V(t) = Vm sinωt
I(t) = Im sinωt
If, we substitute these in the above equation, we get
Vm sinωt = Im R. sinωt
Vm = Im . R
If we draw the wave form for both voltage and current as shown in figure. These is no phase
difference between these two wave forms. Voltage and current is said to be in phase. Here the term
impedance is defined as the ratio of voltage to current function. Impedance consists of magnitude and
phase angle. Since, the phase difference is zero in the case of resistor, the phase angle is zero. The
impedance consists only of magnitude.
Z=R
Vm V(t)
Im
I(t)
ωt I(t) V(t)
Fig.2.19 Fig.2.20
Wave form diagram Phasor diagram
79
2.12 AC THROUGH PURE INDUCTOR
Fig.2.21
The voltage – current relation in the case of inductor is given by
V(t) = L
Let i(t) = Im sinωt

substituting this in the above equation we get,
V(t) = L
= LωIm cosωt
= ωLIm cosωt
Vm sinωt = ωLIm cosωt
Vm sinωt = ωLIm sin(ωt+90θ)
Vm = ωLIm = XLIM
Sinωt sin(ωt+90θ)
Inductive Reactance XL = ωL
If we draw the both voltage and current as shown in figure 2.22. We can observe the phase difference 90o
between them.
V(t)
Vm
I(t)
Im
2π
π/2 π ωt
Fig.2.22
80
When sinusoidal current passes through the pure inductor, the current lags behind the voltage by 90o as
shown in figure 2.22. Impedance is given by
Z= =
Where Vm = ωLIm
Z= XL = ωL
V(t)
-90O
I(t)
Fig.2.23
2.13 AC THROUGH PURE CAPACITOR
Fig.2.24
The voltage – current relationship in the case of pure capacitor is given by
V(t) =
Let i(t) = Im sinωt
substituting this in the above equation, we get
V(t) =
= Im [-cosωt]
81
V(t) = sin(ωt-90θ)
Vm =
Z= =
If we draw the waveform for voltage and current as shown in figure. There is a phase difference between
these two waveforms.
V(t)
I(t)
+90θ
0 π 2π V(t)
ωt
I(t)
(i) wave form diagram (ii) vector diagram
Fig.2.25 Fig.2.26
when AC passes through a pure capacitor, the current leads the voltage by 90θ.
The impedance Z = Xc =
Xc is also called as capacitive reactance.
Example Problem:
A sinusoidal voltage is applied to a capacitor as shown in figure 2.24. The frequency of sine wave is
1KHZ. Determine the capacitive reactance.
Xc = =
= 1.59 KΩ
2.14 CONCEPT OF IMPEDANCE
AC THROUGH RL CIRCUIT
Consider the RL circuit shown in figure 2.28
Fig.2.28
82
Applying Kirchoff‟s voltage law to the circuit shown in figure 2.28
We get
V(t) = Ri(t) + L
If we apply complex function V(t)= Vm (cosω t + j sinωt) = Vmejωt this circuit, the response may be
i(t) = imejωt
Vmejωt = R imejwt +
Vmejωt = R imejwt + LImjωejωt
Vm= (R+jωL)Im
Vm =
We know
I(t) = imejωt
=
. ejωt
Impedance is defined as the ratio of voltage to current function,
Z= =
Z = R + jωL
Complex impedance is the total opposition offered by the circuit elements to ac current and can be
displayed on the complex plane. The impedance is denoted by Z. Here resistance R is the real part of the
impedance and the reactance XL is the imaginary part of impedance. The resistance R is located on the real
axis. The inductive reactance XL is located on the positive imaginary axis. The resultant of R and X L is
called complex impedance.
+j
Z
jXL
R
Fig.2.29
83
The impedance diagram for RL circuit is shown in figure. The impedance
Z=
Q=
Impedance is the vector sum of the resistance and inductive reactance. The phasor diagram for
series RL circuit is shown in figure 2.30
V(t)
VL
I VR
Fig.2.30
V=
θ=
θ in the angle between Voltage and current.
2.15 AC THROUGH RC CIRCUIT

Consider the RC circuit shown in figure 2.31
Fig.2.31
V(t)=Vm e jwt
Applying Kirchoff‟s voltage law to the circuit is shown in figure 2.31
V(t) = R.i(t) + dt
84
If we apply complex function V(t) =V m ejωt to the circuit, the response may be i(t) = Im ejωt. Substituting
this in the above equation,
Vm ejωt = R.Im ejωt + m ejωt dt
= R.Im ejωt + (ejωt )
= R.Im ejωt - (ejωt )
= [R.Im - ](ejωt )
Vm = (R - ) Im
Z= = R = j/ωC
Z = R – j/ωC or Z = R + 1/jωC
The vector diagram is shown in figure 2.32.
- -j x c
Z j
j
X
c
Fig.2.32
Here impedance Z consists of resistance(R), which is real part and capacitive reactance X c = 1/jωc,
which is imaginary part of the impedance. The resistance R is located on the real axis, and the capacitive
reactance Xc is located on the J axis in impedance diagram.
Z= (or) Z =
Q=
Z is the sum of resistance and capacitive reactance. The angle between resistance and impedance is
the phase angle between applied voltage and current in the circuit.
The phasor diagram for RC series circuit is shown in figure 2.33 and 2.34.
VR VR
-90o
Vc Vc V
Fig.2.33 Fig.2.34
85
The resistor voltage is in phase with the current and the capacitor voltage lags behind the current by 90o.
From Kirchoff‟s voltage law, it can be written as
V=
The phase angle between the resistor voltage source voltage is
θ = tan-1 (Vc/VR)
2.16 AC THROUGH R-L-C SERIES CIRCUIT

Consider the R-L-C circuit shown in figure 2.35
R L C
V(t)
Fig.2.35
A series RLC Circuit is the series combination of Resistance, Inductance and Capacitance. If we
observe the Impedance diagrams of series RL and series RC Circuits as shown in Figure 2.36 and 2.37 the
Inductive reactance XL is displayed on the +j axis and the Capacitive reactance X C is displayed on the –j
axis. These reactances are 180 ̊ apart and tend to cancel each other.
+j R
+j
Z
jXL -jXC
-j
-j R
Fig.2.36 Fig.2.37
The magnitude and type of reactance in a series RLC circuit is the difference between the two
reactances. The Impedance for an RLC Series Circuit is given by
Z=
Phase angle of RLC Circuit θ=
R
Phasor diagram: VR
VL -VC V IR
θ
θ VC-VL
V
Fig.2.38 VR IR Fig.2.39
86
The equations and phasor diagram are shown :
VR = IR
VL = IXL
VC = IXC
By applying Kirchoff‟s law

V = VR+jVL-jVc
= IR+jIXL-jIXC
= I[R+j(XL-XC]
=IZ
Where Z =
θ=
R
2.17 POWER IN AC CIRCUIT
In a pure Resistive Circuit, all the power delivered by the source is dissipated in the form of heat
by the Resistance. In a pure Reactive Circuits energy delivered by the source is stored by the Inductor (or)
Capacitor in magnetic (or) electric field and returned to the source. So that no net energy is transferred.
When there is a Complex Impedance in a circuit, part of energy is alternately stored and returned by the
reactive part, and part of the power is dissipated by resistive part.
Instantaneous power is the power at any instant of time. Let us consider the voltage, current and
power wave forms shown in figure 2.40 and 2.41.
V(t I(t)
)
θ ωt
Fig.2.40
P(t)
+ + +
+
- - - -
ωt
Fig.2.41
87
The positive portion of the power cycle varies with the phase angle between the voltage and
current waveforms. If the circuit is pure resistive, the phase angle between voltage and current is zero then
there is no negative cycle in the power curve. Hence all the power delivered by source is dissipated by
Resistance.
When the phase angle between voltage and current increases the negative portion of power
cycles increase and the lesser power is dissipated. When phase angle becomes , the positive and
negative portions of the power cycle are equal. At this instant power dissipation is zero. Then the power
delivered to the load is returned to the source.
2.17.1 Average power:
To get average power, called as true or real power, we have to take the product of the effective
values of voltage and current multiplied by the cosine of the phase angle between the voltage and current.
Average power = Veff Ieff cosθ The Unit is Watts, W.
If we consider a pure resistor circuit, the phase angle between voltage and current is zero. Hence
the Average Power is P =IM2R / 2
If we consider a pure reactive circuit, the phase angle between voltage and current is 90 0.Hence
the Average power is zero. Pav = 0
If the circuit contains complex Impedance, the average power is the power dissipated in the
resistive part only.
2.17.2 Apparent Power:
If we consider a sinusoidal voltage applied to the circuit, the product of voltage and current is
called Apparent Power. The apparent power is expressed in volt ampere. (VA)
Apparent Power = Veff Ieff
2.17.3 Reactive Power:
The power stored by reactive component is called Reactive Power, in VAR.
Power Triangle:
The Power Triangle is Shown in Figure 2.42
88
Paverage
Preactive
Papparent
Fig.2.42
2.18 Power factor:
The power factor is useful in determining true power, transferred to the Load. It varies from
0 to 1. The highest value of power factor is 1. This indicates that the current to a load is in phase with
voltage across it. When the power factor is zero, the current to a load is out of phase with voltage across it.
Average Power = Apparent Power X Power Factor
Power Factor =
Power factor is defined as the cosine of the phase angle between voltage and current.
Power factor = Cos θ =
Example Problem:
A 10Ω Resistor is connected in series with an Inductor having XL = 5 Ω. Find the power factor
given data R = 10 Ω, XL = 5 Ω
Impedance = Z =
= = = 11.18 Ω
Power Factor =
= = 0.89
Example Problem:
A series circuit has R = 10 Ω, L = 50mH and C = 100µF and is supplied with 200V, 50Hz. Find
(a) the impedance (b) the current, (c) the power (d) the power factor.
89
XL = 2πfL = 15.7 ohms
Xc = = 31.8 Ω
Z = [R+j(XL-XC)]
= 10 – j16.1 = 18.95 ∠-580
(a) Impedance = 18.95ohms

(b) Current = I = = 10.55 Amp
(c) Power = I2R = 1113 watts

(d) Power Factor = Cos 580 = 0.53
Power factor = = = 0.53
Power = V.I Cos θ

= 200 X 10.55 X 0.53
2.2 INTRODUCTION TO HARMONICS
In an AC circuit, a resistance behaves in exactly the same way as it does in a DC circuit. That is,
the current flowing through the resistance is proportional to the voltage across it.
Fig.2.43
This is because a resistor is a linear device and if the voltage applied to it is a sine wave, the current
flowing through it is also a sine wave so the phase difference between the two sinusoids is zero.
Generally when dealing with alternating voltages and currents in electrical circuits it is assumed that they
are pure and sinusoidal in shape with only one frequency value, called the “fundamental frequency” being
present, but this is not always the case.
In an electrical or electronic device or circuit that has a voltage-current characteristic which is not
linear, that is, the current flowing through it is not proportional to the applied voltage. The alternating
waveforms associated with the device will be different to a greater or lesser extent to those of an ideal
90
sinusoidal waveform. These types of waveforms are commonly referred to as non-sinusoidal or complex
waveforms.
Complex waveforms are generated by common electrical devices such as iron-cored inductors,
switching transformers, electronic ballasts in fluorescent lights and other such heavily inductive loads as
well as the output voltage and current waveforms of AC alternators, generators and other such electrical
machines. The result is that the current waveform may not be sinusoidal even though the voltage waveform
is sinusoidal.
Also most electronic power supply switching circuits such as rectifiers, silicon controlled rectifier
(SCRs), power transistors, power converters and other such solid state switches which cut and chop the
sinusoidal waveform of power supplies to control motor power, or to convert the sinusoidal AC supply to
DC. Theses switching circuits tend to draw current only at the peak values of the AC supply and since the
switching current waveform is non-sinusoidal the resulting load current is said to contain Harmonics.
Non-sinusoidal complex waveforms are constructed by “adding” together a series of sine wave
frequencies known as “Harmonics”. Harmonics is the generalised term used to describe the distortion of a
sinusoidal waveform by waveforms of different frequencies.
Then whatever its shape, a complex waveform can be split up mathematically into its individual
components called the fundamental frequency and a number of “harmonic frequencies”.
Fundamental Frequency
A Fundamental Waveform (or first harmonic) is the sinusoidal waveform that has the supply frequency.
The fundamental is the lowest or base frequency, ƒ, on which the complex waveform is built and as such
the periodic time, Τ of the resulting complex waveform will be equal to the periodic time of the
fundamental frequency.
Let‟s consider the basic fundamental or 1st harmonic AC waveform as shown.
Fig.2.44
Where, Vmax is the peak value in volts and ƒ is the waveform‟s frequency in Hertz (Hz).
91
We can see that a sinusoidal waveform is an alternating voltage (or current), which varies as a sine
function of angle, 2πƒ. The waveform‟s frequency, ƒ, is determined by the number of cycles per second. In
United Kingdom this fundamental frequency is set at 50Hz while in the United States it is 60Hz.
Harmonics are voltages or currents that operate at a frequency that is an integer (whole-number) multiple
of the fundamental frequency. So given a 50Hz fundamental waveform, this means a 2nd harmonic
frequency would be 100Hz (2 x 50Hz), a 3rd harmonic would be 150Hz (3 x 50Hz), a 5th at 250Hz, a 7th
at 350Hz and so on. Likewise, given a 60Hz fundamental waveform, the 2nd, 3rd, 4th and 5th harmonic
frequencies would be at 120Hz, 180Hz, 240Hz and 300Hz respectively.
So in other words, we can say that “harmonics” are multiples of the fundamental frequency and can
therefore be expressed as: 2ƒ, 3ƒ, 4ƒ, etc. as shown.
Complex Waveforms Due To Harmonics
Fig.2.45
92
Note that the red waveforms, shown above, are the actual shapes of the waveforms as seen by a load due to
the harmonic content being added to the fundamental frequency.
The fundamental waveform can also be called a 1st harmonics waveform. Therefore, a second harmonic
has a frequency twice that of the fundamental, the third harmonic has a frequency three times the
fundamental and a fourth harmonic has one four times the fundamental as shown in the left hand side
column.
The right hand side column shows the complex wave shape generated as a result of the effect between the
addition of the fundamental waveform and the harmonic waveforms at different harmonic frequencies.
Note that the shape of the resulting complex waveform will depend not only on the number and amplitude
of the harmonic frequencies present, but also on the phase relationship between the fundamental or base
frequency and the individual harmonic frequencies.
We can see that a complex wave is made up of a fundamental waveform plus harmonics, each with its own
peak value and phase angle. For example, if the fundamental frequency is given as; E = Vmax(2πƒt), the
values of the harmonics will be given as:
For a second harmonic:
E2 = V2max(2×2πƒt) = V2max(4πƒt), = V2max(2ωt)

For a third harmonic:

For a fourth harmonic:

and so on.
Then the equation given for the value of a complex waveform will be:
Harmonics are generally classified by their name and frequency, for example, a 2 ndharmonic of the
fundamental frequency at 100 Hz, and also by their sequence. Harmonic sequence refers to the phasor
rotation of the harmonic voltages and currents with respect to the fundamental waveform in a balanced, 3-
phase 4-wire system.
A positive sequence harmonic ( 4th, 7th, 10th, …) would rotate in the same direction (forward) as the
fundamental frequency. Where as a negative sequence harmonic ( 2nd, 5th, 8th, …) rotates in the opposite
direction (reverse) of the fundamental frequency.
93
Generally, positive sequence harmonics are undesirable because they are responsible for overheating of
conductors, power lines and transformers due to the addition of the waveforms.
Negative sequence harmonics on the other hand circulate between the phases creating additional problems
with motors as the opposite phasor rotation weakens the rotating magnetic field require by motors, and
especially induction motors, causing them to produce less mechanical torque.
Another set of special harmonics called “triplens” (multiple of three) have a zero rotational
sequence. Triplens are multiples of the third harmonic ( 3rd, 6th, 9th, …), etc, hence their name, and are
therefore displaced by zero degrees. Zero sequence harmonics circulate between the phase and neutral or
ground.
Unlike the positive and negative sequence harmonic currents that cancel each other out, third order or
triplen harmonics do not cancel out. Instead add up arithmetically in the common neutral wire which is
subjected to currents from all three phases.
The result is that current amplitude in the neutral wire due to these triplen harmonics could be upto 3 times
the amplitude of the phase current at the fundamental frequency causing it to become less efficient and
overheat.
Then we can summarise the sequence effects as multiples of the fundamental frequency of 50Hz as:
Harmonic currents can produce a number of problems:
1. Equipment heating
2. Equipment malfunction
3. Equipment failure
4. Communications interference
5. Fuse and breaker mis-operation
6. Process problems
7. Conductor heating.
Types of equipment that generate harmonics:
Harmonic load currents are generated by all non-linear loads. These include:
For Single phase loads, e.g.
Switched mode power supplies (SMPS)
Electronic fluorescent lighting ballasts
Compact fluorescent lamps (CFL)
Small uninterruptible power supplies (UPS) units
For Three phase loads, e.g.
Variable speed drives
Large UPS units
94
REVIEW QUESTIONS – UNIT II
2 Mark Questions:
1. Define period of sine wave
2. Define frequency of sine wave
3. Find the frequency of sine wave When period is 1msec
4. What is phase of sine wave?
5. If the peak value is 20V, find the instantaneous value at a point π/4 radians.
6. Define form factor
7. Define peak factor
8. A sinusoidal voltage is applied to a capacitor. The frequency of sine wave is 2 KHZ. Determine
the capacitive reactance
9. What is average power?
10. What is apparent power?
3 Mark Questions:
1. Explain average value
2. Explain RMS value
3. What is impedance?
4. Draw the vector diagram for impedance of RL series circuit
5. Draw the phasor diagram for impedance of RC series circuit
10 Mark questions:
1. Explain with phasor diagram the concept of AC through pure resistor , Inductor and capacitor
2. Derive the expression for the energy stored in capacitor
3. With phasor diagram Explain in detail RL series circuit
4. With phasor diagram Explain in detail RC series circuit
5. With phasor diagram explain in detail RLC series circuit
95
UNIT III
RESONANCE AND 3Φ AC CIRCUITS
3.1 RESONANCE
An a.c. circuit is said to be in resonance when the circuit power factor is unity. i.e., At X L = XC
resonance occurs. In a resonant circuit resistors, inductors and capacitors are connected either in series or
parallel. This circuit acts as a pure resistive circuit.
The frequency at which resonance occurs is called the resonant frequency (fr).
3.2 Series Resonance Circuit

In a series RLC circuit there becomes a frequency point were the inductive reactance of the
inductor becomes equal in value to the capacitive reactance of the capacitor. In other words, XL = XC. The
point at which this occurs is called the Resonant Frequency point, ( ƒr ) of the circuit, and as we are
analysing a series RLC circuit this resonance frequency produces a Series Resonance.
Series Resonance circuits are one of the most important circuits used electrical and electronic
circuits. They can be found in various forms such as in AC mains filters, noise filters and also in radio and
television tuning circuits producing a very selective tuning circuit for the receiving of the different
frequency channels. Consider the simple series RLC circuit below.
Series RLC Circuit
Fig 3.1
First, let us define what we already know about series RLC circuits.
From the above equation for inductive reactance, if either the Frequency or the Inductance is
increased the overall inductive reactance value of the inductor would also increase. As the frequency
96
approaches infinity the inductive reactance would also increase towards infinity with the circuit element
acting like an open circuit.
However, as the frequency approaches zero or DC, the inductors reactance would decrease to zero,
causing the opposite effect acting like a short circuit. This means then that inductive reactance is
“Proportional” to frequency and is small at low frequencies and high at higher frequencies and this is
demonstrated in the following curve:
3.2.1 Series Resonance Frequency
Fig 3.2
where: ƒr is in Hertz, L is in Henries and C is in Farads.
Electrical resonance occurs in an AC circuit when the two reactances which are opposite and equal cancel
each other out as XL = XC and the point on the graph at which this happens were the two reactance curves
cross each other. In a series resonant circuit, the resonant frequency, ƒr point can be calculated as follows.
At resonance, the two reactances cancel each other out thereby making a series LC combination
act as a short circuit with the only opposition to current flow in a series resonance circuit being the
resistance, R. In complex form, the resonant frequency is the frequency at which the total impedance of a
series RLC circuit becomes purely “real”, that is no imaginary impedance‟s exist. This is because at
97
resonance they are cancelled out. So the total impedance of the series circuit becomes just the value of the
resistance and therefore: Z = R.
Then at resonance the impedance of the series circuit is at its minimum value and equal only to the
resistance, R of the circuit. The circuit impedance at resonance is called the “dynamic impedance” of the
circuit and depending upon the frequency, XC (typically at high frequencies) or XL (typically at low
frequencies) will dominate either side of resonance as shown below.
3.2.2 Impedance in a Series Resonance Circuit
Fig 3.3
Note that when the capacitive reactance dominates the circuit the impedance curve has a
hyperbolic shape to itself, but when the inductive reactance dominates the circuit the curve is non-
symmetrical due to the linear response of XL. You may also note that if the circuit impedance is at its
minimum at resonance then consequently, the circuit admittance must be at its maximum and one of the
characteristics of a series resonance circuit is that admittance is very high. But this can be a bad thing
because a very low value of resistance at resonance means that the resulting current flowing through the
circuit may be dangerously high.
We recall from the previous tutorial about series RLC circuits that the voltage across a series
combination is the phasor sum of VR, VL and VC. Then if at resonance the two reactances are equal and
cancelling, the two voltages representing VL and VC must also be opposite and equal in value thereby
cancelling each other out because with pure components the phasor voltages are drawn at +90 o and -
90o respectively.
Then in a series resonance circuit as VL = -VC the resulting reactive voltages are zero and all the
supply voltage is dropped across the resistor. Therefore, VR = Vsupply and it is for this reason that series
resonance circuits are known as voltage resonance circuits, (as opposed to parallel resonance circuits
which are current resonance circuits).
98
3.2.3 Series RLC Circuit at Resonance
Fig 3.4
Since the current flowing through a series resonance circuit is the product of voltage divided by
impedance, at resonance the impedance, Z is at its minimum value, ( =R ). Therefore, the circuit current at
this frequency will be at its maximum value of V/R as shown below.
3.2.4 Series Circuit Current at Resonance
Fig 3.5
The frequency response curve of a series resonance circuit shows that the magnitude of the current
is a function of frequency and plotting this onto a graph shows us that the response starts at near to zero,
reaches maximum value at the resonance frequency when IMAX = IR and then drops again to nearly zero
as ƒ becomes infinite. The result of this is that the magnitudes of the voltages across the inductor, L and the
capacitor, C can become many times larger than the supply voltage, even at resonance but as they are equal
and at opposition they cancel each other out.
The maximum current through the circuit at resonance is limited only by the value of the resistance
(a pure and real value), the source voltage and circuit current must therefore be in phase with each other at
this frequency. Then the phase angle between the voltage and current of a series resonance circuit is also a
function of frequency for a fixed supply voltage and which is zero at the resonant frequency point
when: V, I and VR are all in phase with each other as shown below. Consequently, if the phase angle is
zero then the power factor must therefore be unity.
99
3.2.5 Phase Angle of a Series Resonance Circuit
Fig 3.6
Notice also, that the phase angle is positive for frequencies above ƒr and negative for frequencies
below ƒr and this can be proven by,
3.2.6 Bandwidth of a Series Resonance Circuit
Fig 3.7
100
The frequency response of the circuits current magnitude above, relates to the “sharpness” of the
resonance in a series resonance circuit. The sharpness of the peak is measured quantitatively and is called
the Quality factor, Q of the circuit. The quality factor relates the maximum or peak energy stored in the
circuit (the reactance) to the energy dissipated (the resistance) during each cycle of oscillation meaning
that it is a ratio of resonant frequency to bandwidth and the higher the circuit Q, the smaller the
bandwidth, Q = ƒr /BW.
As the bandwidth is taken between the two -3dB points, the selectivity of the circuit is a measure
of its ability to reject any frequencies either side of these points. A more selective circuit will have a
narrower bandwidth whereas a less selective circuit will have a wider bandwidth. The selectivity of a series
resonance circuit can be controlled by adjusting the value of the resistance only, keeping all the other
components the same, since Q = (XL or XC)/R.
3.2.7 Bandwidth of a Series RLC Resonance Circuit
Fig 3.8
Then the relationship between resonance, bandwidth, selectivity and quality factor for a series resonance
circuit being defined as:
1). Resonant Frequency, (ƒr)
2). Current, (I)
101
3). Lower cut-off frequency, (ƒL)
4). Upper cut-off frequency, (ƒH)
5). Bandwidth, (BW)
6). Quality Factor, (Q)
3.3 Series Resonance Example No1

A series resonance network consisting of a resistor of 30Ω, a capacitor of 2uF and an inductor of
20mH is connected across a sinusoidal supply voltage which has a constant output of 9 volts at all
frequencies. Calculate, the resonant frequency, the current at resonance, the voltage across the inductor and
capacitor at resonance, the quality factor and the bandwidth of the circuit. Also sketch the corresponding
current waveform for all frequencies.
Fig 3.9
102
Resonant Frequency, ƒr
Circuit Current at Resonance, Im
Inductive Reactance at Resonance, XL
Voltages across the inductor and the capacitor, VL, VC
Note: the supply voltage may be only 9 volts, but at resonance, the reactive voltages across the capacitor,
VC and the inductor, VL are 30 volts peak!
Quality factor, Q
Bandwidth, BW
The upper and lower -3dB frequency points, ƒH and ƒL
Current Waveform
Fig 3.10
103
3.4 Series Resonance Example No2
A series circuit consists of a resistance of 4Ω, an inductance of 500mH and a variable capacitance
connected across a 100V, 50Hz supply. Calculate the capacitance require to give series resonance and the
voltages generated across both the inductor and the capacitor.
Voltages across the inductor and the capacitor, VL, VC
Series Resonance Summary
 For resonance to occur in any circuit it must have at least one inductor and one capacitor.
 Resonance is the result of oscillations in a circuit as stored energy is passed from the inductor to the
capacitor.
 Resonance occurs when XL = XC and the imaginary part of the transfer function is zero.
 At resonance the impedance of the circuit is equal to the resistance value as Z = R.
 At low frequencies the series circuit is capacitive as: XC > XL, this gives the circuit a leading power
factor.
 At high frequencies the series circuit is inductive as: XL > XC, this gives the circuit a lagging power
factor.
 Because impedance is minimum and current is maximum, series resonance circuits are also
called Acceptor Circuits.
104
3.5 Parallel Resonance Circuit
In many ways a parallel resonance circuit is exactly the same as the series resonance circuit we
looked at in the previous tutorial.
Both are 3-element networks that contain two reactive components making them a second-order
circuit, both are influenced by variations in the supply frequency and both have a frequency point where
their two reactive components cancel each other out influencing the characteristics of the circuit. Both
circuits have a resonant frequency point.
Parallel RLC Circuit
Fig 3.11
A parallel circuit containing a resistance, R, an inductance, L and a capacitance, C will produce

a parallel resonance (also called anti-resonance) circuit when the resultant current through the parallel
combination is in phase with the supply voltage.
In an AC parallel resonance circuits, the supply voltage is common for all branches, so this can be
taken as our reference vector. Each parallel branch must be treated separately as with series circuits so that
the total supply current taken by the parallel circuit is the vector addition of the individual branch currents.
Resonance occurs when XL = XC Then:
At resonance the parallel circuit produces the same equation as for the series resonance circuit.
Therefore, it makes no difference if the inductor or capacitor is connected in parallel or series. Also at
resonance the parallel LC tank circuit acts like an open circuit with the circuit current being determined by
the resistor, R only. So the total impedance of a parallel resonance circuit at resonance becomes just the
value of the resistance in the circuit and Z = R as shown.
105
Fig 3.12
At resonance, the impedance of the parallel circuit is at its maximum value and equal to the
resistance of the circuit. Also at resonance, as the impedance of the circuit is now that of resistance only,
the total circuit current, I will be “in-phase” with the supply voltage, VS.
We can change the circuit‟s frequency response by changing the value of this resistance. Changing
the value of R affects the amount of current that flows through the circuit at resonance, if
both L and C remain constant. Then the impedance of the circuit at resonance Z = RMAX is called the
“dynamic impedance” of the circuit.
3.5.1 Impedance in a Parallel Resonance Circuit
Fig 3.13
Unlike the series resonance circuit, the resistor in a parallel resonance circuit has a damping effect
on the circuits bandwidth making the circuit less selective.
Also, since the circuit current is constant for any value of impedance, Z, the voltage across a
parallel resonance circuit will have the same shape as the total impedance and for a parallel circuit the
voltage waveform is generally taken from across the capacitor.
3.5.2 Current in a Parallel Resonance Circuit

At resonance the current flowing through the circuit must also be at its minimum as the inductive
and capacitive branch currents are equal ( IL = IC ) and are 180o out of phase.
The total current flowing in a parallel RLC circuit is equal to the vector sum of the individual
branch currents and for a given frequency is calculated as:
106
At resonance, currents IL and IC are equal and cancelling giving a net reactive current equal to zero.
Then at resonance the above equation becomes.
3.5.3 Parallel Circuit Current at Resonance
Fig 3.14
The frequency response curve of a parallel resonance circuit shows that the magnitude of the
current is a function of frequency and plotting this onto a graph shows us that the response starts at its
maximum value, reaches its minimum value at the resonance frequency when IMIN = IR and then increases
again to maximum as ƒ becomes infinite.
The result of this is that the magnitude of the current flowing through the inductor, L and the
capacitor, C tank circuit can become many times larger than the supply current, even at resonance but as
they are equal and at opposition ( 180o out-of-phase ) they effectively cancel each other out.
107
3.5.4 Bandwidth & Selectivity of a Parallel Resonance Circuit
The bandwidth of a parallel resonance circuit is defined in exactly the same way as for the series
resonance circuit. The upper and lower cut-off frequencies given as: ƒupperand ƒlower respectively denote the
half-power frequencies which gives its maximum resonant value, ( 0.707 x I )2 R.
As with the series circuit, if the resonant frequency remains constant, an increase in the quality
factor, Q will cause a decrease in the bandwidth and likewise, a decrease in the quality factor will cause an
increase in the bandwidth as defined by:
BW = ƒr /Q or BW = ƒupper - ƒlower
The selectivity or Q-factor for a parallel resonance circuit is generally defined as the ratio of the
circulating branch currents to the supply current and is given as:
Note that the Q-factor of a parallel resonance circuit is the inverse of the expression for the Q-
factor of the series circuit. Also in series resonance circuits the Q-factor gives the voltage magnification of
the circuit, whereas in a parallel circuit it gives the current magnification.
3.5.5 Bandwidth of a Parallel Resonance Circuit
Fig 3.15
Parallel Resonance Example No1

A parallel resonance network consisting of a resistor of 60Ω, a capacitor of 120uF and an inductor
of 200mH is connected across a sinusoidal supply voltage which has a constant output of 100 volts at all
frequencies. Calculate, the resonant frequency, the quality factor and the bandwidth of the circuit, the
circuit current at resonance and current magnification.
108
Inductive Reactance at Resonance, XL
Quality factor, Q
Bandwidth, BW
The upper and lower -3dB frequency points, ƒH and ƒL
Circuit Current at Resonance, IT

At resonance the dynamic impedance of the circuit is equal to R
Current Magnification, Imag
Note that the current drawn from the supply at resonance (the resistive current) is only 1.67 amps, while
the current flowing around the LC tank circuit is larger at 2.45 amps. We can check this value by
calculating the current flowing through the inductor (or capacitor) at resonance.
Parallel Resonance Summary

We have seen that Parallel Resonance circuits are similar to series resonance circuits. Resonance
occurs in a parallel RLC circuit when the total circuit current is “in-phase” with the supply voltage as the
two reactive components cancel each other out. Also at resonance the current drawn from the supply is also
at its minimum and is determined by the value of the parallel resistance.
The equation used to calculate the resonant frequency point is the same for the previous series
circuit. However, while the use of either pure or impure components in the series RLC circuit does not
affect the calculation of the resonance frequency, but in a parallel RLC circuit it does.
109
In this tutorial about parallel resonance, we have assumed that the components are purely inductive
and purely capacitive with negligible resistance. However in reality the coil will contain some resistance.
Then the equation for calculating the parallel resonant frequency of a circuit is therefore modified to
account for the additional resistance.
Resonant Frequency using Impure Components
3.6 Concept of 3  supply
A three-phase power supply is a special method to alternate power generation, transmission

and distribution. This method establishes power supply delivery in three lines, and each line is a phase
that carries equal voltage at equal frequency.
There are two types of system available in electric circuit, single phase and three phase system. In
single phase circuit, there will be only one phase, i.e the current will flow through only one wire and there
will be one return path called neutral line to complete the circuit. So in single phase minimum amount of
power can be transported. Here the generating station and load station will also be single phase. This is an
old system using from previous time.
In 1882, new invention has been done on polyphase system, that more than one phase can be used
for generating, transmitting and for load system. Three phase circuit is the polyphase system where three
phases are send together from the generator to the load. Each phase are having a phase difference of 120°,
i.e 120° angle electrically. So from the total of 360°, three phases are equally divided into 120° each. The
power in three phase system is continuous as all the three phases are involved in generating the total
power. The sinusoidal waves for 3 phase system is shown below-
Fig 3.16
The three phases can be used as single phase each. So if the load is single phase, then one phase
can be taken from the three phase circuit and the neutral can be used as ground to complete the circuit.
In three phase circuit, connections can be given in two types:
1. Star connection
2. Delta connection
110
3.6.1 Star Connection (Y)
In star connection, there is four wire, three wires are phase wire and fourth is neutral which is
taken from the star point. Star connection is preferred for long distance power transmission because it is
having the neutral point. In this we need to come to the concept of balanced and unbalanced current in
power system.
When equal current will flow through all the three phases, then it is called as balanced current.
And when the current will not be equal in any of the phase, then it is unbalanced current. In this case,
during balanced condition there will be no current flowing through the neutral line and hence there is no
use of the neutral terminal. But when there will be unbalanced current flowing in the three phase circuit,
neutral is having a vital role. It will take the unbalanced current through to the ground and protect the
transformer. Unbalanced current affects transformer and it may also cause damage to the transformer and
for this star connection is preferred for long distance transmission.
In this system of interconnection, the starting ends or finishing ends (Similar ends) of three coils
are connected together to form the neutral point. The other ends are joined to the line wires. The common
point is called the neutral or Star Point, which is represented by N.
Star Connection is also called Three Phase 4 wires (3-Phase, 4-Wires) system.
In star connection, the line voltage is √3 times of phase voltage. Line voltage is the voltage
between two phases in three phase circuit and phase voltage is the voltage between one phase to the neutral
line. And the current is same for both line and phase. It is shown as expression below
The power in three phase circuit can be calculated from the equation below,
Fig 3.17. Voltage, Current and Power Values in Star Connection (Y)
If a balance symmetrical load is connected across three phase voltage system in parallel, then the three
currents will flow in neutral wire which quantities would be same, but they would be differ by 120° (out of
phase), hence the vector sum of these three currents = 0.
i.e. IR + IY + IB = 0 ……………. Vectorially
The voltage between any two terminals or Voltage between Line and Neutral (Star Point) is called Phase
voltage or Star voltage. And the voltage between two Lines is called Line to Line Voltage or Line Voltage.
111
1. Line Voltages and Phase Voltages in Star Connection
We know that the Line Voltage between Line 1 and Line 2 is

VRY = VR – VY …. (Vector Difference)
Thus, to find vector of VRY, increase the Vector of VY in reverse direction as shown in the dotted
form in the below fig . Similarly, on the both ends of vector VR and Vector VY, make perpendicular dotted
lines which look like a parallelogram as shown in fig. The Diagonal line which divides the parallelogram
into two parts, showing the value of VRY. The angle between VY and VR vectors is 60°.
Hence, if VR = VY = VB = VPH, then

VRY = 2 x VPH x Cos (60°/2)
= 2 x VPH x Cos 30°
= 2 x VPH x (√3/2) …… Since Cos 30° = √3/2
= √3 VPH
Similarly,
VYB = VY – VB
= √3 VPH
And
VBR = VB – VR
= √3 VPH
Hence, it is proved that VRY = VYB = VBR is line voltages VL in Star Connection,
Therefore, in Star Connection;
VL = √3 VPH
Fig 3.18
It is seen from the fig that;

 Line voltages are 120° apart from each other
 Line voltages are 30° leading from the corresponding phase voltages
 The angle Ф between line currents and respective line voltages are (30°+Ф), i.e. each line current is
lagging (30°+Ф) from the corresponding line voltage.
112
2. Line Currents and Phase Currents in Star Connection
It is seen from the fig (a) that each line is in series with individual phase winding, therefore, the
value of line current is same as in Phase windings to which the line is connected. i.e.;
 Current in Line 1 = IR
 Current in Line 2 = IY
 Current in Line 3 = IB
Since, the flowing currents in all three lines are same, and the individual current in each line is equal to
the corresponding phase current, therefore;
IR = IY = IB = IPH …. The phase current
Line Current = Phase Current
IL = IPH
In simple words, the value of Line Current and Phase Current is same in Star Connection.
Fig 3.19
3. Power in Star Connection
In a three phase AC circuit, the total True or Active power is the sum of the three phase power.
Hence, total active or true power in a three phase AC system;

P = 3 x VPH x IPH x CosФ ….. Eq … (1)
Where Cos Φ = Power factor
= the phase angle between Phase Voltage and Phase Current and
not between Line current and line voltage.
We know that the values of Phase Current and Phase Voltage in Star Connection;
IL = IPH
VPH = VL /√3 ….. (From VL = √3 VPH)
Putting these values in power eq……. (1)
P = 3 x (VL/√3) x IL x CosФ …….…. (VPH = VL /√3)
P = √3 x√3 x (VL/√3) x IL x CosФ ….… {3 = √3x√3}
P = √3 x VL x IL x CosФ
Hence proved;
Power in Star Connection,
P = 3 x VPH x IPH x CosФ or
113
3.6.2 Delta Connection (Δ)
In delta connection, there is three wires alone and no neutral terminal is taken. Normally delta
connection is preferred for short distance due to the problem of unbalanced current in the circuit.
In this system of interconnection, the starting ends of the three phases or coils are connected to the
finishing ends of the coil.
In more clear words, all three coils are connected in series to form a close mesh or circuit. Three
wires are taken out from three junctions and the all outgoing currents from junction assumed to be positive.
In Delta connection, the three windings interconnection looks like a short circuit, but this is not
true, if the system is balanced, then the value of the algebraic sum of all voltages around the mesh is zero.
When a terminal is open, then there is no chance of flowing currents with basic frequency around
the closed mesh.
At any instant, the EMF value of one phase is equal to the resultant of the other two
phases EMF values but in the opposite direction.
Delta or Mesh Connection System is also called Three Phase Three Wire System (3-Phase 3
Wire) and it is the best and suitable system for AC Power Transmission.
In delta connection, the line voltage is same with that of phase voltage. And the line current is √3
times of phase current.
It is shown as expression below,
Fig. 3.20 Voltage, Current and Power Values in Delta Connection (Δ)
1. Line Voltages and Phase Voltages in Delta Connection
In Delta Connection, the voltage between (any pair of) two lines is equal to the phase voltage of
the phase winding which is connected between two lines. Since the phase sequence is R → Y → B,
therefore, the direction of voltage from R phase towards Y phase is positive (+), and the voltage of R phase
is leading by 120°from Y phase voltage. Likewise, the voltage of Y phase is leading by 120° from the
phase voltage of B and its direction is positive from Y towards B.
If the line voltage between;
Line 1 and Line 2 = VRY
Line 2 and Line 3 = VYB
Line 3 and Line 1 = VBR
114
Then, we see that VRY leads VYB by 120° and VYB leads VBR by 120°.
Let‟s suppose,
VRY = VYB = VBR = VL …………… (Line Voltage)
Then
VL = VPH
I.e. in Delta connection, the Line Voltage is equal to the Phase Voltage.
2. Line Currents and Phase Currents in Delta Connection

It will be noted from the below fig that the total current of each Line is equal to the vector
difference between two phase currents flowing through that line. i.e.;
 Current in Line 1= I1 = IR – IB
 Current in Line 2 =I2 = IY – IR
 Current in Line 3 =I3 = IB – IY
Fig 3.21
The current of Line 1 can be found by determining the vector difference between IR and IB and we
can do that by increasing the IB Vector in reverse, so that, IR and IB makes a parallelogram. The diagonal of
that parallelogram shows the vector difference of IR and IB which is equal to Current in Line 1= I1.
Moreover, by reversing the vector of IB, it may indicate as (-IB), therefore, the angle between IR and -IB (IB,
when reversed = -IB) is 60°. If,
IR = IY = IB = IPH …. The phase currents
Then;
The current flowing in Line 1 would be;
IL or I1 = 2 x IPH x Cos (60°/2)
= 2 x IPH x Cos 30°
= 2 x IPH x (√3/2) …… Since Cos 30° = √3/2
= √3 IPH
i.e. In Delta Connection, The Line current is √3 times of Phase Current
Similarly, we can find the reaming two Line currents as same as above. i.e.,
I2 = IY – IR … Vector Difference = √3 IPH
I3 = IB – IY … Vector difference = √3 IPH
As, all the Line current are equal in magnitude i.e.
115
I1 = I2 = I3 = IL
Hence
IL = √3 IPH
It is seen from the fig above that;
 The Line Currents are 120° apart from each other
 Line currents are lagging by 30° from their corresponding Phase Currents
 The angle Ф between line currents and respective line voltages is (30°+Ф), i.e. each line current is
lagging by (30°+Ф) from the corresponding line voltage.
3. Power in Delta Connection

We know that the power of each phase
Power / Phase = VPH x IPH x CosФ
And the total power of three phases;
Total Power = P = 3 x VPH x IPH x CosФ ….. (1)
We know that the values of Phase Current and Phase Voltage in Delta Connection;
IPH = IL / /√3 ….. (From IL = √3 IPH)

VPH = VL
Putting these values in power eq……. (1)
P = 3 x VL x ( IL/√3) x CosФ …… (IPH = IL / /√3)
P = √3 x√3 x VL x ( IL/√3) x CosФ …{ 3 = √3x√3 }
P = √3 x VLx IL x CosФ …
Hence proved;
Power in Delta Connection,

P = 3 x VPH x IPH x CosФ …. or
In three phase circuit, star and delta connection can be arranged in four different ways-
1. Star-Star connection
2. Star-Delta connection
3. Delta-Star connection
4. Delta-Delta connection
But the power is independent of the circuit arrangement of the three phase system. The net power
in the circuit will be same in both star and delta connection.
Since, there is three phases, so the multiple of 3 is made in the normal power equation and the PF
is power factor. Power factor is a very important factor in three phase system and some times due to certain
error, it is corrected by using capacitors.
116
3.6.3 Difference between Star & Delta.
Star (Y) Connection Delta (Δ) Connection
In STAR connection, the starting or finishing ends In DELTA connection, the opposite ends of three
(Similar ends) of three coils are connected coils are connected together. In other words, the
together to form the neutral point. A common wire end of each coil is connected with the start of
is taken out from the neutral point which is called another coil, and three wires are taken out from
Neutral. the coil joints
There is a Neutral or Star Point No Neutral Point in Delta Connection
Three phase four wire system is derived from Star

Connections (3-Phase, 4 Wires System) We may
Three phase three wire system is derived from
Also derived 3 Phase 3 Wire System from Star
Delta Connections (3-Phase, 3 Wires System)
Connection
Line Current is Equal to Phase Current. i.e. Line Voltage is Equal to Phase Voltage. i.e.
Line Current = Phase Current Line Voltage = Phase Voltage
IL = IPH VL = VPH
Line Voltage is √3 times of Phase Voltage. i.e. Line Current is √3 times of Phase Current. i.e.
VL = √3 VPH IL = √3 IPH
The Total Power of three phases could be found The Total Power of three phases could be found
by by
P = √3 x VL x IL x CosФ …. Or P = √3 x VL x IL x CosФ … or
P = 3 x VPH x IPH x CosФ P = 3 x VPH x IPH x CosФ
The speeds of Star connected motors are slow as The speeds of Delta connected motors are high
they receive 1/√3 voltage. because each phase gets the total of line voltage
In Star Connection, the phase voltage is low as In Delta connection, The phase voltage is equal to
1/√3 of the line voltage, so, it needs low number the line voltage, hence, it needs more number of
of turns, hence, saving in copper. turns.
Heavy insulation required as Phase voltage = Line

Low insulation required as phase voltage is low
Voltage.
In Power Transmission, Star Connection system is In Power Distribution and industries, Delta
general and typical to be used. Connection is general and typical to be used.
3.7 Methods of measurements of Three phase power
Various methods are used for measurement of three phase power in three phase circuits on the basis
of number of wattmeter used. We have three methods
1. Three wattmeters method

2. Two wattmeters method
3. Single wattmeter method.
117
Measurement of Three Phase Power by Two Wattmeters Method
In this method we have two types of connections
1. Star connection of loads
2. Delta connection of loads.
When the star connected load, the diagram is shown in below-
Fig 3.22
For star connected load clearly the reading of wattmeter one is product phase current and voltage
difference (V2-V3). Similarly the reading of wattmeter two is the product of phase current and the voltage
difference (V2-V3). Thus the total power of the circuit is sum of the reading of both the wattmeters.
Mathematically we can write
but we have I1+I2+I3=0,hence putting the value of I1+I2= -I3.
We get total power as V1I1+V2I2+V3I3.
When delta connected load, the diagram is shown in below
Fig 3.23
118
The reading of wattmeter one can be written as
and reading of wattmeter two is
but V1+V2+V3=0,
hence expression for total power will reduce to V1I1+V2I2+V3I3.
3.8 Advantages of Three Phase Over Single Phase

Three phase system is widely used in generation, transmission and distribution. Single phase
system is only used to operate small electrical appliances at consumer ends where the power rating is very
less. Some of the advantages of three phase system or poly phase systems compared to single phase system
is explained below
Advantages of three phase system:
 The output of 3 phase machine is always greater than single phase machine of same size. The
output will be approximately 1.5 times than single phase machine. So for given size and voltage 3
phase alternator or electrical machines occupy less space and less cost compared to single phase
machine having same rating
 For transmission of electrical power three phase supply requires less copper or less
conducting material than that of single phase system for given volt-amperes and voltage
ratings. Hence 3 phase system is more economical compared to single phase system
 Single phase machines are not self starting machines. On the other hand three phase
machines are self starting due to rotating magnetic field. Therefore in order to start a single
phase machine an auxiliary device is required which not in the case of 3 phase machine.
 Power factor of single phase machines is poor compared to three phase machines.
 In single phase system the instantaneous power is function of time. Hence fluctuates with
respect to time. The fluctuating power will cause significant vibrations in the single phase
machines. Hence performance of single phase machines is poor.
While instantaneous symmetrical three phase system is always constant
 Three phase system gives steady output
 Single phase system can be obtained from three phase supply system, vice-versa is not
possible
 For converting systems like rectifiers, the dc voltage waveform becomes more smoother with
the increase in the number of phases of the system. Hence three phase system
is advantageous compared to single phase system
 3 phase motors will have uniform torque whereas single phase motors will have pulsating
torque
 Parallel operation of three phase generators will be simple compared to single phase
generators because of pulsating reaction in single phase generator
119
3.9 Simple Problems
Exercise 1: Three loads, each of resistance 50  are connected in star to a 400 V, 3-phase supply.
Determine a) the phase voltage, (b) the phase current and (c) the line current.
400 V, 3-phase supply means that 400 V is the line voltage.
(a) For a star connection, VL  3 VP
VL 400
Hence, phase voltage, VP   = 231 V
3 3
VP 231
(b) Phase current, I P   = 4.62 A
R P 50
(c) For a star connection, IP  IL
Hence, line current, I L = 4.62 A
Exercise 2: A star-connected load consists of three identical coils, each of inductance 159.2 mH and
resistance50 . If the supply frequency is 50 Hz and the line current is 3 A determine (a) the phase voltage
and (b) the line voltage.
Inductive reactance, XL = 2πfL = 2π(50)(159.2 × 10- 3) = 50 
Impedance of each phase, Zp = R 2  X L2 = 502  502 = 70.71 
Vp
For a star connection, IL = Ip =
Zp
Hence, phase voltage, Vp = Ip Zp = (3)(70.71) = 212 V
Line voltage, VL = 3 Vp = 3 (212) = 367 V
Exercise 3: Three loads, each of resistance 50  are connected in delta to a 400 V, 3-phase supply.
Determine (a) the phase voltage, (b) the phase current and (c) the line current.
(a) For a delta connection, VL  VP
Since VL = 400 V, then phase voltage, VP = 400 V
VP 400
(b) Phase current, I P   =8A
RP 50
(c) For a delta connection, line current, IL  3 IP  3 8 = 13.86 A
120
UNIT - III
Review Questions
PART – A ( 2 marks Questions)
1. Define Amplitude.
2. Define Peak value
3. Define Peak to Peak value.
4. Define Cycle.
5. Define Impedance.
6. Define Power factor.
7. Define Quality factor.
8. Define Bandwidth.
9. What is the condition for Resonance ?
10. What is meant by Resonance ?
11. What are the applications of Resonance ?
PART – B ( Three marks Questions)
1. Derive the Q-factor of series resonant circuit ?

2. Define and derive the Q-factor of parallel resonant circuit ?
3. Define and derive the bandwidth of series resonant circuit ?
4. Write the condition for series resonance and Explain.
5. Write the condition for parallel resonance and Explain.
6. Derive an expression for frequency at resonance.
7. Write concept of 3ɸ supply.
8. Write the value of line and phase voltage and current in star connected circuit.
9. Write the value of line and phase voltage and current in star connected circuit.
10. Write ant 3 advantages of three phase power over single phase power .
PART – C ( Ten Marks Questions)
1. Derive an expression for resonant frequency , Q factor & Bandwidth of a series

resonant circuit.
2. Derive an expression for resonant frequency , Q factor & Bandwidth of a parallel
resonant circuit.
3. Explain line and phase voltage and current in Star connected circuits.
4. Explain line and phase voltage and current in Delta connected circuits.
5. State relation between phase current and line current, phase voltage and line voltage for
following systems: a. Star connected system b. Delta connected system.
6. Expalin measurement of three phase power by two wattmeter method with neat
diagram.
7. Write advantages of three phase power over single phase power .
121
UNIT IV
DC MACHINES AND A.C MACHINES
4.1 INTRODUCTION:
An electrical generator is a machine which converts mechanical energy into electrical energy.
The energy conversion is based on the principle of the production of dynamically induced emf.
D.C. Generator works on the principle of Faraday‟s law of electromagnetic induction. Whenever a
conductor cuts magnetic flux, dynamically induced emf is produced in it according to Faraday‟s laws. This
emf causes a current to flow if the conductor circuit is closed.
4.2 TYPES :
Generators are usually classified according to the way in which their fields are excited. Depending
on the method of excitation DC generators are classified as:.
1. Separately excited D.C Generators.

2. Self excited DC Generators.
SEPARATELY EXCITED DC GENERATORS :-
These types of generators are those whose field magnets are energized from an independent
external source of D.C current, as shown in fig.4.1
Fig.4.1 Separately excited DC generators
122
SELF EXCITED D.C GENERATOR:
These types of generator are those whose field magnets are energized by the current produced by
the generator themselves. Due to residual magnetism, there is always present some flux in the pole. When
the armature is rotated, some emf and hence some induced current is produced. Which is partly or fully
passed through the field coils thereby strengthening the residual pole flux.
There are three types of self-excited generators named according to the manner in which their field
coils (or windings) are connected to the armature.
1. DC Shunt Generator
2. DC Series Generator
3. DC Compound Generator
DC Shunt Generator:-
In shunt generator the field windings are Connected across or in parallel with the armature
conductors as shown in fig.4.2
Fig.4.2 DC Shunt Generator

In DC shunt generator the armature current (Ia) will be the sum of load current (IL) and the field
current (Ish).
i.e.
Ia =IL + I sh, Ish=V/Rsh
Ish- Shunt field current
123
DC Series Generator:
In D.C Series generator the field windings are Joined in Series with the arrnature conductors, as
shown in fig.4.3
Fig.4.3 Dc Series Generator
DC Series Generator the armature current (Ia), the field current (Ise) and load current (IL) are same.
i.e., Ia = Ise = IL
DC Compound Generators :
It is a combination of a few series and a few shunt windings and can be either short-shunt or long-
shunt as shown in fig.
1. Long-Shunt DC Generators
2. Short-Shunt DC Generators
In compound generator be the shunt field is stronger than the series field. When series field aids
the shunt field generator is said to be commutatively-compound. On the other hand in series field opposes
the shunt field, the generator is said to be differentially compounded.
124
Long Shunt Generator Short – Shunt Generator
In this generator In this generator
Ia = Ise = IL + Ish Ise = IL

Ise = IL + Ish
Ia = Ise + Ish
Fig.4.4 Long shunt Fig.4.5 Short shunt
4.3 VARIOUS TYPES OF DC GENERATORS

It is shown in fig.4.6
Fig. 4.6 Various Type
125
4.4 CONSTRUCTION OF D.C. GENERATOR
The Construction of DC Generator is shown in fig .4.7
The DC Generator consists of the following essential parts.
1. Magnetic Frame (or) Yoke.

2. Pole-Cores and Pole Shoes.
3. Pole coils (or) Field Coils
4. Armature Core.
5. Armature Windings (or) Conductors.
6. Commutator.
7. Brushes and Bearings.
Fig.4.7 DC Machines
1. YOKE (OR) MAGNETIC FRAME :
Fig.4.6 Shows the Yoke. Yoke of a DC generator has two function.
(i) It provides Mechanical support for the poles and acts as a protecting cover for the whole
machine.
(ii) It carries the magnetic flux produced by the poles.
126
In smaller generators the poles and yokes are forged into a single piece, and larger generators poles
are made separately and fitted with the inner periphery of the yoke.
Fig.4.8 YOKE
Fig.4.9
127
2. POLE CORES AND POLE SHOES.
The field magnets consists of pole core and pole shoes. The Shoes serve two purpose.
(i) They spread out the flux in the air gap and also, being of larger cross-section, reduce the
reluctance of the magnetic path.
(ii) They support the exciting coils.
There are two main type of pole construction.
(i) The pole core itself may be a solid piece made out of either cast iron (or) cast steel but the
pole shoe is laminated and is fastened to the pole face by means of counter sunk screws.
(ii) In modern design, the complete pole core and pole shoes are built of thin lamination of
annealed steel which are riveted together under hydraulic pressure. The Thickness of
lamination varies from 1 mm to 0.25 mm.
3. POLE COILS (OR) FIELD COILS
The field coils or pole coils, which consists of copper wire or strip, are former wound for the
correct dimension. Than the former is removed and wound coil is put into place over the core.
When current is passed through these coils, they electro magnetize the poles which produce the
necessary flux that is cut by revolving armature conductors.
Fig:4.10
128
4. ARMATURE CORE :
The Armature core is keyed to the machine shaft and it rotates between the field poles. It consists
of slotted steel lamination about (0.4 to 0.6 mm) Thickness. These laminations are stacked to form a
cylindrical core as shown in fig.
Fig. 4.11
The lamination are insulated from each other by thin coating of varnish. The purpose of laminating
the core is to reduce the eddy current loss. The lamination are slotted to accommodate the armature
winding. The slots are closed by fibre (or) wooden wedges to prevent the conductors from plying out due
to the centrifugal force.
5. ARMATURE WINDINGS (OR) CONDUCTORS:
The Armature windings are usually former-wound these are first wound in the form of flat
rectangular coils and are then pulled into their proper shape in a coil puller. Various conductors of the coils
are insulated from each other. The conductors are placed in the armature slots which are lined with tough
insulating material. Armature winding is wound in two ways.
1. Lap Winding : for low voltage high current Machine

2. Wave Winding : for high voltage low current Machine
6. COMMUTATOR
The function of the commutator is to facilitate collection of current from the armature conductor as
shown in fig. It rectified i.e., converts the alternating current in the armature conductors into unidirectional
current in the external load circuit. It is cylindrical structure and is built up of wedge shaped segments of
high conductivity hard-drawn (or) drop forged copper. These segments are insulated from each other by
thin layers of mica. The number coils. Each commutator segment is connected to the armature conductor
by means of a copper 1 kg on strip (or) riser.
129
Fig. 4.12
7. BRUSHES AND BEARINGS :
The function of brushes is to collect current from commutator, are usually made of carbon or
graphite and are in the shape of a rectangular block. The brushes are put inside the brush holders. The
brush holders are kept pressed against the commutator by a spring as shown in fig.
Ball bearing (or) roller bearings are fitted inside the end corer. Armature shaft is mounted over
these bearings. Because of their reliability, ball bearings are frequently employed, through for heavy duties
roller bearings are preferable.
4.5 PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION OF D.C GENERATOR
A generator is a machine which converts Mechanical energy into electrical energy. The energy
conversion is based on the principle of production of dynamically induced emf. Whenever a conductor cuts
the magnetic flux, dynamically emf is induced in it, according to Faraday‟s law of Electromagnetic
induction. This emf causes a current to flow, of the conductor circuit is closed. The direction of moved emf
is given by “Flemings Right hand Rule”. Therefore the important components of a generator are.
(i) A Magnetic field

(ii) Conductor (or) conductors which can so move as to cut the flux.
In DC generators, a stationary magnetic field is produced by field magnet. The armature consisting
of conductors is rotated inside the magnetic field by a prime mover. The prime mover may be a turbine (or)
diesel (or) Petrol engine. The nature of emf induced in the Armature is AC. The AC emf is converted into
DC by means of commutator. The commutator is rotated along with the Armature.
The method of producing emf in a simple loop generator is explained with the help of fig.4.11
130
Fig. 4.13
Construction, In the above fig shown a single turn rectangular copper coil ABCD rotating about its
own axis in a magnetic field provided by either permanent magnet (or) electromagnets. The two ends of
the coil are joined to two slip rings „a‟ and „b‟ which are insulated from each other and from the central
shaft. Two collecting brushes press against the slip rings. Their function is to collect the current induced in
the coil and to convey the external load resistance R. The rotating coil may be called “armature” and the
magnets as “Field Magnets”
Fig.4.14
In the coil is in the reversed direction. Therefore at position 7, the emf induced is Negative
Maximum. Than the coil moves from position 7 to position 1, (270` to 360`) the flux linked with the coil
131
gradually increases, but the rate of change of flux linkages decreases. The emf induced is Zero at position
1. This the emf induced in to the coil is an alternating emf as shown in fig.
If the slip rings are replaced by split rings. The alternating emf will become unidirectional current.
The split rings are made out of a conducting cylinder. which is cut into two segments insulated from each
other by thin sheet of mica. The coil ends are joined to these segments, carbon brushes rest on the
segments.
Fig.4:15 Fig.4.16
Shows the connection of coil ends with split rings „a‟ and „b‟. In the first half revolution current
flows along ABLMCD in the brush No.1 is contact with segment „a‟ acts the positive end of emf and „b‟
acts as the negative end.
As the coil assumes successive position in the field the flux linked with it changes. Hence emf is induced
in it. Which is proportional to the rate of change of flux linkages (e=Ndɸ/dt). When the plane of the coil is
at right angles to lines of flux. i.e when it is in position 1. Then flux linked with the coil is maximum but
rate of change of flux linkage is minimum.
In this position, the coil sides AB and CD do not cut, the flux, They move parallel to them. Hence
there is no induced emf is the coil. The angle of rotation (or) time will be measured from this position.
As the coil continues rotating, the rate of change of flux linkages increases, till position 3 is
reached where ɸ =90`, the coil plane is horizontal to the flux line, the flux linked with the coil is minimum,
nut the rate of change of flux linkage is maximum. Therefore maximum emf is induced in the coil at
position 3. In the next quarter revolution from position 3 to position 5 (90` to 180`), the flux linked with
the coil gradually increases, but the rate of change of flux linkages decreases. Therefore the emf induced is
zero at position 5.
Now the coil moves from position 5 to position 7 (180` to 270`), the emf induced.
In the next half revolution the direction of current in the coil has reversed, as shown in fig.4.13 (b).
132
But at the same time, the position of segments a and b have also been reversed. The segment „a‟ is
coming in contact with brush no:2 and becomes negative end of induced emf. Again the current in the load
Resistance flows in the same direction. i.e. from L to M. The current is unidirectional current and is shown
in fig. The AC current induced in the coil is converted into unidirectional current due to rectifying action
of split rings. (also called as commutator)
The unidirectional current is shown in fig.4.14 To minimize the ripple in DC current the number of
cols in the armature should be increased.
4.6 EMF EQUATION OF A GNERATOR
Let ɸ = flux / pole in weber

Z = Total number of armature conductors
= No. of slots x No. of conductors / slot
P = No. of generator poles.
A = No. of parallel Paths in Armature
E = emf induced in any parallel path in armature.
A = 2 for wave winding
A = P for lap windings
According to Faraday‟s law of Electromagnetic induction, the average emf in each conductor is
equal to the rate of change of flux in webers per second.
E = N. dɸ/dt volt
Now flux cut / conductor in one revolution dɸ = ɸP Wb
No. of revolution / Second = N/60
Therefore time for one revolution, dt = 60 / N Second.
Therefore EMF induced in each conductor = dɸ / dt
= ɸP / 60 / N = ɸ PN / 60 volt
No of Armature conductors connected in series in each

parallel path = Z/A
Therefore emf induced in DC generator.
E = emf induced in x number of conductors

Each conductor in each parallel path
Emf induced in DC generator Eg = ɸ P ZN / 60A
Eg = PɸZN / 60 A
133
4.7 CHARACTERISTICS OF GENERATORS :
There are three most important characteristics or curves of a dc generator.
1. No. load saturation characteristic (Eo/If). It is also known as Magnetic characteristics on open-
circuit characteristic (O.C.C). It is relation between no load generated emf in armature E o and
field (or) exciting current (If) at a given fixed speed.
2. Internal (or) Total Characteristic (E/Ia).
It gives the relation between the emf E actually induces in the Armature and the Armature
current Ia.
3. External Characteristics (V/IL)
It is also referred to as performance characteristic (or) sometimes voltage-regulating curve. It
gives relation between that Terminal voltage V and the load current IL.
1. LOAD CHARACTERISTICS OF DC SHUNT GENERATORS.
Fig.4.17 Load Characteristics DC Shunt Generator
Fig.4.17 Shown the circuit diagram of DC shunt generators to find out the load characteristics. In
this circuit, the armature, field and load are connected in parallel to measure the terminal voltage a
voltmeter is connected as shown in fig (4.17 ) to measure the field current and load current two ammeters
are connected as shown in the circuit diagram.
In shunt generator Ia = IL+ Ish
E = V + Ia Ra
The generator is started with the help of prime movers and is run at rated speed. Adjust the field Rheostat,
s that the voltmeter reads the sated voltage. Then by keeping the field current constant, vary the load
current, and note the Terminal voltage for each value of load current. For each value of terminal voltage,
the induced EMF and armature current are calculated.
Then plot the load current on X-axis and Terminal voltage on Y-axis in the graph. We get the
external characteristics curve as shown in fig4.17.
134
Fig:4.18, Load current Vs Terminal Voltage
Then plot the armature current in x-axis and induced emf in y-axis in the graph. We get the
internal characteristics curve as shown in fig from the characteristic, we find that, when the current
increases, the terminal voltage decreases. The voltage is reduced due to armature resistance drop and
armature Reaction Effect.
When the current increases above the full load current, the voltage is reduced and becomes zero.
Hence shunt generator has drop ring characteristics.
4.8.1. LOAD CHARACTERISTICS OF DC SERIES GENERATOR
The above fig4.17 shown the circuit diagram of DC series generator. Using this circuit diagram the
load characteristics are drawn. Since the Armature, and series field are connected in series, the current
through the armature, series field winding and the load current are same.
[Ia = Ise = IL]

To measure the terminal voltage a voltmeter is connected. An ammeter is connected to measure the load
current. The generator is started with the help of a prime mover and is allowed to run at its rated speed.
Adjust the load step by step and also note terminal voltage and load current for every step, for each reading
calculate the emf induced in the generator by using the formula.
[E = V + Ia (Ra + Rse)]
Plotting the load current, armature current, in x-axis and terminal voltage, and induced emf on y-axis. Now
plot the internal characteristics [E Vs Ia] and external characteristies [V Vs IL] are shown in fig.
135
Fig.4.19
Since the field winding is in series with the load at no load (IL=0) the induced emf in zero. (That is
IL=0, Ise also zero). Hence the emf is also zero, when the load current increases the field current also
increases, which in turn increases the flux. So the terminal voltage and emf are also increased. Hence the
series generator has rising characteristics. But after saturation of field, the voltage is not increased, even
though the load current increases.
After the saturation, when the load current increases the voltage is reduced due to the armature
reaction effect and armature resistance drop.
4.8.2 LOAD CHARACTERISTIC OF COMPOUND GENERATOR
In a compound generator, both series and shunt windings are combined as shown in fig (4.20). The
shunt winding can be connected either across the armature only (short-shunt) (or) across the Armature plus
series field [long shunt].
Fig 4.20 Long shunt
136
Fig 4.21 short shunt
The circuit diagram for drawing the internal and external characteristics of compound generator is
given in Fig. 4.20 and Fig.4.21.
The generator is started with the help of a prime mover and is allowed to run at its rated speed.
Adjust the load step by step and also note terminal load current and field current for every step for each
reading calculate the emf induced in the generator by using the formula
E = V + Ia Ra + Ise Rse
The plotting load current, armature current in x-axis and terminal voltage and induced emf on y-
axis, Now plot internal characteristics [E Vs Ia] and External Characteristics [V Vs IL] as shown in
Fig.4.22 & 4.23.
Fig 4.22 Fig 4.23
In fig various compound generator for the varies load characteristics of DC generator.
137
4.9 DC MOTOR
INDRODUCTION:
A DC Machine may be operated either as generator or as motor. The parts and construction of DC
motor are some as that of DC generator. Hence DC motor converts electrical energy into Mechanical
energy.
4.9.1 DC MOTOR PRINCIPLE OF OPERTION
An electric motor is a machine which converts electrical energy into mechanical energy. Its action
is based on the principle that when a current carrying conductor is placed in a magnetic field, it
experiences a mechanical force whose direction is given by Fleming‟s left hand rule and whose magnitude
is given by F = BIl Newton.
Where
F = Force produced on the conductor in Newton
B = Magnetic flux density in web / m2
L = Length of conductor in the magnetic field
I = The current flowing through the conductor in ampere.
Fig 4.24
To understand the principle of operation of DC motor, let us consider a two pole motor.
Fig 4.25
138
Fig 4.24 shows an uniform magnetic field in which a straight conductor carrying no current is
placed. The direction of magnetic flux line is from north to south pole.
Now assume there is no exciting current flow through the field winding and DC current is sent
through the conductor. Let the conductor carry the current away from the observer (+). It produces a
magnetic flux lines around the in clockwise direction as shown in fig 4.25 There is no movement of the
conductor during the above two conditions.
Fig 4.26
In fig 4.26 the current carrying conductor is placed in the magnetic field. The due to the current in
the conductor aids the main field above the conductor, but opposes the main field below the conductor.
Hence the flux strengthens above the conductor and weakens below the conductor. It is found that a force
acts on the conductor. Trying to push the conductor downwards as shown by the arrow. The conductor is
pushed from high flux density to low flux density.
Fig:4.27
139
If the current in the conductor is reversed (current towards the observer (O), the strengthening of flux line
occurs below the conductor and the conductor will be pushed upward as shown in fig 4.28
Fig.4.28
New consider a single turn coil carrying current as shown in fig 4.27 the coil side „A‟ will be
forced to move downwards, where as the coil side „B‟ will be forced to move upwards. The forces acting
on the coil sides „A‟ and „B‟ will be of same magnitude, but their direction is opposite to one another. As
the coil is wound on the armature core, which is supported by the bearings, the armature will now rotate
the direction of rotation is found out by fleming‟s left hand rule.
4.9.2 TYPES OF MOTORS.
The Dc motors are classified as
1. DC shunt motor
2. DC series motor
3. DC compound motor.
1. DC SHOUNT MOTOR :
In DC shunt motor, the field winding is connected in parallel with the armature as shown in
fig.4.29 The field winding has a large number of turns and smaller crossection area. Since the field
current is small, the field power loss is also small.
Fig.4.29
140
Voltage Equation of DC shunt motor is
V = Eb + Ia Ra + Brush drop
Armature current Ia = IL – Ish
Where
Eb = Back emf of motor
V =Applied voltage
Ia =Armature current
Ra =Armature Resistance.
2. DC SERIES MOTOR :
In DC series motor, the field winding is connected in series with the armature as shown in fig
The series field winding gets the input current [IL = Ia = Ise]. The series field winding has
large cross – sectional area and few number of turns, also the field winding has low resistance.
Fig. 4.30
The voltage equation on the DC series motor
V = Eb + Ia Ra + Ise Rse + Brush drop
Since Ia = Ise = IL
Therefore V = Eb + Ia [Ra + Rse] + brush drop
Where
Rse = Series field current

Ia = Armature current
Ra = Armature Resistance
Rse = Series field resistance
V = Applied voltage
Eb = Back emf induced
141
3 .DC COMPOUND MOTOR :
In compound motor, both series field and shunt field windings are connected with the Armature
Fig. 4.31 Long shunt DC compound motor Fig 4.32 Short shunt DC compound motor
In fig4.31 the shunt field winding is connected across the series combination of armature and
series field winding and this arrangement is connected across the supply. It is called as long shunt DC
compound motor. In fig.4.32 the series field winding is connected in series with the parallel
combination of shunt field winding and armature winding, and this arrangement is connected across
supply. It is called short shunt DC compound motor
The voltage Equation

V = Eb + Ia Ra + Ise + Brush drop
Ia Ra = Armature resistance drop

Ise Rse = series field drop
Long shunt compound motor

Ia = Ise
Short shunt compound motor

Ise = IL
Compound motor .
Ia = IL - Ish
In DC compound motor if the shunt field winding and series field winding are connected such that
their fluxes add with each other they are called cumulative compound DC motor.
If they are connected such that flux produced by the series field winding opposes the flux produced
by shunt field winding then the motor is called differential compound motor.
142
4.10 BACK EMF (OR) COUNTER EMF
When DC supply is given to DC motor its armature starts rotating. The armature rotates and cuts
the static magnetic flux produced by the field magnets. Therefore emf is induced in the armature
conductors (Faraday‟s law‟s of Electromagnetic induction). As per Lenz‟s law this induced emf opposes
the supply voltage. Hence the emf induced in the armature is called Back emf (or) counter emf (Eb).
Back emf induced in the armature of a D.C. motor.
Eb = PɸZN / 60A
Where
P = Number of poles
ɸ = Flux per pole in webers
Z = No of conductors in the armature
N = Speed in RPM
A = No of parallel paths
Ia Ra is the voltage drop in the armature circuit
Eb = V-IaRa
Voltage drop in the armature circuit
Ia Ra = V-Eb
Therefore Armature current Ia = V – Eb/Ra
Significance of back emf :
The Back emf in DC motor regulates the flow of armature current, i.e., Automatically changes the
armature current to meet the load requirements and it makes a motor self regulating
4.11 TORQUE – SPEED RELATIONSHIP
DC SHUNT MOTOR.
N α Eb/ɸ i.e., N α V – Ia Ra/ɸ
Fig.4.33 Speed Vs torque
143
In shunt motor, ɸ is constant, N α V – Ia Ra ------(1)
Tαɸ Ia
Since ɸ is constant, T & Ia
Therefore Ia =KT ---- (2)
Where K is a constant
Substitute equation (2) in equation(1)
N α V-(KT) Ra
From the above equation when the torque increases the speed decreases.
DC SERIES MOTOR :
In any DC motor N α V-Ia Ra/ɸ
If Ia Ra drop is negligible
N α V/ɸ ----------- (3)
We know T α ɸ Ia
In series motor Ia α ɸ
Therefore T α ɸ.ɸ
T α ɸ2
Therefore ɸ2 = T
ɸ = √ T ----------------(4)
Substitute the equation (4) in (3)
N α V√T
144
Fig. 4.34Speed – torque curve
From the above equation speed is inversely proportional to torque. Hence in DC series motor, the
torque increases with decreases of speed.
4.12 SPEED CONTROL OF DC MOTOR
Speed control of DC shunt motor

1. Armature control method.
In this method based on by varying the voltage available across the armature. Hence the back emf
and speed of the motor can be changed. This is done by inserting a variable resistance in series with the
armature as shown in fig.
Fig 4.35 Armature control method
145
2. FIELD CONTROL METHOD
The speed of a DC motor is inversely proportional to the flux per pole (N&1/Q). Hence by varying
the flux, the speed can be varied. The flux per pole of a DC motor can be charged by varying the field
current. This field current can be changed by shunt field Rheostat as shown in fig.
Fig 4.36 Field control method in shunt motor
1. ARMATURE RESISTANCE CONTROL METHOD

In this method a variable resistance is directly connected in series with the supply as shown in fig.
this reduces the voltage available across the armature and hence the speed falls. Pay changing the value of
variable resistance. Any speed below the normal speed can be obtained. This method is mostly used to
control the speed of DC series motor.
Fig 4.37
4.12.2 FIELD CONTROL METHOD
In field control method further 3 types.
1. Field Diverter Method

2. Armature Diverter Method
3. Tapped Field Control Method
146
4.12.1.1FIELD DIVERTER METHOD.
A variable resistance called field diverter is connected in parallel with the series field winding as
shown in fig 4.38. Any desired amount of current can be passed through the diverter by adjusting its
resistance. Hence the flux can be decreased and hence the speed of the motor is increased (N & 1/Q).
Hence this method can provide speed above normal speed.
Fig. 4.38 Field diverter method.
4.12.1.2ARMATURE DIVERTER METHOD
In order to obtain a speed below the normal speed a variable resistance called armature diverter is
connected in parallel with the armature as shown in fig. 4.39
Hence by adjusting the armature diverter, any sped laver than the normal speed can be obtained.
Fig 4.39 Armature diverter method
4.12.1.3TAPPED FIELD CONTROL METHOD.
In this method, the flux in reduced and hence the speed is increased (N & 1/Q) by decreasing the
number of turns of the series field windings as shown in fig. 4.40 The switch can short circuit any part of
the field winding, they decreasing the flux and razing the speed. When the field windings are in full turns,
the motor runs at normal speed and when the field turns are cutout speeds higher than normal sped are
obtained.
147
Fig 4.40. Tapped field control method
STARTER FOR DC MOTOR :
In order to start DC shunt motors and DC compound motors, the following starters are used.
1. 3-Point Starters
2. 4-Point Starters
4.13 3-POINT STARTERS

This starter is used to start DC shunt motor and compound motor. The circuit diagram of three
point starter as shown in fig.4.41. Since the motor is connected to supply terminals through three terminals
L, A, and F it is called three point starter.
Fig.4.41
In this starter, the resistor elements are mounted behind an insulation board. The tapping points of
starting resistance are brought out to a number of studs. The handle of the starter is fixed to a point so as to
be moved over the studs against a spring tension.
148
When the starter handle is moved to the first stud a reduced voltage is applied to the armature, due
to drop in the resistor elements. Hence the starting current is limited to safe value. At the same time full
voltage is applied across the field, and this produces normal flux. When the starter handle is moved
towards right, the resister elements are cut out one by one and the voltage applied to the armature increases
step by step when all resistances are cut out, the handle is in on position, now full voltage is applied across
the armature terminals. A soft iron piece is attached to the handle now the handle is attracted by the no volt
release coil.
NO VOLTAGE RELEASE :
If consists of an Electromagnet (NVR). If is connected in series with the shunt field circuit and
hence it carries shunt field current, so this is energized is holds the handle is “on” position. In the case of
failure get de-energized and handle flies back to “off” position.
OVER LOAD RELEASE :
This is also consists of an electromagnet. The electromagnet is energized by the line current. When
the load on the motor is increased, the magnetizing force produced by this coil is sufficient to left the
movable iron. The morale iron in turn short circuits the terminals of the no volt release. Hence the no volt
coil is de energized and the starter handle returns to „off‟ position. This overload release protects the motor
against over loads.
DEMERITS :
A motor can be run for a higher speed than normal speed by reducing the field current. The
reduced field current may not produce enough magnetic force to hold the handle “ON” position. So the
handle returns to the “OFF” position. This is the disadvantage of three point starter. It is eliminated in four
point starter.
4.1.4 FOUR POINT STARTER :
Four point starter is used for starting shunt and compound motors.
A motor can be run for a higher speed than the normal speed by reducing the field current, the
reduced field current may not produce sufficient magnetic force to hold the handle in “ON” position. So
the handle returns to the “OFF” position. This is the disadvantage of three point starter. This draw back in
overcome in four point starter. To avoid this draw sack in four point starter the no volt coil arranged such
that NVR supply is independent of the shunt field current. The no volt coil depends upon the supply
voltage there the no volt release coil in series with protective resistor “RP” is connected across the
terminals L + L- as shown in fig.
There are four terminals namely
1. L+ (Line Plus)
2. L – (Line Minus)
3. A  (Armature)
4. F Field
149
In this starter, the resistor element are mounted behind an insulating board. The tapping point of
starting resistances are brought out to a number of studs. The handle of the starter is fixed to a point so as
to be moved over the studs against a spring tension.
When the starter handle is moved to the first stud, a reduced voltage is applied to the armature due
to drop in the resister elements. Hence the starting current is limited to safe value. At the same time full
voltage is applied across the field and this producer normal flux.
Fig.4.42
When the starter handle is moved towards right the resistor elements are cut out one by one and the
voltage applied to the armature increases step b step when all resistances are cut out the handle is in “ON”
position. Now full voltage is applied across the armature terminals. A soft iron piece is attached to the
handle. Now the handle is attracted by the no volt release coil.
NO VOLT RELEASE :
If consists of an electromagnet (NVR). If is connected directly across the supply line through a
protective resistor Rp. It holds the handle in “ON” position in the case of failure of supply or the voltage is
very low the no volt coil gets de energized and handle files back to “OFF” position.
OVERLOAD RELEASE :
This also consists of a electromagnet. The electromagnet is energized by the line current. When the
load on the motor is increased, the magnetizing force produced by this coil is sufficient to lift the movable
iron. The movable iron in turn short circuits the terminals of the starter handle returns of “OFF” position.
Thus the overload release protects the motor against overloads.
150
4.1.5 APPLICATION OF DC MOTORS
1. DC SHUNT MOTOR :
This type of motors are used to drive centrifugal pumps, light machine tools, reciprocating pumps,
wood working machines, paper mills drilling machines. Shunt motors are used where constant speed is
required at low a starting torque.
2. DC SERIES MOTOR :
This type of motors are typed where high starting torque is required, such as electric trains, cranes,
lefts and conveyors.
3. COMPOUND MOTOR :
This types of motors are used where intermittent high starting torque is required as rolling mills
presser printing machines, punches shears, conveyors etc.,
4.16 AC - MACHINES :
4.16.1 3 ALTERNATOR CONSTRUCTION AND WORKING
The term alternating current generator commonly refers to alternators. They operate on the
principle of faraday‟s laws of electromagnetic induction. An alternator is an electrical machine which
converts mechanical energy into alternating electric energy. They are also known as synchronous
generators.
Fig.4.43
151
The working principle of an alternator or AC generator is similar to the basic working principle of
a DC generator
The above fig helps you understanding how on alternator (or) AC generator works. According to
the faraday‟s law of electromagnetic induction, whenever a conductor moves in a magnetic field EMF gets
induced across the conductor. If the close path is provided to the conductor, induced emf causes current to
flow in the circuit.
Let the conductor coil ABCD is placed in a magnetic field. The direction of magnetic flux will be
form N pole to S pole. The coil is connected to slip rings, and the load is connected through brushes resting
on the slip rings now consider the case 1 from above figure. The coil is rotating clockwise, in this case the
direction of induced current can be given by Fleming‟s night hand rule and it will be along A-B-C-D.
As the coil is rotating clockwise after half of the time period the position of the coil will be as in
second case of above figure. In this case, the direction of the induced current according to Fleming‟s right
hand rule will be along D.C.B.A. It shows that the direction of the current changes after half of the time
period that means we get on alternating current.
Fig.4.44
4.16.2 CONSTRUCTIONAL DETAILS OF ALTERNATOR :
According to the construction of rotor, alternators are classified into two types.
1. Salient Pole Alternator
2. Cylindrical type Alternator (Non Salient Pole)
1. SALIENT POLE ALTERNATORS :

Alternators driven at slow and moderate speeds are normally constructed with salient pole type of
rotor. The prime movers used are water turbine (or) diesel engine.
Fig.4.45
152
Main parts of the alternator. Obviously consists of stator and rotor , But the unlike other machines,
in most of the alternators, field exciters are rotating and the armature coil is stationary.
Stator : Unlike in DC Machines stator of an alternator is not meant to serve path for magnetic
flux. Instead the stator is used for holding armature winding. The stator core is made up of lamination of
steed / alloys or magnetic room, to maize the eddy current losses.
Why Armature Winding is stationary in an alternator?
 At high Voltages, It easier to insulate stationary armature winding, this may be as high 30 Kv or
more.
 The high voltage output can be directly taken out from the stationary armature, whereas, for a
rotary armature, there will be large brush contact drop at higher voltages, also the sparking at the
brush surface will occur.
 Field exciter winding is placed in rotor, and the low dc voltage can be transferred safely.
 The armature winding can be braced well. So as to prevent deformation caused by the high
centrifugal force.
ROTOR : There are two type of rotor used in an AC generator / Alternators.
(i) Salient type rotor

(ii) Cylindrical type rotor.
4.16.3 Salient Pole rotor :
Fig.4.46
Salient pole type rotor is used in low and medium speed alternators. Construction of AC generator
of salient type rotor shown in figure above. This type of rotor consists of large number of projected poles
153
(Called Salient pads) bolted on a magnetic wheel. These poles are also laminated to minimize the eddy
current losses. Alternator and short in axial length.
Damper Windings :
Damper Windings are provided in the pole face of the Salient Pole rotor. Slurs are provided in the
pole shoes. Copper bars are inserted in the slots and the ends of all the bars in both sides are short
circulated by copper rings to have a closed circuit. This arrangement is called damper windings.
4.16.4 Cylindrical type rotor (non salient pole rotor)
Cylindrical type rotors are used in high speed alternators especially in turbo alternators. This type
of rotor consists of a smooth and solid steel cylinder having slots along is outer periphery field windings
are placed in these slots. The DC supply is given to the rotor winding. Through the slip rings and brushed
arrangement. In this type of rotor the Damper winding is not necessary. The wind age loss is less.
Fig.4.47 Fig.4.48
4.17 Relation between speed and frequency:
In an alternator, there exists a definite relationship between the rotational speed (N) of the Rotor,
the frequent (f) of the generated emf and the number of poles P.
The emf in an armature conductor goes through one cycle in angular distance equal to take the
pole pitch.
Let P - total numb of magnetic poles

N - Rotation speed of the rotor in rpm
F - Frequency of generated emf in HZ
154
Since one cycle of emf is produced when a pair of poles passes past a conductor, the number of
cycles of emf produce in one revolution of the rotor is equal to the number of pair of poles.
 No.of cycles / revolution = P/2

 No.of Revolution / Second = N/60
 Frequency = P/2 X N/60 = PN HZ
120
F = PN HZ
120
N is known is synchronous speed
4.18. Three phase Induction motor: (3) – Phase construction of 3 Induction Motor:
An Induction Motor consists of two main parts namely stator and motor. There are two types of
induction motor. They are squirrel cage and slip ring induction motor. This motor consists of two major
parts.
Stator:
Stator of three phase induction motor is made up of number of slots to construct a three phase
winding circuit which is connected to 3 phase AC source. The three phase winding are arranged in such a
manner in the slots that they produce a rotating magnetic field after three phase AC supply is given to
them.
Rotor :
Rotor of three phase induction motor consists of a cylindrical laminated core with parallel slots
that can carry conductors. Conductors are a heavy copper or aluminums bar which fits in each slots and
they are short circuited by the end rings. The slots are not exactly made parallel to the axis of the shaft but
are slotted a little skewed because this arrangement reduces magnetic humming noise and can avoid
stalling of motor.
Fig.4.49
155
Rotor Construction :
Three phase induction motor are classified into two types according to their rotor construction
1. Squirrel Cage Rotor
2. Slip Ring Rotor
4.18.1 Squirrel Cage Rotor
Fig.4.50
The rotors of motor also consist of laminated silicon steel punching, bolted together and mounted
on a shaft. This core is cylindrical in shape with slots on the outside surface. The rotor winding consists of
copper bars. One bar is placed in each slot. These slots are semi closed (or) totally closed. The rotor slots
are slightly skewed and avoid is the magnetic locking. Hence in this type of rotors, it is not possible to add
any external resistance in series with the rotor circuit for starting (or) speed control. This type of rotor is
called squirrel cage induction motor.
4.18.2 Slip Ring Rotor (Phase wound Rotor)
Fig.4.51
156
It is made up of steel laminations this type of rotor is provided with three phase double layer
distributed winding this three phase windings is accommodated in the rotor slots. Each end of the three
phase winding is connected in star, the remaining three terminals are brought out and they are connected to
three slip rings theses slip rings are mounted on the shaft with insulation provided between each other. The
brushes are so arranged to rest on the three slip rings. External star connected rheostat is connected to these
slip rings. For slip rings high quality phosphor bronze is used.
At starting the external resistances are connected in series with the rotor and hence the starting
torque of the motor is high.
The air gap between stator and rotor is always very small. For small machines the air gap is from
0.35mm to 0.65 mm, for larger machine rating air cap is from 1.00mm to 1.5mm.
4.19 Principle of Operation of Three Phase Induction Motor.
The stator of a three phase induction motor consists of a balanced three phase winding when the
stator windings are fed by a three phase supply, then a magnetic field notating at synchronous speed is
produced. This flux cuts the rotor conductors and an emf is induced in the rotor conductors according to
faraday‟s lays of electromagnetic induction. The frequency of the induced emf is the same as the supply
frequency as the rotor is stationary now. Its magnitude is proportional to the relative velocity between the
flux and the conductors.
Since the rotor conductors are short circuited a current is flowing through the rotor conductors.
Hence a magnetic field is produced in the rotor conductors. One to the interaction of stator and rotor
magnetic fields, the rotor begins to rotate in the same direction as that of the rotating magnetic flux and
tries to catch up with rotating flux. But the sped or the rotor is lesser than that of the stator rotating
magnetic field.
4.20 Methods of Starting of Three Phase Induction Motor :

In order to reduce the starting current of induction motor various methods for used in 3 phase
induction motors are.
1. D.O.L. Starter
2. Rotor Resistance
3. Auto Transformer Starter
4. Start delta Starter.
4.20.1 D.O.L. STARTER

D.O.L. Starter is otherwise referred to direct-on-line starter. Using this starter, motors are started
with full line voltage across them push button type D.O.L Starter as shown in fig.
Fig 4.52 DOL Starter
157
By pressing the “ON” push button, the relay, in series between two phase gets energized. Hence
the relay operator and closes the main contacts. Now the motor gets 3Q supply through OLR. Then motor
starts to rotate. When the OFF push button is pressed, the relay is de energized and motor comes to stop.
When overload occurs in the motor, terminal over load relay contactor melts, and hence the motor is
disconnected from the supply.
Merits of D.O.L. Starter.
1. Simple in construction
2. Easy to install
3. Easy of maintain
4. In expressive
Demerits of D.O.L. Starter.
1. Used only small horse power motors

2. Starting current heavy.
4.20.2 Rotor Resistance Starter :
This type of starter is used to start slip ring induction motor. The slip ring induction motor is
started by applying full line voltage to the stator windings. In the rotor circuit external resistance is
included. The starting current is limited by introducing the variable resistance in each phase, of the rotor
circuit. This arrangement increases the starting torque also.
Fig 4.53 Rotor Resistance Starter
In the fig. 4.53, the fuses, relay, thermal overload relay are shown. In case if the motor is
overloaded and unduly heated up. The thermal over load relay will operate and disconnected the motor
from the supply.
158
In the rotor circuit, the controlling resistance provided may be of stud or contactor type. This may
be hand operated (or) automatic, some means of inter locking arrangement are provided, of ensure proper
operation of the line contactor and the rotor resistance. This meter locking provision helps to close the
stator contactor , only if all the three phase resistance in the rotor circuit is included in the circuit.
Merits :
1. The Starting current is reduced

2. High starting torque is developed
4.20.3 AUTO-TRANSFORMER STARTER
Fig 4.54 Auto Transformer Starter
This method of starting is suitable for cage motors. Auto transformer starter consists of 3 phase
auto transformer with the provision of taps in order to give reduced voltage. The auto transformer are
generally tapped at 50%, 60%, 80%, at about 80% of normal speed of the motor.
The manually operated type is having a multiple double throw switch as shown in fig4.54.
During start, the switch is thrown to start position tapings of auto transformer. After the motor
reaches about 80% of rated speed, the switch is changed over to “RUN” position and the motor is applied
with FULL voltage from the mains the starter is provided with no volt release and over load release as
protective devices.
No Volt Release :
If the supply fails (or) voltage drop in the line below a certain level, the iron piece inside the relay
is demagnetized, and hence the relay contactor and supply contactor return to their original position, so the
supply given to the motor is disconnected.
159
Over Bad Release :
Due to over load, the motor may get heated up due to this heat the thermal overload relay contactor
melts, there by disconnecting the motor from the supply, this over load relay protects the motor from
overload.
Merits :
1. Availability of the highest torque per ampere of supply cement.

2. Adjustment of starting voltage by selection of proper tap on the auto transformer
3. Stability for long starting period.
Demerits:
This type of starters is low power factor and higher cost.
4.20.4 STAR DELTA STARTER :
Fig 4.55 Star Delta Starter
The star delta starter connects the three stator windings in star across the supply voltage. After
motor attains speed, the same through a change over switch, the connection diagram for star delta starter as
show in fig.
Since at starting the stator winding are connected in star, the voltage across each phase winding is
reduced 1//3 of line voltage (since in star Vp=L/3) . There fire the starting current is reduce to 1/3 times
that of current taken with direct starting. The starting torque is also reduced to 1/3rd of starting torque
obtained with direct switching.
160
No Volt Release :
If the supply falls on voltage drops in the line below a certain level the iron piece inside the relay
is demagnetized and hence relay contactor and supply return to the original position. So the motor is
disconnected from the supply.
Over Load Release

Due to overload, the motor may get heated up. Due to this heat, the Overload relay contactor melts
thereby disconnecting the motor from the supply. Thus overload relay protect the motor from overload.
Merits :
1. This method of starting is simple, cheap and effective.

2. No power is wasted in auxiliary components.
Demerits :
This type of starting is unsuitable for line voltage exceeding 3000 volt.
4.21 Slip :
The difference between the synchronous speed Ns and the actual speed Nr of the rotor is known as
slip. It is always expressed as the percentage of the synchronous speed.
% slip = Ns – Nr x100
Ns
Ns - Synchronous speed of motor

Ne - Actual speed of motor
(Ns-Nr) - Slip speed
Slip (s) = Ns – Ne
Ns
That fore SNs = Ns-Nr

Nr = Ns – SNs
Nr = NS (1-s)
4.22 Single Phase Induction Motor

Single phase induction motor may be classified as under, depending on their construction and
method of starting.
161
Fig 4.56 Fig 4.57
1. Induction motors – (split phase, coauthor and shaded pole etc.)
2. Repulsion motors – (sometimes called inductive series motor)
3. AC series motor
4. Un – excited synchronous motors – (Reluctance motor and Hysteresis motor)
4.22.1 Single Phase Induction Motor :-
A single phase motor consists of

(i) A stator which carries single phase winding
(ii) A squirrel cage type of rotor
In the single phase motor is non self-starting and the single phase winding produces merely a
pulsating (or) alternating flux. A synchronously rotating flux, can be produced only by either a 2-phase or
3-phase stator winding when energized from a 2-phase or 3-phase supply respectively.
An alternating flux acting on a stationary squirrel cage rotor cannot produce rotation (only a
rotating flux can). However, if the rotor of a single phase motor is given as initial start by hand or
otherwise in either direction then immediately a torque arises and the motor accelerates to its final speed
provided, it is not heavily loaded.
Single phase Induction motor principle of operation.
Fig 4.58. Fig 4.59
162
Fig.4.60
A single phase motor is temporarily converted into a 2-phase motor by providing an extra
winding on the stator in addition to the main (or) running winding. The circuit connections are shown in
fig 4.60. By making starting winding highly resistive and main winding highly reactive, the phase
difference between the currents drawn by there can be made sufficiently large (the ideal value being 90`) .
The motor behaves.
Applications
(1) Washing Machines

(2) Oil burners
(3) Blowers
(4) Wood working tools
(5) Bottle washers
(6) Graders and machine tools
It is generally available in the 50-25 walts range.
4.22.2 Capacitor Start Induction Motor
These motor have a higher starting torque, because in their case angle and between currents is and
Im is large. The angle and is increased by connecting a capacitor in series with the starting winding as
shown in fig.
Fig.4.61 Fig.4.62
163
Usually the capacitor is mounted on top of the motor frame and is generally an electrolytic
capacitor. As before the centrifugal switch cuts off both the starting winding and the capacitor when motor
runs up to nearly 75 percent like a two phase motor for starting purpose fig.4.61 The two currents produce
a revaluing flux and hence make the motor self starting. The starting torque T = KIs IM sinα and where K is
a constant governed by motor design parameters.
The centrifugal switch S is connected in series with the starting winding and is located outside the
motor. Its faction is to automatically disconnect the starting winding from the supply when the motor
reaches 70 to 80 percent of its full load.
Typical torque / speed characteristics for such a motor as shown in fig.4.63
The starting torque is 150 to 200 percent of the full load torque with a starting current of 6 to 8
times the full load current
Fig 4.63 Torque Vs speed.
Of its full load speed. As seen from the fig the current is drawn by starting winding leads the voltage where
as the current in Im in the main winding as before, lags V. In the way, value of and is increased to about
80* which increase the starting torque to twice that developed by a standard split phase induction. Such
motors have starting torques as high as 450 percent of the full load value typical performance curve of such
a motor as shown in fig. They are usually manufactured in the 100 – 500 W range.
The capacitors start motors are very popular for heavy duty general-purpose applications requiring
high starting torque.
Application :
1. Compressors.
2. Jet Pumps
3. Form and Home-workshop tools
4. Swimming Tool pumps
5. Conveyors. Etc.,
164
4.23 STEPPER MOTOR :
Principle Operation of Stepper Motor :-
A stepper motor is basically a synchronous motor in stepper motor there is no brushes. This motor
does not rotate continuously instead it rotates in form of pulses or in discrete steps. That‟s why it is called
stepper motor.
There are different types of stepper motor.
1. Permanent Magnet
2. Variable Reluctance
3. Hybrid stepper motor
The first type is most important. The working and construction of the permanent magnet type
stepper motor is as shown in fig.
The permanent magnet type motor has a stator that is of electromagnets and a rotor that is of
permanent magnet. Therefore this motor is called permanent magnet type stepper motor.
Working :
When we gives supply to the stator, the winding of stator is energized and hence produces
magnetic field Vs described above, the rotor is made up of permanent magnet, that why it tends to follow
the revolving field, thus an stepper motor works.
The speed or torque of a permanent magnet type motor is changed by the number of poles used in
stators. It we use a large number of poles in stator then the speed f motor will increase and if we use a less
number of poles then the speed will decrease
Fig.4.64
165
Fig.4.65
REVIEW QUESTIONS PART - A

1. Name the various part of a DC machine
2. What are the types of DC Generator ?
3. What is the Principle of DC Generator ?
4. What is the Function of Commutator ?
5. What is the Pole Pitch ?
6. Write the expression for emf equation of DC Generator
7. Define DC Generator
8. Define DC Motor
9. What is meant by back emf ?
10. What are Type of DC Motors
11. Define Alternator
12. Mention the type of Alternator
13. Define Slip
14. Define Induction Motor
15. Define stepper Motor
PART – B
1. What are the various types of DC Generator
2. What are the Application of a DC Generator
3. Mention the various application of DC Motor
4. What is the relation between speed and frequency
5. Mention the necessity of starter
6. Mention the various methods of starting of 3Q induction motor
7. Mention the application of capacitor start induction Motor
166
PART – C
1. Explain the working principle of DC Generator
2. Explain the working principle of DC Motor
3. Derive the emf equation of a transformer
4. Explain the working of 3 point starter
5. Explain the working of 4 point starter
6. Explain the working principle of 3Q alternator
7. Explain the principle of operation 3Q induction motor
8. Explain the principle of operation of single phase induction motor
9. Explain the principle of operation of capacitor start induction motor
10. Explain the principle of operation of stepper motor.
167
UNIT V
TRANSFORMERS
5.1 Transformer
Transformer is a static electrical machine which transforms electrical power from one circuit to
another circuit, without changing in its frequency. The transformer works on the principle of
electromagnetic induction.
Transformers are used to increase or decrease the alternating voltages in electric power
applications.
Fig 5.1
Transformers have two windings, being the primary winding and the secondary winding. The
primary winding is the coil that draws power from the source. The secondary winding is the coil that
delivers the energy at the transformed or changed voltage to the load. Usually, these two coils are
subdivided into several coils in order to reduce the creation of flux.
In brief, transformer is a device that
1. transfers electric power from one circuit to another,

2. does so without change of frequency,
3. accomplishes this by electromagnetic induction and
4. where the electric circuits are linked by mutual induction.
5.2 Ideal Transformer
An ideal transformer is static electric machine which has

- no copper losses (no winding resistance)
- no iron loss in core
- no leakage flux
168
In other words, an ideal transformer gives output power exactly equal to the input power. The efficiency of
an idea transformer is 100%.
In an ideal transformer, V1I1 = V2I2
Characteristics Of an Ideal Transformer :
 Zero winding resistance: It is assumed that, resistance of primary as well as secondary winding of
an ideal transformer is zero. That is, both the coils are purely inductive in nature.
 Infinite permeability of the core: Higher the permeability, lesser the mmf required for flux
establishment. That means, if permeability is high, less magnetizing current is required to magnetize
the transformer core.
 No leakage flux: Leakage flux is a part of magnetic flux which does not get linked with secondary
winding. In an ideal transformer, it is assumed that entire amount of flux get linked with secondary
winding (that is, no leakage flux).
 100% efficiency: An ideal transformer does not have any losses like hysteresis loss, eddy current
loss etc. So, the output power of an ideal transformer is exactly equal to the input power. Hence,
100% efficiency.
5.3 Principle of operation
The working principle of transformer is very simple. It depends upon Faraday's law of
electromagnetic induction. When an input voltage is applied to the primary winding, alternating current
starts to flow in the primary winding. The current flows, a changing magnetic field is set up in the
transformer core. As this magnetic field cuts across the secondary winding, alternating voltage is produced
in the secondary winding.
This emf is called 'mutually induced emf', and the frequency of mutually induced emf is same as
that of supplied emf. If the secondary winding is closed circuit, then mutually induced current flows
through it, and hence the electrical energy is transferred from one circuit (primary) to another circuit
(secondary).
The ratio between the number of actual turns of wire in each coil is the key in determining the type
of transformer and what the output voltage will be. The ratio between output voltage and input voltage is
the same as the ratio of the number of turns between the two windings.
A transformers output voltage is greater than the input voltage if the secondary winding has more
turns of wire than the primary winding. The output voltage is stepped up, and it is called as a "step-up
transformer".
If the secondary winding has fewer turns than the primary winding, the output voltage is lower.
This is a "step-down transformer".
Fig 5.2
169
5.4 Construction Of Transformer
Basically a transformer consists of two inductive windings and a laminated steel core. The coils
are insulated from each other as well as from the steel core. A transformer may also consist of a container
for winding and core assembly (called as tank), suitable bushings to take out the terminals, oil conservator
to provide oil in the transformer tank for cooling purposes etc. The above figure illustrates the
construction of a transformer.
In all types of transformers, core is constructed by assembling laminated sheets of steel,

with minimum air-gap between them. The steel used is having high silicon content and sometimes heat
treated, to provide high permeability and low hysteresis loss. Laminated sheets of steel are used to reduce
eddy current loss. To avoid high reluctance at joints, laminations are stacked by alternating the sides of
joint. That is, if joints of first sheet assembly are at front face, the joints of following assemble are kept at
back face.
5.4.1 Types Of Transformers
Transformers can be classified on different basis, like types of construction, types of cooling etc.
(A) On the basis of construction, transformers can be classified into two types as;
i) Core type transformer ii) Shell type transformer.
Fig 5.3
(I) Core Type Transformer

In core type transformer, windings are cylindrical former wound, mounted on the core limbs as
shown in the figure above. The cylindrical coils have different layers and each layer is insulated from each
other. Materials like paper, cloth or mica can be used for insulation.
(Ii) Shell Type Transformer

The coils are former wound and mounted in layers stacked with insulation between them. A shell
type transformer may have simple rectangular form (as shown in above fig).
(B) On the basis of their purpose
1. Step up transformer: Voltage increases (with subsequent decrease in current) at secondary.

2. Step down transformer: Voltage decreases (with subsequent increase in current) at secondary.
170
(C) On the basis of type of supply
1. Single phase transformer

2. Three phase transformer
(D) On the basis of their use
1. Power transformer: Used in transmission network, high rating

2. Distribution transformer: Used in distribution network, comparatively lower rating than that of
power transformers.
3. Instrument transformer: Used in relay and protection purpose in different instruments in industries
 Current transformer (CT)
 Potential transformer (PT)
5.5 Emf Equation of a Transformer
Consider a transformer having
N1 = Number of turns in primary winding

N2 = Number of turns in secondary winding
Φm = Maximum flux in the core (in Wb)
f = frequency of the AC supply (in Hz)
Fig 5.4
As, shown in the fig., the flux rises sinusoidally to its maximum value Φm from 0. It reaches to the
maximum value in one quarter of the cycle i.e in T/4 sec (where, T is time period of the sin wave of the
supply = 1/f).
Therefore,
average rate of change of flux =
= 4f Φm (Wb/s).
Now,
Induced emf per turn = rate of change of flux per turn
Therefore, average emf per turn = 4f Φm (Volts).

As, the flux Φ varies sinusoidally,
171
Form factor of sine wave = = 1.11
RMS value of emf per turn = Form factor X average emf per turn.
Therefore, RMS value of emf per turn = 1.11 x 4f Φm

= 4.44f Φm.
RMS value of induced emf in whole primary winding (E1)

= RMS value of emf per turn X Number of turns in primary winding
E1 = 4.44f N1 Φm ............................. eq 1
Similarly, RMS induced emf in secondary winding (E2) can be given as
E2 = 4.44f N2 Φm. ............................ eq 2
from the above equations 1 and 2,
This is called the emf equation of transformer, which shows, emf / number of turns is same for both
primary and secondary winding.
For an ideal transformer on no load,

E1 = V1 and E2 = V2 .
where, V1 = supply voltage of primary winding
V2 = terminal voltage of secondary winding
Voltage Transformation Ratio (K)
Voltage transformation ratio = = = = K
Where, K = constant
This constant K is known as voltage transformation ratio.
 If N2 > N1, i.e. K > 1, then the transformer is called step-up transformer.
 If N2 < N1, i.e. K < 1, then the transformer is called step-down transformer.
Current transformation ratio (K)
In an ideal transformer,
V1I1 = V2I2
= = =K
172
5.6 Losses in Transformer
As the electrical transformer is a static device, mechanical loss in transformer normally does not
come into picture. We generally consider only electrical losses in transformer. Loss in any machine is
broadly defined as difference between input power and output power. When input power is supplied to the
primary of transformer, some portion of that power is used to compensate core losses in transformer i.e.
Hysteresis loss in transformer and Eddy current loss in transformer core and some portion of the input
power is lost as I2R loss and dissipated as heat in the primary and secondary windings, because these
windings have some internal resistance in them. The first one is called core loss or iron loss in
transformer and the later is known as ohmic loss or copper loss in transformer. Another loss occurs in
transformer, known as Stray Loss, due to Stray fluxes link with the mechanical structure and winding
conductors.
Copper Loss in Transformer
These losses occur due to ohmic resistance of the transformer windings. If I1 and I2 are the primary
and the secondary current. R1 and R2 are the resistance of primary and secondary winding then the copper
losses occurring in the primary and secondary winding will be I12R1 and I22R2 respectively.
Therefore, the total copper losses will be
These losses vary according to the load and known hence it is also known as variable losses. Copper losses
vary as the square of the load current.
Core Losses in Transformer
Hysteresis loss and eddy current loss, both depend upon magnetic properties of the materials used
to construct the core of transformer and its design. So these losses in transformer are fixed and do not
depend upon the load current. So core losses in transformer which is alternatively known as iron loss in
transformer can be considered as constant for all range of load.
Hysteresis loss in transformer is denoted as,
Eddy current loss in transformer is denoted as,

Where, Kh = Hysteresis constant. Ke = Eddy current constant. Kf = form constant.
Core loss or Iron loss = Hysteresis loss + Eddy current loss
= constant losses
173
5.7 Transformer Efficiency
The Efficiency of the transformer is defined as the ratio of output power to the input power, the
two being measured in the same unit. Its unit is either in Watts (W) or KW. Transformer efficiency is
denoted by Ƞ.
% Efficiency(ɳ) = X 100
= X 100
= X 100
Where output power = ,
Cos θ2 = Power factor of load

Core loss Pi = Hysteresis loss + Eddy current loss
Copper loss Pc = I12R1 + I22R2 = I22Res
5.7.1 Condition for Maximum efficiency
The transformer efficiency at a given load and power factor is given by the relation shown below
ɳ =
Divide both numerator and denominator by I2

ɳ = ------------ (1)
The value of the terminal voltage V2 is approximately constant. Thus, for a given power factor the
Transformer efficiency depends upon the load current I2. In the equation (1) shown above the numerator is
constant and the transformer efficiency will be maximum if the denominator with respect to the variable
I2 is equated to zero.
( V2cosθ2 + + )=0
0 - + =0
I22Res = Pi
(i.e) Copper losses = Iron losses
174
Thus, the efficiency of a transformer will be maximum when the copper or variable losses are
equal to iron or constant losses.
ɳmax = as ( Pc = Pi )
5.8 Voltage Regulation of Transformer
At a constant supply voltage the change in the secondary terminal voltage from no load to full load
with respect to no load voltage is called as Voltage Regulation of a Transformer.
When the Transformer is loaded with a constant supply voltage, the terminal voltage changes
depending upon the load and its power factor. The algebraic difference between the no-load and full load
terminal voltage is measured in terms of voltage regulation. The change in secondary terminal voltage
from no load to full load is E2 – V2. This change is divided by E2( no load voltage) is known as „regulation
down‟. If the change is divided by V2 (full load voltage) then it is called „regulation up‟. Generally
regulation is expressed in percentage.
% Regulation down = X 100
% Regulation up = X 100
5.9 O.C. and S.C. Tests on Single Phase Transformer
The efficiency and regulation of a transformer on any load condition and at any power factor condition
can be predetermined by indirect loading method. In this method, the actual load is not used on
transformer. But the equivalent circuit parameters of a transformer are determined by conducting two tests
on a transformer which are,
1. Open circuit test (O.C Test)

2. Short circuit test (S.C.Test)
The parameters calculated from these test results are effective in determining the regulation and
efficiency of a transformer at any load and power factor condition, without actually loading the
transformer. The advantage of this method is that without much power loss the tests can be performed and
results can be obtained. Let us discuss in detail how to perform these tests and how to use the results to
calculate equivalent circuit parameters.
175
5.9.1 Open Circuit Test (O.C. Test)
The experimental circuit to conduct O.C test is shown in the Fig.1
Fig 5.5 Experimental circuit for O.C. test
The transformer primary is connected to a.c. supply through ammeter, wattmeter and variac. The
secondary of transformer is kept open. Usually low voltage side is used as primary and high voltage side as
secondary to conduct O.C test.
The primary is excited by rated voltage, which is adjusted precisely with the help of a variac. The
wattmeter measures input power. The ammeter measures input current. The voltmeter gives the value of
rated primary voltage applied at rated frequency.
Sometimes a voltmeter may be connected across secondary to measure secondary voltage which is
V2 = E2 when primary is supplied with rated voltage. As voltmeter resistance is very high, though voltmeter
is connected, secondary is treated to be open circuit as voltmeter current is always negligibly small.
When the primary voltage is adjusted to its rated value with the help of variac, readings of ammeter
and wattmeter are to be recorded.
The observation table is as follows
Vo = Rated voltage
Wo = Input power
Io = Input current = no load current
As transformer secondary is open, it is on no load. So current drawn by the primary is no load current
Io. The two components of this no load current are,
Im = Io sin Φo
Ic = Io cos Φo
where cos Φo = No load power factor
And hence power input can be written as,
Wo = Vo Io cos Φo
The phasor diagram is shown in the Fig. 5.6.
176
Fig 5.6 Phasor Diagram at No-Load
As secondary is open, I2 = 0. Thus its reflected current on primary is also zero. So we have primary
current I1 =Io. The transformer no load current is always very small, hardly 2 to 4 % of its full load value.
As I2 = 0, secondary copper losses are zero. And I1 = Io is very low hence copper losses on primary are also
very very low. Thus the total copper losses in O.C. test are negligibly small. As against this the input
voltage is rated at rated frequency hence flux density in the core is at its maximum value. Hence iron losses
are at rated voltage. As output power is zero and copper losses are very low, the total input power is used
to supply iron losses. This power is measured by the wattmeter i.e. W o. Hence the wattmeter in O.C. test
gives iron losses which remain constant for all the loads.
... Wo = Pi = Iron losses
Calculations : We know that,
Wo = Vo Io cos Φ
cos Φo = Wo /(Vo Io ) = no load power factor
Once cos Φo is known we can obtain,
Ic = Io cos Φo
and Im = Io sin Φo
Once Ic and Im are known we can determine exciting circuit parameters as,
Ro = Vo /Ic Ω
and Xo = Vo /Im Ω
5.9.2 Short Circuit Test (S.C. Test)

In this test, primary is connected to a.c. supply through variac, ammeter and voltmeter as shown in the
Fig. 5.7.
Fig 5.7 Experimental circuit for S.C. test
The secondary is short circuited with the help of thick copper wire or solid link. As high voltage side
is always low current side, it is convenient to connect high voltage side to supply and shorting the low
voltage side.
As secondary is shorted, its resistance is very very small and on rated voltage it may draw very large
current. Such large current can cause overheating and burning of the transformer. To limit this short circuit
177
current, primary is supplied with low voltage which is just enough to cause rated current to flow through
primary which can be observed on an ammeter. The low voltage can be adjusted with the help of variac.
Hence this test is also called low voltage test or reduced voltage test. The wattmeter reading as well as
voltmeter, ammeter readings are recorded. The observation table is as follows,
Now the current flowing through the windings are rated current hence the total copper loss is full load
copper loss. Now the voltage supplied is low which is a small fraction of the rated voltage. The iron losses
are function of applied voltage. So the iron losses in reduced voltage test are very small. Hence the
wattmeter reading is the power loss which is equal to full load copper losses as iron losses are very low.
... Wsc = (Pcu) F.L. = Full load copper loss
Calculations : From S.C. test readings we can write,
Wsc = Vsc Isc cos Φsc
... cos Φsc = Vsc Isc /Wsc = short circuit power factor
Wsc = Isc2 R1e = copper loss
.
.. R1e =Wsc /Isc2
while Z1e =Vsc /Isc = √(R1e2 + X1e2)
... X1e = √(Z1e2 - R1e2)
Thus we get the equivalent circuit parameters R1e, X1e and Z1e. Knowing the transformation ratio K, the
equivalent circuit parameters referred to secondary also can be obtained.
5.10 TRANSFORMER ON NO LOAD
For an ideal transformer, we have assumed that there are no core losses and copper losses. For
practical transformers, these two losses cannot be neglected. At no-load condition, the primary current is
not fully reactive and it supplies
(ii) iron loss in the core, that is, hysteresis loss and eddy current loss and
(iii) (ii) very small amount of copper loss in the primary. There is copper loss in the secondary
because it is an open circuit.
The no-load current lags behind V1 by an angle θ0, which is less than 90° (around 80°–85°). The
no-load input power is given by
W0=V1I0cosθ0
where cosθ0 is the no-load power factor. Figure shows the no-load phasor diagram of a practical
transformer. The no-load primary current (I0) has the following two components:
178
 One component of I0, that is Iw = I0 cosθ0 is in phase with V1. Since Iw supplies the iron loss and
primary copper loss at no load, it is known as active or working or iron loss component.
 The other component of I0 that is, Iµ = I0 sinθ0 is in quadrature with V1. It is known as
magnetizing component. Its function is to sustain the alternating flux in the core and it is
wattless.
θ0 =
and the following points are most important:
 The no-load primary current is 1–5 per cent of full-load current.
 Since the permeability of the core varies with the instantaneous value of exciting or magnetizing
current, the waveform of exciting or magnetizing current is not truly sinusoidal.
 Since I0 is very small, the no-load copper loss is negligible. Hence, no-load input is practically
equal to the iron loss in the transformer.
 Since core loss is solely responsible for shifting the current vector I0, the angle θ0 is known
as hysteresis angle of advance.
Fig 5.8 Equivalent Circuit of Transformer at No-load
5.11 TRANSFORMER ON LOAD
Figure5.9 (a) shows the transformer during no-load condition. The flux Φ is set up in the core.
When the secondary is loaded shown in Figure (b), the secondary current will set up its own flux (Φ2),
which opposes Φ. The resultant flux becomes Φ – Φ2. The value of e1 will decrease because magnitude
179
of Φ decreases. Hence, v1 becomes greater than e1 and the primary winding draws more current from the
source. Let the additional current drawn by the primary be I2′. This current I2′ will set up its own flux (Φ2′)
in the same direction of Φ and it will oppose Φ2 shown in Figure (c). The resultant flux will be Φ at any
load condition if and only if
Φ2′=Φ2
i.e., N1I2′=N2I2
= =
i.e.,
Fig 5.9 (a)No load (b) & (c)On-load Transformer
5.12 Auto Transformer
An auto transformer is an electrical transformer having only one winding. The winding has at
least three terminals which is explained in the construction details below.
Some of the advantages of auto-transformer are that,
 they are smaller in size,

 cheap in cost,
 low leakage reactance,
 increased kVA rating,
 low exciting current etc.
180
An example of application of auto transformer is, using an US electrical equipment rated for 115 V
supply (they use 115 V as standard) with higher Indian voltages. Another example could be in starting
method of three phase induction motors.
Construction Of Auto Transformer

In Auto Transformer, one single winding is used as primary winding as well as secondary
winding. But in two windings transformer two different windings are used for primary and secondary
purpose. A diagram of auto transformer is shown below. The winding AB of total turns N1 is considered as
primary winding. This winding is tapped from point ′C′ and the portion BC is considered as secondary.
Let's assume the number of turns in between points ′B′ and ′C′ is N2.
If V1 voltage is applied across the winding i.e. in between ′A′ and ′C′.
So voltage per turn in this winding is
Hence, the voltage across the portion BC of the winding, will be,
x N2 and from the figure above, the voltage is V2
Hence, x N2 = V2
= = Constant = k
As BC portion of the winding is considered as secondary, it can easily be understood that value of
constant ′k′ is nothing but turns ratio or voltage ratio of that auto transformer.
When load is connected between secondary terminals i.e.between ′B′ and ′C′, load current I2 starts
flowing. The current in the secondary winding or common winding is the difference of I2 & I1.
Fig 5.10
181
As winding is common in both circuits, most of the energy is transferred by means of electrical conduction
and a small part is transferred through induction.
5.13 All day efficiency
All day efficiency is determined as, total KWh at the secondary to the total KWh at the primary of
the transformer for a long specific time period preferably 24 hrs. i.e,
All day efficiency =
This is very much useful to judge the performance of a distribution transformer, whose primary is
connected to the system forever, but secondary load varies tremendously throughout the day.
5.14 Applications of transformer
1. The transformer is used to either step up or step down the voltage.
2. It is used in power supply for electronic circuit.
3. In generating station, the transformer steps up the voltage for transmission.
4. It is used as an auto transformer starter for starting the induction motors.
5. It is used as an instrument transformer for increasing the range of meters.
Example 1 The voltage ratio of a single-phase, 50 Hz transformer is 5,000/500 V at no load. Calculate the
number of turns in each winding if the maximum value of the flux in the core is 7.82 mWb.
Solution
Here
E1 = V1 = 5,000 V
E2 = V2 = 500 V
φmax = 7.82 m Wb = 7.82 × 10−3 Wb, f = 50Hz
Let N1 and N2 be the number of turns of the primary and secondary windings, respectively.
Since
E1 = 4.44 f φmN1
i.e.,
Again,
Example 2 The no-load current of a 4,400/440 V, sinlge-phase, 50 Hz transformer is0.04. It consumes

power 80 W at no load when supply is given to LV side and HV side is kept open. Calculate the following:
182
(i) Power factor of no-load current.
(ii) Iron loss component of current.
(iii) Magnetizing component of current.
Solution
W0 W, I0 =0.04 A, V1 = 4,400 V
i. Since W0 = V1I0cosθ0
The no-load power factor is 0.454 (lagging).

ii. IW = I0 cosθ0 =0.04 × 0.454 = 0.0187 A
iii.
∴ Iμ = I0 sinθ0 = 0.04 × 0.891 = 0.0356
183
UNIT- V
Review Questions
PART – A ( 2 marks Questions)

1. Define transformer ?
2. What is an ideal transformer?
3. What are the various losses in a transformer ?
4. What are the characteristics of an ideal transformer ?
5. What are the applications of transformer ?
6. Define turns ratio of a transformer.
7. Define efficienency of a transformer.
8. Define regulation of single phase transformer.
9. What is meant by step up transformer ?
10. What is meant by step down transformer ?
11. What is copper loss of a transformer ?
12. What is core loss of a transformer ?
PART –B ( 3 Marks Questions)
1. Derive the e.m.f .equation of a transformer .

2. Define current and voltage ratio of a transformer.
3. What is a Auto transformer ?
4. What are the advantage of auto transformer ?
5. How are transformers classified based on the construction ?
6. State lossess in transformer.
PART –C ( 10 Marks Questions)
1. Derive the condition for maximum efficiency of a transformer ?

2. Derive the e.m.f equation of a transformer.
3. Explain the open circuit test and short circuit test of a transformer ?
4. Explain the constructional details of a transformer ?
5. Explain efficiency and regulation of a transformer in detail.
6. Explain the working principle of a single phase transformer ? state its applications.
7. Explain transformer in no load condition in detail.
8. Explain transformer in load condition in detail.
--------------------------
184

Electrical Circuits & Machines Theory Semester Polytechnic

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Electrical Circuits & Machines Theory Semester Polytechnic

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Electrical Circuits & Machines Theory Semester Polytechnic

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

GOVERNMENT OF TAMILNADU

DIRECTORATE OF TECHNICAL EDUCATION

Diploma in Instrumentation and Control Engineering

Convener for ICE Discipline:

Team Members for Industrial Instrumentation:

Mr.N. MOHANKUMAR M.E.,

Mr. S. MURALI RAJAN M.E.,

Dr. N.SHANMUGAVADIVOO M.E, Ph.D,

Course Name :DIPLOMA IN INSTRUMENTATION AND CONTROL ENGINEERING

Teaching and Scheme of Examinations: No. of Weeks per Semester: 15

Subject Code &

Topics and Allocation of Hours:

II AC Through pure resistor, inductor and Capacitor – Concept of 16

Resonance and 3  AC circuits

UNIT – 1 - DC CIRCUITS AND DC NETWORK THEOREMS

1.1 CONCEPT OF ELECTRICAL QUANTITIES

The unit of charge is Coulomb.

The charge of an electron is;

e = -1.6 x 10-19 Coulomb

Where Q is the charge in Coulomb and W is the work done in Jules.

dq is change in charge and dt is change in time.

(i.e.) Resistance property reduces the current flow through it.

𝝆 – Specific resistance of the material (ohm-meter)

r= = = 0.5 cm = 0.5 x 10-2m

Cross sectional area = πr2

It can also be given as

Energy is measured in Jules, time in seconds and power in watts.

What is the power in watts if energy equal to 100 J is used in 1 sec?

Consider the simple circuit shown in fig.1.1

1.2 OHM’S LAW

The fig. shows the relation between three parameters V, I and R.

Power dissipated in the Resistor

Energy dissipated in the resistor

Power = I2R = 22x 5 =4 x 5 = 20 Watts

Inductance is denoted by L. The unit of inductance is Henry.

Definition for Henry :

The symbol of Inductance is shown in fig.1.3

The current voltage relation is given by

V-Voltage across the coil

Integrating both sides, we get

Energy accepted by Inductor is

The symbol of capacitance is shown in fig.1.4

Q-charge stored in a capacitor

we can rewrite the equation

From the above equation, current through the capacitor is

Differentiating on both sides,

Power absorbed by the capacitor is given by

Energy stored in the capacitor is

Kirchhoff’s Voltage law :

Potential rise = Potential drop

=IR1 + IR2 + IR3

According to Kirchhoff‟s voltage law,

Find the current flowing through the given circuit fig.1.7

According to ohm‟s law;

Kirchhoff’s current law :

According to Kirchhoff‟s current law,

According to KVL, we can write

similarly, we can prove

R1 < R2 hence I1 > I2