Compaction Characteristics of Prominent

Agricultural Soils in Borno State of Nigeria

John O. Ohu, M. B. Ayotamuno, O. A. Folorunso

ABSTRACT agricultural soils to various applied loads and as guides

HE penetration resistance, bulk density and the to indicate when cultivation practices should be
T hydraulic conductivity of two soil types were
measured at different compaction efforts and moisture
performed.
In Borno State of Nigeria, little or no information is
contents. available on the behavior of major agricultural soils when
Results indicate that bulk density and penetration they are subjected to different amounts of pressures.
resistance increased considerably with increase in This has led to cultivation being carried out either at too
compactive effort and that maximum values of bulk wet or too dry a condition, which have rendered some
density and penetration resistance were reached at pre- soils to be less suited for crop production. Hence, the
determined optimum moisture contents for compacting availability of the compaction characteristics of major
the soils. On the other hand, the hydraulic conductivity agricultural soils in Borno State will be of great help for
of the soils decreased with increase in compactive effort. agricultural and construction purposes.
The objective of this study was to investigate the effect
INTRODUCTION of applying different compactive efforts at varying
Agricultural soils of the Maiduguri—Bama area in moisture contents on the physical and hydraulic
Borno State of Nigeria hardly differ in texture except for chacteristics of two prominent agricultural soils in Borno
variations in their land forms and the superficial deposits State of Nigeria.
covering them (Carroll, 1974). These soils are mainly MATERIALS AND METHODS
structureless loamy sand to sandy loam.
The effect of soil compaction following tractor wheel The soils used for this study were a loamy sand and a
passage during cultivation practices on these soils may sandy loam, all from the University of Maiduguri
increase bulk density and soil strength while reducing experimental farm. These soils are classified as Typic
aeration and water movement in the root zone. Such Ustipsamments (Soil Survey staff, 1978). The soils were
effects have been reported in other parts of the world to collected from the top 0.20 m of the soil profile, air dried
be very severe on crops (Dawkinds, 1983; McKyes et al., and ground to pass a 2.0 mm screen. Each soil texture
1979; Phillip and Kirkham, 1962; Raghavan et al., 1978, was then mixed to obtain a homogeneous sample and
1979), the severity being, attributed to changes in soil particle size analyses were obtained by the hydrometer
physical characteristics due to compaction. The overall method (Lambe, 1951). The two soil textures, whose
effect of these changes in soil properties reduces crop initial gravimetric moisture contents were 0.96% and
yield. Although crop yield may be increased somehow by 0.51 % respectively, were each brought up to six moisture
increasing the use of fertilizers, this practice none the levels (5,10, 15, 18, 22 and 25%) on percentage dry mass
less widens the cost-benefit ratio and the farmers profit basis. The Atterberg limits of the soils were determined
for unit input reduces (Saini et al., 1984). by the methods described by Casagrande (1948).
Soil structural changes due to compaction can be Both soils were subjected to 5, 10 and 15 blows of a
prevented, if we develop better understanding of soil standard Proctor hammer at each moisture content
behavior under various stresses. This is very much (Lambe, 1951). The bulk density of the soils at different
needed in Nigeria where tractors of various sizes are moisture contents were determined at each compaction
often used in tilling the soils for crop production. The level (Lambe, 1951), and the penetration resistance of
ability to predict soil compaction as influenced by tractor the soils were measured using a cone penetrometer,
passes is the first step towards increased agricultural whose cone angle is 30 deg and base 15 mm in diameter,
production. To understand the state of compaction of a operating at 1829 mm/min (ASAE Standard, 1982). The
soil and the maximum compaction it can obtain, bulk density and penetration resistance measurements
laboratory methods of soil compaction are employed to were repeated four times for each soil at every moisture
give estimates of these values that will occur in the field content and compactive effort.
(Raghavan and Ohu, 1985). These laboratory methods of For the hydraulic conductivity test, water was added to
soil compaction are used to test the susceptibility of each of the soils to bring their gravimetric water content
up to 16% in sandy loam and 12% in the loamy sand.
These were the optimum moisture content values of the
soils for Proctor curves determined in a separate
Article was submitted for publication in February, 1987; reviewed
and approved for publication by the Power and Machinery Div. of
experiment. The soils were compacted at these optimum
ASAE in October, 1987. moisture contents using the methods described earlier
Acknowledgment: The authors wish to express their thanks to the (Lambe, 1951). The compacted soils were saturated over
University of Maiduguri for the research grant without which this study a period of 2 days before conducting the saturated
would not have been possible. hydraulic conductivity tests. The saturated hydraulic
The authors are: JOHN O. OHU, Lecturer, and M. B.
AYOTAMUNO, Student, Agricultural Engineering Dept., and O. A. conductivity was thereafter determined using the falling
FOLORUNSO, Lecturer, Soil Science Dept., University of Maiduguri, head method (Hillel, 1971) and the procedure was
Nigeria. repeated four times at each compaction level.

Vol. 30(6):November-December, 1987 © 1987 American Society of Agricultural Engineers 0001-2351/87/3006-1575$02.00 1575
TABLE 1. THE PARTICLE SIZE ANALYSES, THE LIQUID AND maximum standard deviation of 3 % . These plotted
PLASTIC LIMITS OF LOAMY SAND AND SANDY LOAM SOILS values were found to increase with higher compaction
Liquid Plastic
effort. The maximum densities of sandy loam at 5, 10
Sand, Silt, Clay, limit, limit, and 15 Proctor compaction blows were found to be 1.64,
Soil type % % % % % 1.67 and 1.69 Mg/m^ respectively, at an optimum
moisture content of 16%; while those of loamy sand for
Loamy sand 90 5 5 16.20 12.11
Sandy loam 70 19 11 30.08 16.00
the same treatments were 1.66, 1.69, 1.73 Mg/m^
respectively, at optimum moisture content of 12.5%.
The higher maximum densities of the loamy sand at all
compaction levels with a lower optimum moisture level is
TABLE 2. THE SATURATED HYDRAULIC CONDUCTIVITY OF
LOAMY SAND AND SAND LOAM SOILS not unexpected, since the loamy sand has a higher
AT ALL COMPACTION LEVELS percentage of sand particles than the sandy loam. This
shows that the loamy sand is more susceptible to
Treatments Sandy loam Loamy sand compaction and since the plasticity index of the loamy
Compaction Mean Mean
sand soil was found to be less than that of the sandy
levels, K-value, density, K-value, density, loam, the lower optimum moisture for the proctor
blows X 10"^ mm/s Mg/m^ X 10"^ mm/s Mg/m^ compaction of the loamy sand is adequate. This is in line
with the study of Johnson et al. (1983) who found that the
5 33.47* 1.64 34.12 1.66 proctor density of soil mixtures was linearly correlated
10 27.54 1.67 29.62 1.69
15 23.63 1.69 27.59 1.73
with the liquid limit and the percent sand (% sand).
The penetration resistance-moisture content
*Mean of four replicate values. Standard deviation = 4%. relationships (Fig. 2) show an increase in penetration
resistance up to a maximum and then a decrease as the
water content of the soils increased. This expected
RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS because penetration resistance depends upon the bulk
The results of the grain size analyses, consistency density and the water content of the soils. As the
limits and the saturated hydraulic conductivity of the compaction levels increased, the peak of the penetration
soils tested are presented in Tables 1 and 2. Organic resistance of the two soils increased. But the penetration
matter content of the sandy loam and loamy-sand soils resistance of the sandy loam at all compaction levels are
were 2% and 3% organic carbon respectively. higher than that of loamy sand. This is probably due to
It can be seen from the particle size analyses that the the higher percentage of clay in the sandy loam.
sandy loam has relatively larger specific surface than the However, the maximum cone index does not occur at the
loamy sand based on the total percentages of silt, and moisture content that produces the maximum dry
clay particles in the two soils. The plasticity index of the density for all the compaction levels. This phenomenon
sandy loam is higher than that of loamy sand because of has been observed in other parts of the world by Knight
the higher silt and clay contents and the lower sand (1948), Smith (1964), Ayers and Perumpral (1982) and
content in the sandy loam. Ohu (1985). At all compaction levels, an increase in the
From the results of compaction tests, the dry bulk percentage of clay in the sandy loam was found to raise
density versus moisture content relationships for the two the moisture content at which the maximum cone index
soils are shown in Fig. 1. The plotted points are the occurs (Fig. 2). The cone index values of loamy sand
average of four replicates at each moisture content with a were significantly lower than those observed for sandy

175
5 BLOWS 10 BLOWS 15 BLOWS

1-7
X

0
V6
o

CD A »-«—«
•^•^«
LOAMY
SANDY LOAH
SAND

1-5 1 • i J
10 15 20 5 10 15 20 5 10 15 20
Moistur^ content (%)
Fig. 1—Dry density vs. moisture content of loamy sand and sandy loam soils at different compaction levels.

1576 TRANSACTIONS of the ASAE

 10 BLOWS 15 BLOWS
1000

«—X—X LOAMY SAND

o-o-o SANDY LOAH

5 10 15 20 5 10 15 20 5 10 15 20
Moisture Content (V«)
Fig. 2—Penetration resistance vs. moisture content of loamy sand and sandy loam soils at different compaction levels.

loam that contains a higher percentage of clay. For a Soil survey Bulletin. Institute for Africultural Research, Samaru
Ahmadu Bello University, NO. 40, 41 pp.
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produced an increase in maximum cone index attained Trans. Amer. Soc. of Civil Engineers 113:901.
as shown in Fig. 2. 5. Dawkins, T. C. K. 1983. Crop reaction to compaction. Soil and
In Table 2, it can be seen that higher compaction Water ll(l):31-33.
levels decreased the saturated hydraulic conductivity of 6. Hillel, D. 1971. Soil and water: Physical principles and
processes. Academic Press, New York, 431 p.
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introduced in compacting the soils resulted in a decrease Compaction characteristics of some soil mixtures. TRANSACTIONS
in the total porosity of the soils and an increase in the of the ASAE 26(5): 1337-1339.
proportion of microporosity relative to macroporosity. 8. Knight, S. J. 1948. Traficability of soils—laboratory tests to
determine effects of moisture contents and density variations. Tech.
Similarly, the loamy sand and higher sand percentage Memo. No. 3-240, 1st Supplement. U.S. Army Engineer Waterways
has higher conductivity values than the sandy loam at all Exp. Statu Vicksburg, MS,
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Raghavan 1979. The effect of machinery traffic and tillage on the
physical properties of clay and on yield of silage corn. J. Agric. Eng.
CONCLUSION Res. 24:143-148.
11. Maurya, P. R. 1985. Effect of tillage and residue management
Results from the study show that higher compaction on crop yield and physical properties of an irrigated soil in Northern
levels increase the penetration resistance, increase the Nigeria. Presented at the 10th Conference of International Soil Tillage
bulk density and decrease saturated hydraulic Research Organization. University of Guelph, Canada.
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soils physical characteristics might explain the reason for characteristics and crop production of compacted soils. Ph. D. thesis,
McGill University, Canada.
decrease in yield of some crops in the Northern part of 13. Phillip, R. E. and D. Kirkham 1962. Soil compaction in the
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especially true since Skromme (1985) suggested animal 16. Raghavan, G. S. V. and J. O. Ohu 1985. Prediction of static
powered mechanization in many parts of Nigeria as equivalent pressure of proctor compaction blows. TRANSACTIONS of
opposed to machinery mechanization. the ASAE 28(5): 1398-1400.
17. Saini, G. R., T. L. Chow and I. Ghanem 1984. Compactibility
indexes of some agricultural soils of New Brunswick, Canada. Soil Sci.
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