Schottky 

diodes
Schottky diodes are constructed of a metal-to-N junction rather than a P-N semiconductor junction. Also
known as hot-carrier diodes, Schottkydiodes are characterized by fast switching times (low reverse-
recovery time), low forward voltage drop (typically 0.25 to 0.4 volts for a metal-silicon junction), and low
junction capacitance.
The schematic symbol for a schottky diode is shown in Figure below.

Schottky diode schematic symbol.

The forward voltage drop (VF), reverse-recovery time (trr), and junction capacitance (CJ) of
Schottky diodes are closer to ideal than the average “rectifying” diode. This makes them well suited for
high-frequency applications. Unfortunately, though, Schottky diodes typically have lower forward current
(IF) and reverse voltage (VRRM and VDC) ratings than rectifying diodes and are thus unsuitable for
applications involving substantial amounts of power. Though they are used in low voltage switching
regulator power supplies.

Schottky diode technology finds broad application in high-speed computer circuits, where the fast
switching time equates to high speed capability, and the low forward voltage drop equates to less power
dissipation when conducting.

Switching regulator power supplies operating at 100's of kHz cannot use conventional silicon diodes as
rectifiers because of their slow switching speed . When the signal applied to a diode changes from forward
to reverse bias, conduction continues for a short time, while carriers are being swept out of the depletion
region. Conduction only ceases after this tr reverse recovery time has expired. Schottky diodes have a
shorter reverse recovery time.
Regardless of switching speed, the 0.7 V forward voltage drop of silicon diodes causes poor efficiency in
low voltage supplies. This is not a problem in, say, a 10 V supply. In a 1 V supply the 0.7 V drop is a
substantial portion of the output. One solution is to use a schottky power diode which has a lower forward
drop.

Tunnel diodes
Tunnel diodes exploit a strange quantum phenomenon called resonant tunneling to provide a negative
resistance forward-bias characteristics. When a small forward-bias voltage is applied across a tunnel
diode, it begins to conduct current. (Figure below(b)) As the voltage is increased, the current increases
and reaches a peak value called the peak current (IP). If the voltage is increased a little more, the current
actually begins to decrease until it reaches a low point called the valley current (IV). If the voltage is
increased further yet, the current begins to increase again, this time without decreasing into another
“valley.” The schematic symbol for the tunnel diode shown in Figure below(a).
Tunnel diode (a) Schematic symbol. (b) Current vs voltage plot (c) Oscillator.
The forward voltages necessary to drive a tunnel diode to its peak and valley currents are known as peak
voltage (VP) and valley voltage (VV), respectively. The region on the graph where current is decreasing
while applied voltage is increasing (between VP and VV on the horizontal scale) is known as the region
of negative resistance.
Tunnel diodes, also known as Esaki diodes in honor of their Japanese inventor Leo Esaki, are able to
transition between peak and valley current levels very quickly, “switching” between high and low states of
conduction much faster than even Schottky diodes. Tunnel diode characteristics are also relatively
unaffected by changes in temperature.

Reverse breakdown voltage versus doping level. After Sze [SGG]

Tunnel diodes are heavily doped in both the P and N regions, 1000 times the level in a rectifier. This can
be seen in Figure above. Standard diodes are to the far left, zener diodes near to the left, and
tunnel diodes to the right of the dashed line. The heavy doping produces an unusually thin depletion
region. This produces an unusually low reverse breakdown voltage with high leakage. The thin depletion
region causes high capacitance. To overcome this, the tunnel diode junction area must be tiny. The
forward diode characteristic consists of two regions: a normal forward diode characteristic with current
rising exponentially beyond VF, 0.3 V for Ge, 0.7 V for Si. Between 0 V and VF is an additional “negative
resistance” characteristic peak. This is due to quantum mechanical tunneling involving the dual particle-
wave nature of electrons. The depletion region is thin enough compared with the equivalent wavelength of
the electron that they can tunnel through. They do not have to overcome the normal forward diode
voltage VF. The energy level of the conduction band of the N-type material overlaps the level of the
valence band in the P-type region. With increasing voltage, tunneling begins; the levels overlap; current
increases, up to a point. As current increases further, the energy levels overlap less; current decreases
with increasing voltage. This is the “negative resistance” portion of the curve.
Tunnel diodes are not good rectifiers, as they have relatively high “leakage” current when reverse-biased.
Consequently, they find application only inspecial circuits where their unique tunnel effect has value. To
exploit the tunnel effect, these diodes are maintained at a bias voltage somewhere between the peak and
valley voltage levels, always in a forward-biased polarity (anode positive, and cathode negative).
Perhaps the most common application of a tunnel diode is in simple high-frequency oscillator circuits as in
Figure above(c), where it allows a DC voltage source to contribute power to an LC “tank” circuit, the diode
conducting when the voltage across it reaches the peak (tunnel) level and effectively insulating at all other
voltages. The resistors bias the tunnel diode at a few tenths of a volt centered on the negative resistance
portion of the characteristic curve. The L-C resonant circuit may be a section of waveguide for microwave
operation. Oscillation to 5 GHz is possible.
At one time the tunnel diode was the only solid-state microwave amplifier available. Tunnel diodes were
popular starting in the 1960's. They were longer lived than traveling wave tube amplifiers, an important
consideration in satellite transmitters. Tunnel diodes are also resistant to radiation because of the heavy
doping. Today various transistors operate at microwave frequencies. Even small signal tunnel diodes are
expensive and difficult to find today. There is one remaining manufacturer of germanium tunnel diodes,
and none for silicon devices. They are sometimes used in military equipment because they are insensitive
to radiation and large temperature changes.
There has been some research involving possible integration of silicon tunnel diodes into CMOS integrated
circuits. They are thought to be capable of switching at 100 GHz in digital circuits. The sole manufacturer
of germanium devices produces them one at a time. A batch process for silicon tunneldiodes must be
developed, then integrated with conventional CMOS processes. [SZL]
The Esaki tunnel diode should not be confused with the resonant tunneling diode CH 2, of more complex
construction from compound semiconductors. The RTD is a more recent development capable of higher
speed.

Light-emitting diodes
Diodes, like all semiconductor devices, are governed by the principles described in quantum physics. One
of these principles is the emission of specific-frequency radiant energy whenever electrons fall from a
higher energy level to a lower energy level. This is the same principle at work in a neon lamp, the
characteristic pink-orange glow of ionized neon due to the specific energy transitions of its electrons in the
midst of an electric current. The unique color of a neon lamp's glow is due to the fact that its neon gas
inside the tube, and not due to the particular amount of current through the tube or voltage between the
two electrodes. Neon gas glows pinkish-orange over a wide range of ionizing voltages and currents. Each
chemical element has its own “signature” emission of radiant energy when its electrons “jump” between
different, quantized energy levels. Hydrogen gas, for example, glows red when ionized; mercury vapor
glows blue. This is what makes spectrographic identification of elements possible.
Electrons flowing through a PN junction experience similar transitions in energy level, and emit radiant
energy as they do so. The frequency of this radiant energy is determined by the crystal structure of the
semiconductor material, and the elements comprising it. Some semiconductor junctions, composed
of special chemical combinations, emit radiant energy within the spectrum of visible light as the electrons
change energy levels. Simply put, these junctions glow when forward biased. A diode intentionally
designed to glow like a lamp is called a light-emitting diode, or LED.
Forward biased silicon diodes give off heat as electron and holes from the N-type and P-type regions,
respectively, recombine at the junction. In a forward biased LED, the recombination of electrons and holes
in the active region in Figure below (c) yields photons. This process is known aselectroluminescence. To
give off photons, the potential barrier through which the electrons fall must be higher than for a silicon
diode. The forward diode drop can range to a few volts for some color LEDs.
Diodes made from a combination of the elements gallium, arsenic, and phosphorus (called gallium-
arsenide-phosphide) glow bright red, and are some of the most common LEDs manufactured. By altering
the chemical constituency of the PN junction, different colors may be obtained. Early generations of LEDs
were red, green, yellow, orange, and infra-red, later generations included blue and ultraviolet, with violet
being the latest color added to the selection. Other colors may be obtained by combining two or more
primary-color (red, green, and blue) LEDs together in the same package, sharing the same optical lens.
This allowed for multicolor LEDs, such as tricolor LEDs (commercially available in the 1980's) using red
and green (which can create yellow) and later RGB LEDs (red, green, and blue), which cover the entire
color spectrum.
The schematic symbol for an LED is a regular diode shape inside of a circle, with two small arrows pointing
away (indicating emitted light), shown in Figure below.

LED, Light Emitting Diode: (a) schematic symbol. (b) Flat side and short lead of device correspond to
cathode. (c) Cross section of Led die.
This notation of having two small arrows pointing away from the device is common to the schematic
symbols of all light-emitting semiconductor devices. Conversely, if a device is light-activated (meaning
that incoming light stimulates it), then the symbol will have two small arrows pointingtoward it. LEDs can
sense light. They generate a small voltage when exposed to light, much like a solar cell on a small scale.
This property can be gainfully applied in a variety of light-sensing circuits.
Because LEDs are made of different chemical substances than silicon diodes, their forward voltage drops
will be different. Typically, LEDs have much larger forward voltage drops than rectifying diodes, anywhere
from about 1.6 volts to over 3 volts, depending on the color. Typical operating current for a standard-
sized LED is around 20 mA. When operating an LED from a DC voltage source greater than the LED's
forward voltage, a series-connected “dropping” resistor must be included to prevent full source voltage
from damaging the LED. Consider the example circuit in Figure below (a) using a 6 V source.

Setting LED current at 20 ma. (a) for a 6 V source, (b) for a 24 V source.
With the LED dropping 1.6 volts, there will be 4.4 volts dropped across the resistor. Sizing the resistor for
an LED current of 20 mA is as simple as taking its voltage drop (4.4 volts) and dividing by circuit current
(20 mA), in accordance with Ohm's Law (R=E/I). This gives us a figure of 220 Ω. Calculating power
dissipation for this resistor, we take its voltage drop and multiply by its current (P=IE), and end up with
88 mW, well within the rating of a 1/8 watt resistor. Higher battery voltages will require larger-value
dropping resistors, and possibly higher-power rating resistors as well. Consider the example in
Figure above (b) for a supply voltage of 24 volts:
Here, the dropping resistor must be increased to a size of 1.12 kΩ to drop 22.4 volts at 20 mA so that the
LED still receives only 1.6 volts. This also makes for a higher resistor power dissipation: 448 mW, nearly
one-half a watt of power! Obviously, a resistor rated for 1/8 watt power dissipation or even 1/4 watt
dissipation will overheat if used here.

Dropping resistor values need not be precise for LED circuits. Suppose we were to use a 1 kΩ resistor
instead of a 1.12 kΩ resistor in the circuit shown above. The result would be a slightly greater circuit
current and LED voltage drop, resulting in a brighter light from the LED and slightly reduced service life. A
dropping resistor with too much resistance (say, 1.5 kΩ instead of 1.12 kΩ) will result in less circuit
current, less LED voltage, and a dimmer light. LEDs are quite tolerant of variation in applied power, so you
need not strive for perfection in sizing the dropping resistor.

Multiple LEDs are sometimes required, say in lighting. If LEDs are operated in parallel, each must have its
own current limiting resistor as in Figurebelow (a) to ensure currents dividing more equally. However, it is
more efficient to operate LEDs in series (Figure below (b)) with a single dropping resistor. As the number
of series LEDs increases the series resistor value must decrease to maintain current, to a point. The
number of LEDs in series (Vf) cannot exceed the capability of the power supply. Multiple series strings may
be employed as in Figure below (c).

In spite of equalizing the currents in multiple LEDs, the brightness of the devices may not match due to
variations in the individual parts. Parts can be selected for brightness matching for critical applications.

Multiple LEDs: (a) In parallel, (b) in series, (c) series-parallel

Also because of their unique chemical makeup, LEDs have much, much lower peak-inverse voltage (PIV)
ratings than ordinary rectifying diodes. A typical LED might only be rated at 5 volts in reverse-bias mode.
Therefore, when using alternating current to power an LED, connect a protective rectifying diode anti-
parallel with the LED to prevent reverse breakdown every other half-cycle as in Figure below (a).

Safely driving an LED with AC: (a) from 24 VAC, (b) from 240 VAC.
If the LED is driven from a 240 VAC source, the Figure above (a) voltage source is increased from 24 VAC
to 240 VAC, the resistor from 1.12 kΩ to 12 kΩ. The power dissipated in the 12 kΩ resistor is an
unattractive 4.8 watts.
  P = VI = (240 V)(20 mA) = 4.8 watt

A potential solution is to replace the 12 kΩ resistor with a non-dissipative 12 kΩ capacitive reactance. This
would be Figure above (b) with the resistor shorted. That circuit at (b),
missing the resistor, was published in an electrical engineering journal. This author constructed the circuit.
It worked the first time it was powered “on,” but not thereafter upon “power on”. Each time it was
powered “on,” it got dimmer until it failed completely. Why? If “power on” occurs near a zero crossing of
the AC sinewave, the circuit works. However, if powered “on” at, say, the peak of the sinewave, the
voltage rises abruptly from zero to the peak. Since the current through the capacitor is i = C(dv/dt), the
current spikes to a very large value exceeding the “surge current” rating of the LED, destroying it.

The solution is to design a capacitor for the continuous current of the LED, and a series resistor to limit
current during “power on” to the surge current rating of the LED. Often the surge current rating of an LED
is ten times higher than the continuous current rating. (Though, this is not true of high current
illumination grade LED's.) We calculate a capacitor to supply 20 mA continuous current, then select a
resistor having resistance of 1/10 th the capacitive reactance.

  I = 20 mA
  Xc = (240 V) / (20 mA) = 12 kΩ
  Xc = 1/2πfc
  C = 1/2πXc = 1/2π60(12 kΩ = 0.22 µF
  R = (0.10)Xc= (0.10)(12kΩ) = 1.2 kΩ
  P = I2R = (20 mA)2(1.2 kΩ) = 0.48 watt

The resistor limits the LED current to 200 mA during the “power on” surge. Thereafter it passes 20 mA as
limited by the capacitor. The 1.2 kresistor dissipates 0.48 watts compared with 4.8 watts for the 12 kΩ
resistor circuit.

What component values would be required to operate the circuit on 120 VAC? One solution is to use the
240 VAC circuit on 120 VAC with no change in component values, halving the LED continuous current to
10 mA. If operation at 20 mA is required, double the capacitor value and halve the resistor value.

The anti-parallel diodes in Figure above can be replaced with an anti-parallel LED. The resulting pair of
anti-parallel LED's illuminate on alternating half-cycles of the AC sinewave. This configuration draws 20
ma, splitting it equally between the LED's on alternating AC half cycles. Each LED only receives 10 mA due
to this sharing. The same is true of the LED anti-parallel combination with a rectifier. The LED only
receives 10 ma. If 20 mA was required for the LED(s), The capacitor value in µF could be doubled and the
resistor halved.
The forward voltage drop of LED's is inversely proportional to the wavelength (λ). As wavelength
decreases going from infrared to visible colors to ultraviolet, Vf increases. While this trend is most obvious
in the various devices from a single manufacturer, The voltage range for a particular color LED from
various manufacturers varies. This range of voltages is shown in Table below.
Optical and electrical properties of LED's
LED λ nm (= 10 -9m) Vf(from) Vf (to)
infrared 940 1.2 1.7
red 660 1.5 2.4
orange 602-620 2.1 2.2
yellow, green 560-595 1.7 2.8
white, blue, violet - 3 4
ultraviolet 370 4.2 4.8

As lamps, LEDs are superior to incandescent bulbs in many ways. First and foremost is efficiency: LEDs
output far more light power per watt of electrical input than an incandescent lamp. This is a significant
advantage if the circuit in question is battery-powered, efficiency translating to longer battery life. Second
is the fact that LEDs are far more reliable, having a much greater service life than incandescent lamps.
This is because LEDs are “cold” devices: they operate at much cooler temperatures than an incandescent
lamp with a white-hot metal filament, susceptible to breakage from mechanical and thermal shock. Third
is the high speed at which LEDs may be turned on and off. This advantage is also due to the “cold”
operation of LEDs: they don't have to overcome thermal inertia in transitioning from off to on or vice
versa. For this reason, LEDs are used to transmit digital (on/off) information as pulses of light, conducted
in empty space or through fiber-optic cable, at very high rates of speed (millions of pulses per second).

LEDs excel in monochromatic lighting applications like traffic signals and automotive tail lights.
Incandescents are abysmal in this application since they require filtering, decreasing efficiency. LEDs do
not require filtering.

One major disadvantage of using LEDs as sources of illumination is their monochromatic (single-color)
emission. No one wants to read a book under the light of a red, green, or blue LED. However, if used in
combination, LED colors may be mixed for a more broad-spectrum glow. A new broad spectrum light
source is the white LED. While small white panel indicators have been available for many years,
illumination grade devices are still in development.

Efficiency of lighting
Lamp type Efficiency lumen/watt Life hrs notes
White LED 35 100,000 costly
White LED, future 100 100,000 R&D target
Incandescent 12 1000 inexpensive
Halogen 15-17 2000 high quality light
Compact fluorescent 50-100 10,000 cost effective
Sodium vapor, lp 70-200 20,000 outdoor
Mercury vapor 13-48 18,000 outdoor
A white LED is a blue LED exciting a phosphor which emits yellow light. The blue plus yellow approximates
white light. The nature of the phosphor determines the characteristics of the light. A red phosphor may be
added to improve the quality of the yellow plus blue mixture at the expense of efficiency.
Table above compares white illumination LEDs to expected future devices and other conventional lamps.
Efficiency is measured in lumens of light output per watt of input power. If the 50 lumens/watt device can
be improved to 100 lumens/watt, white LEDs will be comparable to compact fluorescent lamps in
efficiency.

LEDs in general have been a major subject of R&D since the 1960's. Because of this it is impractical to
cover all geometries, chemistries, and characteristics that have been created over the decades. The early
devices were relatively dim and took moderate currents. The efficiencies have been improved in later
generations to the point it is hazardous to look closely and directly into an illuminated LED. This can result
in eye damage, and the LEDs only required a minor increase in dropping voltage (Vf) and current. Modern
high intensity devices have reached 180 lumens using 0.7 Amps (82 lumens/watt, Luxeon Rebel series
cool white), and even higher intensity models can use even higher currents with a corresponding increase
in brightness. Other developments, such as quantum dots, are the subject of current research, so expect
to see new things for these devices in the future

Photodiodes
A photodiode is a diode optimized to produce an electron current flow in response to irradiation by
ultraviolet, visible, or infrared light. Silicon is most often used to fabricate photodiodes; though,
germanium and gallium arsenide can be used. The junction through which light enters the semiconductor
must be thin enough to pass most of the light on to the active region (depletion region) where light is
converted to electron hole pairs.
In Figure below a shallow P-type diffusion into an N-type wafer produces a PN junction near the surface of
the wafer. The P-type layer needs to be thin to pass as much light as possible. A heavy N+ diffusion on
the back of the wafer makes contact with metalization. The top metalization may be a fine grid of metallic
fingers on the top of the wafer for large cells. In small photodiodes, the top contact might be a sole bond
wire contacting the bare P-type silicon top.

Photodiode: Schematic symbol

and cross section.

Light entering the top of the photodiode stack fall off exponentially in with depth of the silicon. A thin top
P-type layer allows most photons to pass into the depletion region where electron-hole pairs are formed.
The electric field across the depletion region due to the built in diode potential causes electrons to be
swept into the N-layer, holes into the P-layer. Actually electron-hole pairs may be formed in any of the
semiconductor regions. However, those formed in the depletion region are most likely to be separated into
the respective N and P-regions. Many of the electron-hole pairs formed in the P and N-regions recombine.
Only a few do so in the depletion region. Thus, a few electron-hole pairs in the N and P-regions, and most
in the depletion region contribute to photocurrent, that current resulting from light falling on the
photodiode.
The voltage out of a photodiode may be observed. Operation in this photovoltaic (PV) mode is not linear
over a large dynamic range, though it is sensitive and has low noise at frequencies less than 100 kHz. The
preferred mode of operation is often photocurrent (PC) mode because the current is linearly proportional
to light flux over several decades of intensity, and higher frequency response can be achieved. PC mode is
achieved with reverse bias or zero bias on the photodiode. A current amplifier (transimpedance amplifier)
should be used with a photodiode in PC mode. Linearity and PC mode are achieved as long as the diode
does not become forward biased.
High speed operation is often required of photodiodes, as opposed to solar cells. Speed is a function of
diode capacitance, which can be minimized by decreasing cell area. Thus, a sensor for a high speed fiber
optic link will use an area no larger than necessary, say 1 mm2. Capacitance may also be decreased by
increasing the thickness of the depletion region, in the manufacturing process or by increasing the reverse
bias on the diode.
PIN diode The p-i-n diode or PIN diode is a photodiode with an intrinsic layer between the P and N-
regions as in Figure below. The P-Intrinsic-Nstructure increases the distance between the P and N
conductive layers, decreasing capacitance, increasing speed. The volume of the photo sensitive region also
increases, enhancing conversion efficiency. The bandwidth can extend to 10's of gHz. PIN photodiodes are
the preferred for high sensitivity, and high speed at moderate cost.

PIN photodiode: The intrinsic region increases the thickness of the depletion region.
Avalanche photo diode:An avalanche photodiode (APD)designed to operate at high reverse bias exhibits
an electron multiplier effect analogous to a photomultiplier tube. The reverse bias can run from 10's of
volts to nearly 2000 V. The high level of reverse bias accelerates photon created electron-hole pairs in the
intrinsic region to a high enough velocity to free additional carriers from collisions with the crystal lattice.
Thus, many electrons per photon result. The motivation for the APD is to achieve amplification within the
photodiode to overcome noise in external amplifiers. This works to some extent. However, the APD
creates noise of its own. At high speed the APD is superior to a PIN diode amplifier combination, though
not for low speed applications. APD's are expensive, roughly the price of a photomultiplier tube. So, they
are only competitive with PIN photodiodes for niche applications. One such application is single photon
counting as applied to nuclear physics.