Course Summary

CHEM 203
Summary of Topics to be Covered in the Course
INDEX
A. Introduction p. 3
Lecture 1: Structural theory of organic chemistry p. 3
B. Aspects of the Electronic Theory of Organic Chemistry p. 5

Lecture 2: Electronic theory of organic chemistry p. 5
Lecture 3: Lewis acid-base interactions p. 11
C. Alkenes p. 14
Lecture 4: Bronsted acid-base equilibria, alkenes p. 14
Lecture 5: Electrophilic addition of H–X to alkenes p. 21
Lecture 6: Regioselective addition of H–X to alkenes p. 26
Lecture 7: Regioselective addition of H–X to alkenes, rearrangements p. 31
Lecture 8: Stereochemical aspects of H–X the additions to alkenes p. 35
Lecture 9: Hydration of alkenes p. 39
Lecture 10: Addition of "water-like" molecules to alkenes p. 42
Lecture 11: Halogenation of alkenes & stereochemical aspects p. 45
Lecture 12: Halogenation, halohydrins, stereochemical aspects p. 49
Lecture 13: Ozonolysis of alkenes p. 53
Lecture 14: Osmylation of alkenes p. 58
Lecture 15: Hydroboration of alkenes p. 61
Lecture 16: Hydrogenation of alkenes p. 66
Lecture 17: Radical addition to alkenes - I p. 70
Lecture 18: Radical addition to alkenes - II p. 75
D. Alkynes p. 79
Lecture 19: Chemistry of Alkynes p. 79
E. Alkyl Halides p. 83
Lecture 20: Alkyl halides - halogenation of C–H bonds p. 83
Lecture 21: SN2 reactions - I p. 88
Lecture 22: SN2 reactions - II p. 91
Lecture 23: SN2 vs. elimination reactions p. 94
Lecture 24: E2 reactions p. 98
Lecture 25: SN1 and E1 reactions p. 102
Lecture 26: SET reactions of alkyl halides: organometallics p. 106
Lecture 27: Addition of organometallics to carbonyl groups p. 111
F. Ethers and Epoxides p. 115

Lecture 28: Preparation of ethers and epoxides p. 115
Lecture 29: Chemistry of epoxides p. 119
CHEM 203 2 Summary of Topics
G. Alcohols p. 123
Lecture 30: Chemistry of alcohols: conversion into halides p. 123
Lecture 31: Activation of alcohols as sulfonate esters p. 127
Lecture 32: Oxidation of alcohols p. 131
Lecture 33: Addition of alcohols to aldehydes and ketones p. 135
H. Carbohydrates p. 137
Lecture 34: Carbohydrates: monosaccharides p. 137
Lecture 35: Mutarotation, glycosides, polysaccharides p. 142
Lecture 36: Chemistry of mono- and polysaccharides, nuclear bases p. 147
Lecture 1: Structural Theory of Organic Chemistry
Organic chemistry as the study of carbon-based compounds ("organic" compounds)
Enormous impact of organic chemistry in the modern world, including biomedicine (nucleic
acids, proteins, enzymes, lipids, carbohydrates, drugs ...), electronics, materials, etc.
of course it's difficult!!

The problem with organic chemistry: early chemist relied on brute (= composition) formulas to
identify compounds. This generally worked with simple inorganic substances [salt (NaCl), chalk
(CaSO4), etc.], but not with carbon-based ones. Whereas a material that analyzed as NaCl was
always "salt," or one that that analyzed as CaSO4 was always "chalk," no matter its origin or how
it was produced, many distinct organic (=carbon-based) compounds were found to correspond to
a given composition.
Milestones of organic chemistry: structural theory and electronic theory of organic chemistry
Structural theory of organic chemistry: chemical individuality is determined by the precise

atomic arrangement within (= the structure of) a molecule
This principle explained why there is no correlation between the atomic composition
(= the formula) of an organic compound and its individuality (contrary to what happens
with many "inorganic" compounds). Thus, a given organic formula, e.g., C5H10, can
represent many different compounds, each possessing a specific set of chemical
properties, and each differing from the others for the way atoms are interconnected.
Examples:
H2 H2
C C
H2C CH2 H3C CH3
CH2=CH–CH2-CH2–CH3 CH2–CH=CH-CH2–CH3
H2C CH2 C C
H H
cyclopentane 1-pentene 2-pentene 1,2-dimethylcyclopropane
all C5H10, yet each is chemically different from the others...
Principle: the structure of an organic compound is defined by:
i. the atomic connectivity (= the constitution), and,
ii. the spatial orientation of atoms within a molecule (= the configuration).
To illustrate, two distinct chemical individuals exist for the constitution that we describe
as 1,2-dimethycyclopropane. These differ for the orientation of the methyl groups relative
to the geometric plane containing the ring; i.e., they differ in configuration:
H H
H3C H3C
C C
H CH3 H H
C C
C C
H H H CH3
CH3 groups point in the same CH3 groups point in opposite
direction relative to the geometric directions relative to the
plane containing the ring geometric plane containing the ring
Inability of the structural theory of organic chemistry to rationalize the chemical reactivity of
carbon compounds
Lecture 2: Electronic Theory of Organic Chemistry
Electronic theory of organic chemistry: an intellectual framework that allows one to

rationalize and predict the chemical reactivity of organic compounds on the basis of the
electronic properties of their molecules (= how electrons behave within a molecule)
Principle: the electronic theory permits an approach to mastering organic chemistry that relies on
logical reasoning, not on memorization.
Fundamental principles of the electronic theory of organic chemistry:

(i) A "reaction" is a movement of electrons.
(ii) During a reaction, electrons move under the influence of electrostatic fields; i.e., from
regions of negative charge to regions of positive charge.
(iii) More accurately, electrons always move from an orbital of high electronic density
(the "donor orbital": a fully or partially occupied orbital) to one of low electronic
density (the "acceptor orbital": an unoccupied or partially occupied orbital).
(iv) Electron movement from one orbital to another is allowed only for certain relative
orientations of donor and acceptor orbitals.
Electrostatic properties of molecules as important factors that influence their reactivity
Evaluating the electrostatic properties of molecules: formal charges, bond polarization, and
oxidation states
Principle: atoms can produce bonded states in which significant electrostatic imbalance exists
Formal charge of an atom in a molecule: a parameter that indicates whether that atom is
electrostatically balanced or imbalanced
The formal charge on an atom is calculated by:

(i) assuming that all the bonds in which the atom participates are covalent;
(ii) counting the total number of valence electrons that the atom contributes to the various
bonds in which it participates; and
(iii) deciding whether these valence electrons balance out the nuclear charge, or are in
deficit, or in surplus.
The case of CH4, NH4, and BH4
The formal charge on the C atom in methane, CH4

Step 1: draw a complete Lewis structure of the molecule (electron dots, …):
H H
H C H H C H
H
H
Step 2: count the number of valence electrons around the atom of interest.
Each atom in a bonded pair of atoms has contributed one of its valence electrons to the electron
pair that we call "bond." If we "shatter" the molecule so that each atom in a bonded pair retrieves
one of the two electrons that form the bond (i.e., if we "undo" covalent bonds) we will see how
many valence electrons were present around each atom prior to bond formation:
H
"shatter"
H C H 4H + C
Conclusion: the C atom in methane is surrounded by 4 valence electrons
Step 3: determine whether valence electrons cancel the nuclear charge out.
• Carbon is in group 4 of the periodic table, so it requires 4 valence electrons to balance out
the nuclear charge.
• The C atom in methane has 4 valence electrons
• The C atom in methane is electrostatically balanced
Conclusion: the formal charge on C in methane is zero
Notice that the formal charge on each H atom is also zero. Indeed, H atoms in any covalent
molecule have always zero formal charge, as readily determined though the above logic.
* * *
The formal charge on the N atom in NH4
Step 1: draw a complete Lewis structure of the molecule:
NH4 = H N H
H
H
"shatter"
H N H 4H + N
H 4 valence electrons
Step 3: determine whether valence electrons balance out the nuclear charge.
• N is in group 5: it needs 5 valence electrons to balance out the nuclear charge.

• The N atom in NH4 has 4 valence electrons: 1 fewer than it should.
• The N atom in NH4 is electrostatically imbalanced
Conclusion: the formal charge on N in NH4 is + 1
Important: formal charges are integral parts of a chemical structure and must be clearly
indicated. This is done with encircled + or – signs. So, the correct way to draw NH4 is:
H N H
H
+
Why "formal" charge? Rigorously speaking, the + 1 charge present in NH4 is delocalized all
over the molecule, i.e., each atom (N and 4 H's in this case) bears a share of it. But for simplicity,
it is convenient to think of it as if it were localized on the N atom. That's why one calls it a formal
charge: because for chemical reasoning it is best to think of it as formally residing on the N atom.
* * *
The formal charge on the B atom in BH4
Step 1: draw a complete Lewis structure of the molecule:
BH4 = H B H
H
"shatter"
H B H 4H + B
H 4 valence electrons
Step 3: determine whether valence electrons balance out the nuclear charge.
• B is in group 3: it needs 3 valence electrons to balance out the nuclear charge.

• The B atom in BH4 has 4 valence electrons: 1 more than it should.
• The B atom in BH4 is electrostatically imbalanced
Conclusion: the formal charge on B in BH4 is – 1
H B H
Electronegativity and bond polarization
Permanent dipole moments (=electrostatic fields) within molecules displaying bonded atoms of
unequal electronegativity
Reminder: the electronegativity of first-row elements starts at 1.0 with Li and it increases by 0.5
units per column:
Li = 1.0; Be = 1.5; B = 2.0; C = 2.5; N = 3.0; O = 3.5; F = 4
Influence of permanent dipole moments on the chemical reactivity of a molecule; in particular,

on the ability of that molecule to accept or donate electrons during chemical reactions.
Example: consider a C–Cl bond. The e.n. of C is ≈ 2.5; that of Cl ≈ 3.2 Therefore, the C–Cl
bond will be polarized toward Cl; i.e., the Cl atom is the negative end of the dipole, while
the C atom is the positive end thereof:
electron cloud in the bond is

δ+ C Cl δ– distorted toward the Cl atom
imagine an electron-rich, electrostatically negative agent approaching the above C–Cl bond
in the course of a chemical reaction: will it interact preferentially with the C or the Cl atom?
Obviously, the incoming agent will be electrostatically attracted to the C atom, but repelled
by the Cl atom. We may anticipate that the C atom is likely to behave as an electron acceptor.
By the same logic, the Cl atom is likely to behave as an electron donor.
Principle: as a result of bond polarization, an atom in a molecule may acquire more electronic
density than necessary to balance out its nuclear charge (see the Cl atom above), i.e., it may
acquire a partial negative charge. Likewise, always as a result of bond polarization, an atom in a
molecule may be left with insufficient electron density to balance out its nuclear charge (see the
C atom above), i.e., it may acquire a partial positive charge.
Oxidation state: a parameter that describes to what extent an atom in a bonded state has
acquired/lost electronic density.
The oxidation state of an atom in a generic molecule as the algebraic sum of bond polarization
and formal charge
Example: the oxidation state of C in CH4, CF4, and CH3F
• the formal charge on C is zero

• C is more electronegative than H (2.5 vs. 2.1)
H
• Formally, C has "stolen" 1 electron from each of the 4 H's
C H • Formally, C has acquired 4 extra electrons in this bonded state
H H
• Sum of bond polarization and formal charges for C:
4 x (–1) [bond polarization] + 0 [formal charge on C]
The oxidation state of C in CH4 is – 4

• C is more electronegative than H (2.5 vs. 2.1) and less electronegative than F (2.5 vs. 4)
F
• Formally, C has "stolen" 1 electron from each of the 3 H's and "lost" 1 electron to the F atom
C H • Overall, C has formally gained 2 extra electrons in this bonded state
H H
3 x (–1) + (+1) [bond polarization] + 0 [formal charge on C]
The oxidation state of C in CH3F is – 2

• C is less electronegative than F (2.5 vs. 4)
F
• Formally, C has "lost" 1 electron to each of the F atoms
C F • Overall, C has formally lost 4 electrons in this bonded state
F F
4 x (+1) [bond polarization] + 0 [formal charge on C]
The oxidation state of C in CF4 is + 4
Note: in the above molecules, the oxidation state of H is +1, and that of F is –1
The oxidation state of atoms possessing a formal charge: the case of NH4+:
• the formal charge on N is + 1

H • N is more electronegative than H (3.0 vs. 2.1)
• Formally, N has "stolen" 1 electron from each of the 4 H's
N H • Formally, N has acquired 4 extra electrons in this bonded state
H H
• Sum of bond polarization and formal charges for N:
4 x (–1) [bond polarization] + (+1) [formal charge on C]
The oxidation state of N in NH4+ is – 3
Principle: determining the oxidation state of an atom in a molecule allows one to make important
predictions about chemical reactivity:
Example: the C atom in CH4 has formally acquired 4 electrons, thereby assuming the oxidation
state of –4. This produces a significant concentration of electronic density around the C atom.
One may predict that the C atom in methane will tend to react as an electron donor; that is, it will
give up electrons to electron acceptors. Likewise, one may predict that hypothetical
reactions that would add electrons to that C atom will be extremely difficult; probably impossible.
By contrast, the C atom in CF4 has formally lost 4 electrons, thereby assuming the oxidation
state of +4. This produces significant electron-deficiency around the C atom. One may predict
that the C atom in CF4 will behave as an electron acceptor; that is, it will tend to react with
electron donors. Likewise, one may predict that hypothetical reactions that would subtract
electrons from the C atom in question will be extremely difficult or impossible.
Principle: many elements favor a particular oxidation state, and therefore they tend to react so as
to acquire that preferred state. For instance, O favors an o.s. of –2, N of –3, halogens of –1, H of
+1, etc.
Lecture 3: Lewis Acid-Base Interactions
Principle: organic compounds may contain atoms other than C and H; for instance:
N, O, S, P, Si, halogens (F, Cl, Br, I), and even metals (Li, Mg, etc.) bound to C
Heteroatom: any atom other than C or H; e.g. N, O, S, P, Cl, Br, I, Li, Mg, ….
Issues of electrostatic imbalance (formal charges, oxidation states, bond polarization, molecular
polarity, etc.) as significant aspects of the chemistry of organic molecules containing
heteroatoms that possess unshared (lone, nonbonding) pairs of electrons, such as N, O, S, P,
halogens, etc.:
H
CH3 N CH3 OH CH3 O CH3 CH3 SH CH3 S CH3 CH3 P CH3
H CH3
Ability of heteroatoms possessing unshared pairs to establish bonds by donating an electron pair
to an appropriate species capable of accepting that electron pair
Principle: an atom / molecule can function as an acceptor of electron pairs only if it possesses a
vacant orbital that can accommodate an incoming electron pair.
Dative bonds: those formed through the donation of an unshared pair of electrons from a Lewis
base into a vacant orbital of a Lewis acid
Example of a molecule that can function as an acceptor of electron pairs: BH3 (borane)
vacant, atomic the B atom has an incomplete

p-type orbital H octet: it can accept 2 additional
on the B atom H B electrons in a vacant, p-type
H atomic orbital to acquire a noble
gas-like electronic configuration
Predictable (and experimentally verifiable) reaction between, e.g., CH3–S–CH3 ("dimethyl

sulfide") and BH3:
vacant p-type orbital
H H H
H B B Important: notice
H mix CH3 H the formal charges
CH3
S S on S and B
unshared CH3
CH3 electron pairs
Lewis base: a species possessing one (or more) unshared electron pair that could possibly be
employed to establish a new bond by donation to a suitable acceptor
CH3-S-CH3 is a Lewis base because the S atom has 2 unshared pairs of electrons
Lewis acid: a species possessing a vacant orbital that could possibly be employed to establish a
new bond by acceptance of an electron pair from a suitable donor
BH3 is a Lewis acid because the B atom has a vacant orbital
Principle: one may find that a Lewis acid accepts electron pairs only from particular Lewis bases.
Likewise, a Lewis base may be inclined to donate electron pairs only to particular Lewis acids
Necessity to distinguish between Lewis acidity / basicity (intrinsic molecular properties

determined by the electronic configuration of atoms within molecules) and the actual expression
of such potential reactivities in the course of a reaction
Nucleophile: a Lewis basic agent (= one that possesses an unshared pair of electrons) that
actually expresses such Lewis basicity during a chemical reaction
Lewis basic CH3-S-CH3 functions as a nucleophile in the above reaction
Electrophile: a Lewis acidic agent (= one that possesses a vacant orbital) that actually expresses
such Lewis acidity during a chemical reaction
Lewis acidic BH3 functions as an electrophile in the above reaction

Equivalently, one can distinguish between:
Lewis acidic / Lewis basic character: a property determined solely by the
electronic configuration of a molecule
and
electrophilic / nucleophilic character: ability of a Lewis acid / base to express

their inherent reactivity
Curved arrows formalism to represent the movement of electrons (not of atoms) during a
chemical reaction; i.e. the mechanism of the reaction
example: the red arrow below depicts the mechanism of the reaction of CH3SCH3 with BH3:
H
H B H H
CH3 H B borane-dimethyl sulfide
CH3 H
S S complex: a commercial
CH3 form of borane
CH3
Interactions between a Lewis acid and Lewis base as a fundamental phenomenon that governs
many organic chemical reactions
Obvious case of organic reactions involving Lewis acid-base interactions: the above reaction of
borane, BH3, with dimethyl sulfide, CH3–S–CH3
Less obvious case of organic reactions involving Lewis acid-base interactions: the SN2 reaction
Example:
large lobe of small lobe of
the σ*C–I orbital the σ*C–I orbital
H –
•• •• •• ••
H–O I H–O–CH3 + I
••
••
••
••
•• H •• •• ••
H
The CH3I in the above reaction accepts a pair of electrons into the vacant σ*C-I orbital, thereby
behaving as a Lewis acid
Reminder: bonding and antibonding orbitals always arise in pairs upon linear
combination of atomic orbitals (LCAO) leading to molecular orbitals
Bond order (BO): BO = (# electrons in bonding orbitals – # electrons in antibonding orbitals) / 2

Weakening / breaking of a generic bond A–B upon introduction of electronic density into the
corresponding antibonding orbital
–
Example: In the above SN2 reaction, the nucleophile (HO ) introduces a pair of electrons
into the vacant s*C-I orbital. As a result, the BO of the C–I bond becomes:
– –
BO = (2 e in bonding orbital – 2 e in antiboding orbital) / 2 = 0
–
The bond between C and I vanishes and the I becomes free to "float away."
Lecture 4: Bronsted Acid-Base Equilibria, Alkenes
Special case of Lewis acid-base reactions: proton transfer (= protonation) reactions, i.e. Bronsted
acid-base reactions. Example:
H small lobe H –
H N H Cl Cl
of σ*H–Cl H N H
H large lobe of σ*H–Cl H
Bronsted acids, Bronsted bases: proton donors (HCl above) / acceptors (NH3), respectively
Bronsted acid-base equilibria as fundamental aspects of a great many organic chemical

transformations
Electronic analogy between proton transfer reactions and SN2 reactions
Principle: the chemical behavior of a system in which proton transfers are likely to occur may be
predicted on the basis of changes in the acidity / basicity of the medium, which in turn can be
gauged from the pKa's of the reacting species. Therefore, pKa's and ΔpKa's are crucially
important to understand proton exchange equilibria
Reminder: the pKa of a generic Bronsted acid H–A is defined as:
pKa = – log Ka, where:
[A–] [H+]
Ka = for the equilibrium: H–A H+ + A–
[AH]
consequently: acid strength and pKa's are inversely proportional, that is:
strong acids have small pKa's
weak acids have large pKa's
moreover: the dissociation of a strong Bronsted acid releases a weak Bronsted base
the dissociation of a weak Bronsted acid releases a strong Bronsted base
The following expression holds true for the acid-base equilibrium between generic Bronsted
–
acid AH and Bronsted base B :
[A–] [BH]
A H + B A + B H Keq =
[AH] [B–]
If one expresses Keq as a function of the Ka's of HA and HB, one finds that:
[A–] [H+] [A–] KaAH [B–] [H+] [BH] [H+]

KaAH = so: = and KaBH = so: =
[AH] [AH] [H+] [BH] [B–] KaBH
[A–] [BH] [A–] [BH] KaAH [H+] KaAH

Keq = = = =
[AH] [B–] [AH] [B–] [H+] KaBH KaBH
Therefore:
log Keq = log KaAH – log KaBH
– log Keq = – log KaAH – (– log KaBH)
pKeq = pKaAH – pKaBH
and
log Keq = pKaBH – pKaAH
Reminder: pKa's can be measured experimentally, but they cannot be deduced purely from
molecular properties
Reminder: stronger Bronsted acids / stronger bases contain more energy than weaker acids /
weaker bases; therefore:
(i) a Bronsted acid-base equilibrium that consumes stronger acids/bases to produce

weaker acids/bases releases energy (= it is exergonic; ΔG < 0) and thermodynamically
favorable;
(ii) a Bronsted acid-base equilibrium that consumes weaker acids/bases to produce

stronger acids/bases absorbs energy (= it is endergonic; ΔG > 0) and thermodynamically
unfavorable
Using pKa's to estimate equilibrium constants and ΔG's for Bronsted acid-base interactions:
–
1. Consider the reaction between a Bronsted acid A–H, of pKa = 5, with a base B , leading to
–
A and a new Bronsted acid B–H, of pKa = 11. We want to know whether the reaction is
thermodynamically favorable or unfavorable, to estimate the ΔG° for the process and the
equilibrium concentrations of the various species in solution.
A H + B A + B H
pKa = 5 pKa = 11
stronger stronger weaker weaker

acid base base acid
The pKa's immediately tell us that the process is consuming stronger acids/bases to
create weaker acids/bases; therefore it should be favorable. The equilibrium constant is:
6
log Keq = pKaBH – pKaBH = 11 – 5 = 6; so Keq = 10
We know that for a system at chemical equilibrium ΔG° is given by the Gibbs equation:
ΔG° = – nRT ln Keq
In the present case, for T = 298 °K (25 °C) and n = 1 mole,

–3 6
ΔG° (kcal/mol) ≈ – 1.98 x 10 x 298 x 2.303 log 10 ≈ – 8.1 kcal/mol < 0 à favorable
A crude, but useful, estimate of the equilibrium concentrations of all species may be generated as
–
follows: imagine starting with a solution that initially contains a 1M concentration of A–H and B .
The Keq is large; so the equilibrium will be shifted very much to the right; i.e., virtually all of the
–
reactants will be converted into the products. But then, the equilibrium concentrations of A and
B–H will be very nearly = 1M.
–
Moreover, formation of each molecule of A requires the disappearance of one molecule of A–H,
–
and the formation of each molecule of B–H requires the disappearance of one molecule of B .
–
So, an equal number of molecules of A–H and B have vanished from the system.
–
If the initial concentrations of A–H and B were identical and equal to 1M, their equilibrium
concentration (unknown) will also be identical; therefore:
[A ] [B–H]
A H + B A + B H Keq = = 106
numerically equal ≈ 1M ≈ 1M [A–H] [B ]
1 • 1 1
≈ 106 [A–H] ≈ = 10–3 M = [B ]
[A–H]2 106
–
approximately 0.1% of the original A–H and B are present at equilibrium
–
2. Consider the reaction between a Bronsted acid A–H, of pKa = 18, with a base B , leading to
–
A and B–H, of pKa = 10. We want to know whether the reaction is thermodynamically favorable
or unfavorable, to estimate the ΔG° for the process and the equilibrium concentrations of the
various species in solution.
A H + B A + B H
pKa = 18 pKa = 10
weaker weaker stronger stronger

acid base base acid
The pKa's immediately tell us that the process is consuming weaker acids/bases to
create stronger acids/bases; therefore it should be unfavorable. In fact:
–8
log Keq = pKaBH – pKaBH = 10 – 18 = –8; so Keq = 10 and for n = 1 mol and T = 298 °K
–3 –8
ΔG° = – 1.98 x 10 x 298 x 2.303 log 10 ≈ + 10.9 kcal/mol > 0 à unfavorable
Crude estimate of the equilibrium concentrations of all species: imagine a solution that initially
–
contains a 1M concentration of A–H and B . The Keq is small; so the equilibrium will be shifted
very much to the left; i.e., virtually all of the reactants remain unaltered. But then, the equilibrium
–
concentrations of A–H and B will be very nearly = 1M.
–
Moreover, for each molecule of A that forms, a molecule of B–H must also be created.
– –
So, an equal number of molecules of A and B–H must form; i.e. [A ] = [B–H]
Therefore:
[A ] [B–H]
A H + B A + B H Keq = = 10–8
≈ 1M ≈ 1M numerically equal [A–H] [B ]
[B–H]2
≈ 10–8 [B–H] ≈ 10–8 = 10–4 M = [A ]
1 • 1
– –
approximately 0.01% of the original A–H and B react to form A and B–H
real example 1: we wish to predict whether the reaction of ammonia, NH3, with hydrogen
chloride, HCl is favorable or unfavorable, and how favorable / unfavorable it is, knowing that:
+ +
pKa of NH4 ≈ + 9 (NH4 is the weaker Bronsted acid, NH3 is the stronger Bronsted base)
–
pKa of HCl ≈ – 7 (HCl is the stronger Bronsted acid, Cl is the weaker Bronsted base)
One can tell immediately that the reaction in question will be favorable, because it consumes a
+
stronger acid (HCl) and a stronger base (NH3) to produce a weaker acid (NH4 ) and a weaker
–
base (Cl ). Regardless, the equilibrium constant for the above reaction is:
[NH4+] [Cl–] [NH4+] [Cl–]

Keq = = •
[NH3] [HCl] [NH3] [HCl]
+
If one expresses the above Keq as a function of the Ka's of NH4 and of HCl:
[H+] [NH3]
NH4+ H+ + NH3 ••• Ka NH + = = 10–9 (because pKa = 9), so
4
[NH4 +]
[NH4+] [H+]
=
[NH3] 10–9
[H+] [Cl–]
HCl H+ + Cl– • = 107 (because pKa = –7), so
• • Ka HCl =
[HCl]
[Cl–] 107
=
[HCl] [H+]
[H+] 107
Keq = • = 1016
–9 +
10 [H ]
Such a large, positive Keq indicates that the reaction is highly favorable and that the
equilibrium will be strongly shifted to the right.
real example 2: the protonation of diethyl ether with acetic acid:

O O
C H C
CH3–CH2 O H O CH3 CH3–CH2 O O CH3
CH3–CH2 CH3–CH2
pKa ≈ 5 pKa ≈ –3
One can tell immediately that the reaction in question will be unfavorable, because it
consumes a weaker acid (acetic acid) and a weaker base (ether) to produce a stronger acid
(protonated ether) and a stronger base (acetate ion).
Regardless, the equilibrium constant for the above reaction may be estimated as:
[ (CH3-CH2)2OH ] [ OOC-CH3]
ΔpKa ≈ pKeq = 5 – (–3) = + 8 Keq ≈ 10–8 =
[ (CH3-CH2)2O ] [HOOC-CH3]
The reaction is clearly unfavorable, because Keq < 1
One may even estimate the equilibrium concentration of the protonated form of ether
by reasoning that:
+
• each molecule of (CH3-CH2)2OH that forms during this reaction must be accompanied
– +
by a molecule of OOC-CH3; i.e., the equilibrium concentrations of (CH3-CH2)2OH and
–
OOC-CH3 must be numerically identical.
• because Keq is so small, only an insignificant portion of the reactants will have advanced
to products at equilibrium. Therefore, the equilibrium concentrations of (CH3-CH2)2O and
HOOC-CH3 are nearly identical to the initial concentrations.
• Suppose then that the above equilibrium takes place in a solution that is initially 1M in
both ether and acetic acid. We conclude that:
numerically equal
[ (CH3-CH2)2OH ] [ OOC-CH3] 2
Keq = = [ (CH3-CH2)2OH ] ≈ 10–8
[ (CH3-CH2)2O ] [HOOC-CH3]
both nearly 1 M at equilibrium
so: [ (CH3-CH2)2OH ] ≈ Keq = 10–8 = 10–4
about one part in 10,000 of diethyl ether will exist in protonated form at equilibrium
note: the above is not a precise treatment of the equilibrium (we are ignoring solvent
effects and other important factors), but it provides a useful semiquantitative estimate
of the position of the equilibrium.
Alkenes or olefins: organic molecules that incorporate a carbon-carbon double bond
Alkenes (=olefins) as ideal starting points to investigate the details of the electronic theory of
organic chemistry, including the interaction of organic compounds with Bronsted acids
Alkenes: compounds in which two adjacent C atoms share a double bond
The simplest alkene: ethylene, H2C=CH2 (IUPAC name: ethene):
geometric plane H
containing the H
molecule C C ethylene: a planar molecule
H H
Bonding in olefins: σ framework, π bond, trigonal planar geometry and sp2 hybridization of C
atoms sharing the double bond, …
Restricted rotation about the C–C π bond: energy barrier (= energy of the π bond) in ethylene ≈
63 kcal / mol = 264 kJ / mol
compare the rotational energy barrier in ethane ≈ 3 kcal /mol or 12 kJ / mol. At room
11
temperature, ethane undergoes ca. 10 internal revolutions per second, while ethylene
is conformationally fixed. Internal rotation in ethylene may occur only at very high
temperatures ( T > 500 °C)
Electronic analogy between the electron pair that forms the π bond in alkenes and the electron
pairs found on heteroatoms such as N, O, S.
H ••
N •• H C C H
H H H
H
electron pair on electron pair
a heteroatom in a π bond
Predictable Lewis basic character of olefins (e.g, ethylene)

alkenes are thus anticipated to react with Lewis acids (Lewis acid-base reactions)
and possibly with Bronsted acids (proton donors: Bronsted acid-base reactions)
Hypothetical interaction of an alkene – e.g. ethylene – with a Bronsted acid such as HCl
Anticipated course of events: protonation of (=transfer of a proton to) to the olefin:

HH vacant p-type atomic orbital

δ+ δ–
C H –
H Cl H C Cl
••
π bond C H
C H
lobes of σ*H–Cl H
H H
electrons from the π bond are attracted notice how we need two arrows to
to the positive end of the H–Cl dipole describe this electron movement
Alternative (if less accurate) way to imagine the above reaction:
vacant p-type
H H atomic orbital
HH
C symbol for C δ+ δ– H –
••
π bond H C C H Cl
C resonance C •• H Cl
H
H H H
H H lobes of σ*H–Cl
Highly Lewis acidic character of the positively charged carbon fragment created in the above
reaction
Rapid combination of the above Lewis acidic, (+)-charged carbon fragments with Cl–
(nucleophilic Lewis base) leading to a new C–Cl bond and a new chemical individual:
H Cl H
H C –
C H H C C H
Cl
H H H H
Lecture 5: Electrophilic Addition of H–X to Alkenes
Carbocations, carbonium (carbenium) ions: the (+)-charged, highly Lewis acidic carbon
fragments obtained upon protonation of alkenes
π bond –
H Cl Cl H
•• H Cl H C
H C H C H H C
C H C H
H H large lobe H H H
of σ*H–Cl
a carbocation (carbonium ion) chloroethane or ethyl chloride:
(ethyl cation in this case) an alkyl halide
Alkyl groups: fragments obtained upon removal of a hydrogen atom from an alkane; e.g:
CH4 (methane) à CH3 (methyl) CH3–CH3 (ethane) à CH3–CH2 (ethyl)
propane à propyl butane à butyl alkane à alkyl
Alkyl halides: compounds in which a halogen (F, Cl, Br, I) is attached to an alkyl group
The above transformation as an addition reaction: a process that involves the union of two
molecules to produce a new chemical individual
Addition reactions: typical reactions of alkenes and of π systems in general. These processes
may be represented with the following general equation (which says nothing about mechanism):
A B A B
C C C C
Substrate: the organic compound that undergoes the reaction (C=C in the above reaction)
Reagent: the species that acts upon the organic compound undergoing the reaction (A–B in the
above reaction)
Product: A–C–C–B in the above reaction
Description of the addition of HCl to ethylene as an electrophilic addition, because it is initiated

by the interaction of the substrate with an electrophile (the "proton" carried by HCl)
Principle organic reactions, such as the electrophilic addition of HCl to alkenes, are normally
carried out in solution phase, using appropriate non-reactive (inert) solvents
The first step of the mechanism of electrophilic addition of HCl (pKa ≈ –7) to ethylene as a
Bronsted acid-base reaction
Simple carbonium ions as exceedingly strong Bronsted acids (pKa apparently < – 11), i.e.,
olefins as poor Bronsted bases
The protonation of simple olefins as an endergonic (ΔG >>0), thermodynamically highly

unfavorable, and consequently easily reversible, reaction:
H –
H H H H Cl
C C H Cl C C
H H H H
pKa ≈ – 7 pKa < –11
–4
Keq < 10 à ΔG° = – n RT ln Keq > 0 !!!
Mechanism of the reversal of the above protonation reaction:

H
σ bond
H
C C H the electrostatic field of the carbocation strongly attacts electrons
H in neighboring C–H sigma bonds into the vacant p-type orbital ...
H
H
H ... polarizing, distorting, and weakening the C–H bonds to such a
C C H
H degree that even a weak base like Cl– can now accept a proton from
H the cation and restore a π bond between the two carbon atoms:...
lobe of the –
C–H σ* orbital Cl
H δ+ H H
C C + H Cl
H H H
δ–
C C H
H
H
overall:
H –
H H H H Cl
C C H Cl C C
H H H H
pKa ≈ – 7 pKa < –11
Principle: most olefins will undergo protonation (albeit to a modest extent) only upon reaction
with acids with a pKa << 0
Thermodynamically highly favorable reaction of a carbocation with chloride ion (more

generally, with a halide ion)
Faster reaction of ethylene with HBr (pKa ≈ –8) or HI (pKa ≈ –9) than with HCl (pKa ≈ 7),
through the same mechanism seen for HCl, given their greater acidity and consequent formation
of a greater instant concentration of carbocations
H H–I H–Br H
CH2 CH2–I CH2=CH2 CH2 CH2–Br
Failure of HF (pKa ≈ +4: too weak a Bronsted acid to protonate olefins) to undergo addition to
most olefins due to exceedingly unfavorable protonation:
–
F H
H H H H
C C H F C C Keq < 10–15 !!!
H H H H
pKa ≈ + 4
pKa < –11
–15
the protonation step is extremely unfavorable (Keq < 10 ; ΔG >>0). The extent of formation of
carbocations will be so insignificant that the rate of the reaction becomes enormously slow; i.e. it
does not take place on the human time scale.
Principle: one may predict, purely on electronic grounds, that any alkene will undergo
electrophilic addition of halogen acids, and this through the same mechanism seen above for
ethylene.
More complex alkenes:
Nomenclature of alkenes: the names of alkenes are derived from those of the corresponding
alkanes (studied in introductory chemistry) by replacing the ending –ane with the ending –ene:
CH3–CH3 ethane CH2=CH2 ethene (=ethylene)

CH3–CH2–CH3 propane CH2=CH–CH3 propene
CH3–CH2–CH2–CH3 butane ----> butene; etc.
Positional isomerism in alkenes: the case of "butene"

The term "butene" may be applied to two distinct molecules:
CH2=CH–CH3–CH3 and CH3–CH=CH–CH3
the two molecules differ for the position of the double bond within an otherwise identical
molecular framework. They may thus be described as positional isomers
Distinguishing positional isomers by "tagging" carbon atoms in a molecule with appropriate

numerical indices, and by expressing the position of the double bond with an index that defines
the "starting point" of the double bond:
1 2 3 4
if we "tag" the four C atoms in "butene" as follows: C–C–C–C
1 2 3 4
then we may describe CH2=CH–CH2–CH3 as "1-butene," underscoring
the fact that the double bond "starts" on the first C atom of the molecule
1 2 3 4
Likewise, we may call CH3–CH=CH–CH3 "2-butene," to convey the fact
that the double bonds "starts" on the second atom of the molecule
Reminder: indices are chosen so that an unequivocal name for a molecular object results from
the smallest possible numerical value of such indices.
Example: one could number the atoms in that molecule of butene in which the C=C
system is located at a terminal position in two different ways:
1 2 3 4 4 3 2 1
CH2=CH–CH2–CH3 or CH2=CH–CH2–CH3
The first numbering system would allow us to describe the molecule as "1-butene;" the
second, as "3-butene." The first numbering system allows us to generate an unequivocal
name by using a numerically smaller value of the index (1 vs. 3). Therefore, the first system
represents the correct numbering method.
Stereoisomerism (differences between molecular objects due to the spatial orientation of
molecular segments) in alkenes as a consequence of restricted rotation: the case of 2-butene
H geometric plane H
H3C C H H3C C CH3
C C
in this stereoisomer, CH3 in this one, the H
the CH3 groups point in the CH3 groups point in
same direction relative to the π bond opposite directions relative to the π bond
the two stereoisomers cannot interconvert because of restricted rotation about the π bond
Geometric isomers: stereoisomers that arise as a consequence of restricted rotation about an

olefinic π bond.
Reminder: various types of stereoisomers are known, e.g.
enantiomers geometric --> cis / trans isomers of olefins
diastereomers others yet
Cis and trans isomers of alkenes

cis isomer: alkyl groups point in the same direction relative to the π bond
trans isomer: alkyl groups point in opposite directions relative to the π bond
H H H CH3
C C is therefore cis-2-butene; C C is therefore trans-2-butene
H3C CH3 H 3C H
Principle: in generating a name for an alkene, one needs to specify both the position of the
double bond in the molecule and the geometric isomer of the alkene in question.
Electrophilic addition of H–X (X = Cl, Br, I, but not F) to, e.g., cis- or trans-2-butene: the
reaction occurs by the same mechanism developed above for ethylene:
•• •• –
π bond Br
••
••
H—Br
••
•• ••
H H H H Br
•• H
C C H3C C C H3C C C CH3
H3C CH3 CH3 4 3 2 1
H H H
cis-2-butene 2-bromobutane
•• •• –
π bond I
••
••
H—I
••
•• ••
H H H I
H3C H
•• H3C C C H3C C C CH3
C C
H CH3 CH3 4 3 2 1
H H H
trans-2-butene 2-iodobutane
Principle: any reaction of alkenes is likely to commence with an interaction of the π electrons
with a Lewis acid
Lecture 6: Regioselective Addition of H–X to Alkenes
Reaction profile and thermochemistry of the addition of H–X to alkenes:

bond dissociation enthalpies (kcal/mol) ΔH (kcal/mol)
E
C=C π ≈ 60 C–H ≈ 95
H X–
H–Cl 103 C–Cl 85 – 17

H–Br 88 C–Br 78 – 25
H X ΔE < 0 H–I 71 C–I 57 – 21
H X
H–F 136 C–F 108 –7
react. coord.
The rate of the above reaction as a function of the instant concentration of carbocation:
d[ P ]
rate = ∝ [ carbocation ]
d[t]
The problem of H–X addition to an unsymmetrical alkene: formation of isomeric products

example: the electrophilic addition of H–Br to propene could afford 2 distinct products:
H Br Br H
H H H H H H
C C H Br C C and / or C C
H CH3 H CH3 H CH3
the two products are constitutional isomers; i.e., they are two distinct chemical individuals.
This means that their chemical, physical and thermodynamic properties are different.
Could these differences promote the preferential formation of one product?
Principle: the alkyl bromide forms through the reaction of the halide ion with a carbocation, so if
a preference is to be found, then one of the two possible carbocations must form preferentially
•• –
Br
••
••
H Br H
H C ••
C H H C C H
H
CH3 H CH3
•• H Br
H C C H •• – H
H H Br Br
••
••
CH3
H •• H C
H C C C H
H CH3 H CH3
Conformational and electronic properties of carbocations; e.g., of the ethyl cation

Most favorable conformation of a carbocation, e.g. of the ethyl cation: one of the C–H σ bonds
on the CH3 group (cf. red H below) eclipses one of the lobes of the p-type orbital associated with
the adjacent positive carbon:
axis of θ=0
the p H
orbital H
H C C H H C H (Newman projection)
H
H H H
The Bronsted acidity of a carbocation as a consequence of the great extent of polarization of

adjacent σ bonds and consequent weakening thereof
Hyperconjugation: electron delocalization from an adjacent σ bond (e.g., a C–H bond) into a
vacant p-type orbital:
H
H
••
σ electrons •• the σ cloud is "distorted":

some σ electron density
H are partially H
C C C C
H drawn into H is delocalized away from
H the p orbital .... H H and toward the positive C
H H
the positive C ends up with a charge smaller than +1, while the H atoms acquires a fractional + charge
Stabilization of carbocations by hyperconjugation due to (i) dispersion of charge; (ii) increase in

the volume of space occupied by the σ electrons
Principle: the extent of hyperconjugative electron delocalization depends on the cos2 of the
dihedral angle between the axis of the σ bond donating electrons and that of the p-type atomic
orbital associated with the positive carbon atom:
θ axis of
axis of
the p the σ
orbital H bond
H C C H extent of hyperconjugative
H electron delocalization σ p = f (cos2θ )
H
consequently, the C–H bond that eclipses the p-type orbital (the "vertical" C–H bond) provides
maximum hyperconjugation, while each of the remaining two C–H bonds provides about ¼ of the
hyperconjugative stabilization of the "vertical" C–H bond
axis of θ = 0°
the p H The red C–H bond provides maximum
orbital H hyperconjugation (θ = 0°, cos2θ = 1)
H C C H H C H
H The black C–H bonds provide diminished
H H H
hyperconjugation (θ = 60°, cos2θ = 0.25)
θ = 60° (Newman projection)
The ethyl cation as a carbocation stabilized by 3 hyperconjugative interactions with C–H bonds:
free internal rotation

hydrogens (or other atoms) θ = 90°
directly bound to the positive H each adjacent C–H bond
carbon cannot provide H C will contribute to the
C H
hyperconjugative stabilization H hyperconjugative stabilization
(θ = 90° overlap integral = 0) H of the cationic center
the ethyl cation is stabilized by 3 hyperconjugative

interactions with neighboring C–H bonds
Relative stability of the isomeric carbocations arising through protonation of an unsymmetrical

olefin such as propene:
H H
H
H Br H C H
H C C H H from HBr C
H from HBr H
H connects to H H connects to CH3
C C C H
A H B
H the terminal C H the inner C
C
result: a carbocation
result: a carbocation H H stabilized by 2 C–H
stabilized by 6 C–H and 1 C–C hyperconj.
hyperconj. interactions interactions (3 total)
more favorable less favorable
Principle: protonation of olefins is an unfavorable process that occurs reversibly; therefore, if the
protonation of an olefin can yield two different carbocations, the more thermodynamically
favorable (=more highly stabilized) ion (A in the example above) will form preferentially:
E –
Br
B –
ΔEcarbocations Br
A: dominant
carbocation
HBr product
rc
Ultimate products of the above reaction: the alkyl halide arising through addition of Br– to the
carbonium ions. Because carbocation A forms preferentially, alkyl bromide A below is predicted
to be the major product of the reaction (confirmed by experiment!!).
H •• – H
Br Br
••
••
predicted
H H •• H C C H major
C C
product
H CH3 H CH3
cation A product A
H Br Br H
H C predicted
C H H C C H minor
H
CH3 H CH3 product
cation B product B
Primary (=bound to one other carbon), secondary (=bound to two other carbons), tertiary
(=bound to three other carbons), carbon atoms
Primary, secondary, tertiary carbocation: one in which the charge resides on a primary,
secondary, or tertiary C atom
Note: generally speaking, a primary carbocation will be stabilized by 3 hyperconjugative interactions with
neighboring σ bonds (C–H or C–C); a secondary one, by 6; a tertiary one, by 9 (structures below: the
"blue" bonds are the ones providing hyperconjugative stabilization):
H/C C/H
H/C
primary carbocation: H C/H C secondary carbocation:
3 hyperconjugative C C H/C
H C/H C C H/C 6 hyperconjugative
interactions H interactions
H/C
H/C
C/H
H/C
C/H C
C C H/C tertiary carbocation:
C/H 9 hyperconjugative interactions
C/H C H/C
C/H H/C
Therefore, tertiary carbocations are generally more highly stabilized than secondary and primary ones,
and secondary carbocations are generally more highly stabilized than primary ones
Principle: because carbocations obtained by protonation of an alkene form reversibly through an

unfavorable (ΔG>0) process, the protonation of an alkene will yield preferentially the more
highly stabilized (=less energetic) carbocation.
Therefore, a tertiary carbocation will for preferentially over a secondary or a primary one;
and a secondary carbocation will form preferentially over a primary one.
Examples of electrophilic addition of H–X across the π bond of various alkenes

– H I
H CH2–CH3 H–I H H
I H
C C H C C H C C
H H H CH2–CH3 H CH2–CH3
secondary carbocation: major product

forms selectively over
the primary cation
–
H CH3 Cl H Cl
H–Cl H CH2
C C CH3
H C C H C C
H CH3 H H CH3
CH3
tertiary carbocation: major product
the primary cation
–
H CH3 H–Br H Br H Br
CH3 CH3
C C H C C H C C
CH3 CH3 CH3 CH3 CH3 CH3
tertiary carbocation: major product
the secondary cation
Lecture 7: Regioselective Addition of H–X to Alkenes and Rearrangements
Selective reaction: one that yields preferentially one product out of a number of possible ones.
In the case of propene reacting with HBr, one would say that the reaction is selective because A
(2-bromopropane) is the major / exclusive product
H—Br
H Br H Br
very little mostly
H C C H H + H H C C H
minor C C major
product H3C H H CH3
H CH3 product
product B product A
1-bromopropane 2-bromopropane
the reaction selectively forms product A
The addition of halogen acids H–X (X = Cl, Br, I, but not HF) to alkenes as a selective reaction
(=one one that yields largely / exclusively one product out of several possible ones):
Substituent: a generic atom or group of atoms, e.g. an H, an alkyl, a halogen, an OH, etc.,
attached to a given C atom within a molecule
example: the Br atom in the above molecules is a substituent, and so is the CH3 group
Regioisomers (=positional isomers): two molecules that differ for the position of a particular
substituent around an otherwise identical carbon chain
example: the above molecules of 1-bromopropane and 2-bromopane are regioisomers, because
they differ for the location of the Br atom around an identical three-carbon chain
Regioisomers as special cases of constitutional isomers
Regioselective reaction: one in which selectivity is due to one orientation of the reactants being
favored relative to another, as seen in the above addition of HBr to propene
The addition of halogen acids H–X (X = Cl, Br, I, but not HF) to any unsymmetrical alkene as a
regioselective reaction
Markownikov rule – old version: electrophilic addition of H–X (X = Cl, Br, I, but not F), to
alkenes occurs so that the H connects to the C atom bearing the most H's, and the halogen, X,
connects to the C atom bearing the most carbon atoms.
"Modern" Markownikov rule: electrophilic addition of H-X to alkenes occurs so that the major
product results from the most highly stabilized cationic intermediate (which forms to a greater
extent under conditions of reversible protonation of the alkene).
Primary, secondary, tertiary alkyl halides: compounds in which the halogen is connected to a
primary, secondary or tertiary carbon atom, respectively
Quaternary carbon; one bound to four other carbons
Relative hyperconjugative ability of C–H vs. C–C bonds: C–H is more effective due to lower
electronegativity of H (2.1) vs. C (2.5). Consequently, we may focus on C–H hyperconjugation
when evaluating the degree of stabilization of carbocations
R-notation: in organic chemistry, "R" is used to denote a generic substituent in a molecule: H,

alkyl, Cl, Br, OH, …
Enormous degree of stabilization provided to carbocations by adjacent heteroatoms possessing

lone pairs of electrons, such as N, O, S:
hyperconjugative interaction: the "back-pull" of the nucleus of the H atom allows only a
fraction of the C–H σ electron density to occupy the vacant p-orbital on the carbocation
H H
the σ cloud is "distorted":
••
••
some σ electron density

R1 R1
C C C C is delocalized away from
H H
R2 R2 H and toward the positive C
H H
interaction of a carbocation with a neighboring heteroatom, X, possessing a

lone pair: there is nothing to "pull back" the lone pair!
the lone pair is now free

••
•• to establish a full π bond

R1 R1 between X and C: every
C X C X
R2 R3 R2 R3 atom has a complete octet
1 2 3
"R" notation above (cf. R , R , R ) indicates generic groups; e.g., alkyl groups
The stabilization of a carbocation by a neighboring heteroatom containing lone pairs, e.g.,

oxygen, as an example of resonance interaction:
CH3
double-headed
CH3 C O
C O arrow: symbol for
resonance H CH3
H CH3
A B
reminder: resonance structures, e.g., A and B above, are used to depict extreme cases
of electronic distribution within a molecule. They have no physical reality, but allow us to
visualize the electronic configuration of the molecule as being "in between" such extremes
Origin of carbocation stabilization provided by a heteroatom: completion of a Lewis octet around

the cationic carbon atom
Principle: resonance structure B above describes the electron configuration of the cationic
intermediate better than structure A:
In B, each atom has a complete Lewis octet: this is an extremely favorable situation.
in A, the carbon atom has only 6 valence electrons: this is highly unfavorable
General order of stability of carbocations: N/O/S-stabilized > tertiary > secondary > primary
Therefore, an N/O/S-stabilized carbocation will form preferentially over a tertiary, secondary

or primary one; a tertiary carbocation will for preferentially over a secondary or a primary one;
a secondary carbocation will form preferentially over a primary one.
Electrophilic addition of H–X to alkenes bearing N, O, S substituents: the orientation of the

addition process is controlled by the heteroatom, e.g.:
2 arrows pointing in heteroatom-stabilized "carbocation":

opposite directions: even more favorable than the
symbol for equilibrium – regioisomeric tertiary carbocation
H–Cl Cl H
R3 R1 H Cl
R1 H R2 C R1 OCH3
R1 C C C C
C OCH3 C O
R2 C O R3
R3 R3 CH3 R2
CH3
R2 better resonance
form of the cation
Illustration of the fact that a heteroatom-stabilized carbocation is better stabilized than even a
tertiary one:
2 arrows pointing in heteroatom-stabilized "carbocation": even more

opposite directions: favorable than the alternative tertiary carbocation
symbol for equilibrium
– –
Cl Cl
H–Cl H Cl
CH3 H OCH3
H R CH3
C C O C C
CH3 C CH3 C O H
H CH3 CH3
C OCH3 H CH3
CH3 better resonance
form of the cation
notice how the "old" Markownikov rule ['in an electrophilic addition of H–X to alkenes, the H
connects to the C atom bearing the most H atoms, and the halogen, X, connects to the C atom
bearing the most carbon atoms"] fails in the above case.
Addition of H-X (X = Cl, Br, I, but not F) to particular alkenes; e.g., A:
H Cl H2 Cl
C H CH3 H–Cl H H CH3 H C CH3
H2C C C C C
C H C H2
CH3 H2 CH3
A CH3
expected product this one !!!!
However, this is found to be the minor product of
the reaction, the major product being instead . . . .
Rationale for the formation of the unexpected product:
– H –
Cl H Cl
H–Cl
H H atom H
H C H C CH3 pdt.
H CH3 C
C H CH3 C C C
C migration H2
H2C H2 CH3 CH3
CH3 very fast
carbocation stabilized carbocation stabilized by 8
by 4 hyperconj. interact. hyperconj. interact.with C–H
with C–H bonds bonds: more favorable
Description of the above process as a hydrogen migration

Lecture 8: Stereochemical Aspects of H–X Additions to Alkenes
Description of the process leading to the formation of the unexpected product of the reaction of
alkene A with, e.g., HCl, as a rearrangement of the carbocation through a migration (or shift) of
hydrogen
– H H –
H–Cl Cl Cl
H H atom H
H C H C CH3 pdt.
H CH3 C
C H CH3 C C C
C migration H2
H2C H2 CH3 CH3
CH3 very fast
carbocation stabilized carbocation stabilized by 8
A by 4 hyperconj. interact. hyperconj. interact.with C–H
with C–H bonds bonds: more favorable
Principle: rearrangements of carbocations by the above migratory mechanism (1,2-migration or

1,2-shift) occur extremely rapidly
Principle: because rearrangements of carbocations occur extremely rapidly, the occurrence of a

rearrangement during an electrophilic addition to an olefin is strong evidence that the reaction
involves carbocation intermediates. Likewise, the absence of rearrangements during an
electrophilic addition to an olefin is evidence that the reaction does not involve carbocations.
Carbocation rearrangement through migration (or shift) of alkyl groups, e.g.:
– CH3 CH3 Cl –
H–Cl Cl
H 1,2-CH3 shift H
H C H C CH3
H CH3 C
C CH3 C C C
H2C C CH (migration) H2 CH3
H2 CH3
3 fast!!
CH3 carbocation stabilized
carbocation stabilized
by 3 hyperconj. interact. by 7 hyperconj. interact.
H–Cl with C–H bonds with C–H bonds
Cl expected product CH3

Cl
H C CH3 However, this is found H
C CH to be the minor product C CH3
C H C H C
H2 3 of the reaction, the major
CH3 H2
product being instead: CH3
Significance of carbocation chemistry, including rearrangements, in biological chemistry
Example: cholesterol, an important component of lipid membranes and the progenitor of

steroid hormones, is synthesized in certain liver cells. These generate a particular
carbocation, which is transformed into cholesterol by various rearrangements and
other chemical modifications
Principle: in CHEM 203 we may assume that carbocation rearrangements will occur only if the
immediate product of a migration is more highly stabilized than the original ion.
Interpretation of carbocation rearrangements from the standpoint of molecular orbital theory
in the course of a rearrangement, a carbocation must attain a transition state (see below), which
exhibits 3-center (= 3 atoms), 2-electron bonding:
M = migrating group
(H or alkyl)
σ-electrons
M (M–C bond) M
• + •
• M •
C C C C
••
C C
parent carbocation: transition state for
less highly stabilized the rearrangement: rearranged carbocation:
3-center, 2-electron more highly stabilized
bonded structure
the molecular orbitals of this transition state result through a Linear Combination of Atomic
Orbitals (LCAO) associated with the two C atoms and migrating atom M, each contributing 1
orbital. The 3 atomic orbitals combine (complex math…) to produce 3 molecular orbitals that may
be represented with the following MO diagram:
Energy
high-energy orbitals:
antibonding
low-energy orbital:
bonding
note: the antibonding orbitals, shown above as being degenerate,

may differ in energy depending on the precise molecular structure
the above molecular orbitals will be populated by the 2 electrons "holding the transition state
together." These electrons will populate the lowest-energy orbital first:
Energy
antibonding
low-energy orbital:
bonding
therefore, a considerable degree of bonding is retained during the rearrangement.
Stereochemical aspects of the electrophilic addition of H–X to simple alkenes: chiral products
will be obtained in both enantiomeric forms:
Example: the reaction of trans-2-butene with a generic H–X (X = Cl, Br, I, but not F) leading to a
—
2-halobutane. The planar carbocation formed upon protonation of the alkene may react with X
from either the top or the bottom face…
top-face attack:
H–X pathway A
H
C CH3 CH2-CH3
CH3 C X CH3 C
H H
trans–2-butene
bottom-face attack: plane of the
pathway B cationic C
… the two modes of attack leading to enantiomeric products (use molecular models!!):
X
A
C CH2CH3
CH3 2-halobutane:
CH2-CH3 H product A chiral molecule
X CH3 C
B A and B are
H CH3 CH2CH3 enantiomers
C H
plane of the product B
cationic C X
Stereogenic (occasionally improperly described as "chiral") carbon atom: one bound to four
different ligands
Chiral nature of the product 2-halobutane
Equal probability of pathways A and B: formation of a 50:50 mixture of products A and B
Racemic mixture, racemate: a 50:50 mixture of the two enantiomeric forms of a compound
Principle: a reaction between an achiral substrate (such as trans-2-butene) and an achiral reagent
(such as H–X) that leads to a chiral product will always produce a racemic mixture of products.
Principle: for the sake of convenience, a chiral product obtained through a reaction that furnishes
a racemic mixture may be depicted as a single enantiomer. It is understood that the reaction will
actually give both enantiomers of the product in equal amounts.
Drawing organic structures by the use of Lewis (painstaking to draw), condensed (easier to
draw), and skeletal formulas (of most practical usage)
Example: Lewis, condensed, and skeletal structures of cis-2-pentene and of trans-2-pentene:
cis-2-pentene trans-2-pentene
H H
H H H H H H
Lewis: H C C H H C C H
C C
C C C H C
H
H
H
H H H H
cis-2-pentene trans-2-pentene
H3C
CH CH CH CH
condensed: H3C CH2 CH3 CH2 CH3
skeletal:
Lecture 9: Hydration of Alkenes
Technological importance of alkyl halides in the chemical industry
Even greater technological significance of alcohols in the contemporary world

Reminder: an alcohol is an organic compound in which a carbon atom bears an OH group:
Hydration reaction of alkenes: the addition of water across the π bond leading to alcohols:
H OH [?] H OH
C C an alcohol
C C
Principle: no reaction is possible between an intact alkene and H2O because both are Lewis bases
Possible reaction of Lewis basic H2O with a carbocation generated by protonation of an alkene
Inability of H2O (pKa ≈ 16) to protonate an alkene and consequent requirement for a strong
Bronsted acid in the hydration reaction
Reminder: the pKa of H2O as defined on the basis of the law of mass action is:
both = 10–7 M at equil. (25 °C)
this is an abstraction: there [ H+ ] [ OH] 10–7 x 10–7

is no free "H+" in solution Keq = Ka = = = 1.8 x 10–16
[ H2O ] 55.55
H–OH H+ + OH no. of moles of H2O in one liter (≈ 1 kg)

of H2O ≈ 1000 g / 18 g/mol = 55.55 mol
therefore, pKaH2O = – log (1.8 x 10–16) ≈ 15.7 ≈ 16
Inadequacy of HCl, HBr, HI for the hydration of olefins (nucleophilic Cl–, Br–, I– are likely to
capture the carbocation intermediate)
Requirement for Bronsted acids that are strong enough to protonate the olefin (pKa << 0), but
that release a poorly nucleophilic conjugate base that is unlikely to compete effectively with H2O
for the intermediate carbocation
Sulfuric acid (pKa ≈ – 5), trifluoromethanesulfonic acid (pKa ≈ –10), tetrafluoroboric acid (pKa
≈ –10), as Bronsted acids that release poorly nucleophilic conjugate bases
(pKa ≈ –5) O (pKa ≈ +2) O

dissoc. hydrogen sulfate ion:
sulfuric acid H O S OH O S OH a poor nucleophile
O pKa ≈ –5 O
F O dissoc. F O
trifluoromethanesulfonic F C S O–H F C S O trifluoromethanesulfonate
(= "triflic ") acid (triflate) ion: very poor
F O pKa ≈ –10 F O nucleophile
dissoc. F
tetrafluoroboric acic F B F tetrafluoroborate ion:
HBF4 very poor nucleophile
pKa ≈ –10 F
the conjugate bases of these acids are poor nucleophiles and are not overly inclined to react
with carbocation intermediates, permitting faster capture of the cations by other nucleophiles
Principle: in the absence of prior knowledge, it is generally not easy / possible to predict whether
the conjugate base of a Bronsted acid will be a good nucleophile, or a poor one: only experiment
can ascertain the nucleophilic character of such conjugate bases.
General mechanism of the hydration reaction of an olefin, e.g., of cyclohexene:
H better nucleophile:
O H reacts with the
cation faster than HSO4–
protonation
H–OSO3H unfavorable:
OSO3H
it occurs
reversibly H poorer nucleophile:
reacts more slowly
with the cation
B = generic base (e.g., OSO3H, OH

H H2O, possibly another olefin ... ) a proton is
O H
protonated cyclohexanol: returned to
pKa ≈ – 2 the medium cyclohexanol
Thermodynamically highly favorable capture of a carbocation by a molecule of H2O (completion

of a Lewis octet)
Principle: acid (=protons) are not consumed during the hydration of alkenes
Catalysts: species that promote chemical reactions but that are not consumed in the process
The addition of water to alkenes as a process that is catalytic in protons (acid)
The hydronium ion, H3O+, as a strong Bronsted acid with pKa ≈ –2

+
Reminder: the pKa of H3O as defined on the basis of the law of mass action is:
[ H+ ] [ H2O ]
H3O+ H+ + H2O Keq = Ka = = [ H2O ] = 55.55
[ H3O+ ]
this is an abstraction: there same thing!!
is no free "H+" in solution
therefore, pKaH3O+ = – log (55.55) ≈ – 1.7 ≈ – 2
"Markownikov" selectivity in the addition of water to unsymmetrical alkenes: formation of

alcohols derived from the more highly stabilized carbocation, e.g.:
OH H2SO4 H2SO4 OH
2-propanol or
"isopropanol"
H2O H2O
Possibility of rearrangement during addition of water to alkenes as a consequence of the fact that
the reaction involves carbocation intermediates. Examples:
symbol for
proton exchange
1,2-hydride shift OH2 H
H OSO3H H H
H H O H ±H+ H OH
H CH3 H CH3 CH3 H CH3
H
CH3
CH3 CH3 CH3 CH3
CH3
and
symbol for
1,2-alkyl shift proton exchange
OH H
H OSO3H CH3 CH3
CH3
H O H ±H+ CH3 OH
CH3 H CH3 H CH2 CH3 H CH3
CH3
CH3 CH3 CH3 CH3
CH3
Stereochemical aspects of proton-initiated hydration of alkenes: formation of racemic alcohols

(notes of Sept 25):
Example: the hydration of 1-butene leading to 2-butanol:
top-face attack:
pathway A
plane of the OH (S)-2-butanol
H–OSO3H cationic C A
C CH CH
H2O CH3 2 3
H CH2-CH3 H
H2O CH3 C enantiomers
C CH2CH3 B
H C H CH3 CH2CH3
H C H
1-butene bottom-face attack: (R)-2-butanol
pathway B OH
Lecture 10: Addition of "Water-Like" Molecules to Alkenes
Thermodynamically highly favorable capture of a carbocation by a molecule of water; e.g.:
H H
O H O H
ΔG << 0 the cationic carbon, originally
surrounded by only 6 valence
electrons, completes its octet
H H
Reversibility of the above step at higher temperatures (150-200 °C):
H H
O H lower temps. O H
H higher temps. H
Dehydration of alcohols: conversion of alcohols into olefins; e.g.:
OH2 (boils away)

OH H OSO3H OH2
CH3 CH2
CH3 CH2
180 °C CH3 CH2 180 °C
ethanol OSO3H
H H
H H
H C C
H C C H–OSO3H
pKa < –11 H H H
OSO3H ethylene
note: any alcohol (except CH3OH) can be dehydrated in this fashion
Relative ease of dehydration of alcohols: tertiary > than secondary >> than primary – WHY?
Because the ease of dehydration correlates with the energy necessary to cause dissociation of
H2O away from the protonated alcohol:
OH2 tertiary carbocation formed:

CH3 C CH3 + OH2 most stabilized
CH3 C CH3 least energetic --> most facile
CH3 fastest reaction
CH3
secondary carbocation
OH2 + OH2 formed: less stabilized
CH3 C CH3
H more energetic --> less facile
CH3 C CH3 slower reaction
H
primary carbocation
OH2 CH3 CH2 + OH2 formed: least stabilized
most energetic --> least facile
CH3 CH2 slowest reaction
Addition of "water-like" molecules to the π system on an alkene under protonic catalysis
H–O-H CH3–O-H H–S-H CH3–S-H etc.
water an alcohol hydrogen sulfide a thiol (or mercaptan)

(methanol)
Principle: the mechanism of proton-catalyzed addition of alcohols, H2S, thiols, or any other
electronically similar molecules, to olefins is analogous to that of the hydration reaction.
examples: (i) addition of alcohols, e.g., methanol, CH3OH, to olefins: formation of ethers,
as exemplified by the preparation of methyl tert-butyl ether (MTBE, antiknock
additive for gasoline):
H
O CH3
protonation
H–OSO3H unfavorable: poor nucleophile:
OSO3H not readily inclined
it occurs to react with the cation
reversibly
H
B = generic base (e.g., OSO3H, MeOH, ... )
CH3 H a proton is
O CH3
O
returned to
the medium
H
H
(ii) addition of H2S to olefins catalyzed by strong acids such as H2SO4, HBF4, ... :
preparation of the sulfur analogs of alcohols ["mercaptans" or "thiols:" R–SH
HBF4
the sulfur analog of an alcohol:
SH a mercaptan, a.k.a. a thiol
H2S
(iii) addition of mercaptans (thiols) to olefins catalyzed by H2SO4, HBF4, …: preparation of the
1 2 1 2
sulfur analogs of ethers ("thioethers:" compounds of the type R –S–R (R , R = generic alkyl
groups); e.g.:
H2SO4 SCH3
the sulfur analog of
CH3–SH an ether: a thioether
Principle: all the reactions seen so far involve carbocations, therefore, in all such reactions
rearrangements of the carbocation intermediates are possible.
Possible additions to the π system of alkenes that do not involve carbocation intermediates
Additions to alkenes initiated by an interaction of the π system with electrophiles other than H+,
such as:
a. species that contain an electronegative element in a high oxidation state (molecular

halogens, particular forms of oxygen, etc.)
b. certain metals in a high oxidation states
c. highly Lewis acidic molecules

Lecture 11: Halogenation of Alkenes & Stereochemical Aspects
Reaction of alkenes with molecular halogens (Cl2, Br2, sometimes I2, but not F2 – see below):
X X X X
X = Cl, Br, sometimes I
C C C C
notice how the above reaction reflects the general pattern of reactivity of olefins (notes of Sept 18)
Violent, exothermic reaction of F2 with alkenes (and organic matter in general) due to the
extreme reactivity of F2 toward carbon-based compounds, as a consequence of which the
fluorination of alkenes is not a reaction of interest
Description of the above reaction as the halogenation (chlorination, bromination, iodination, …)

of an alkene
Description of the product as the above reaction as a 1,2-dihalide or vicinal dihalide (dichloride,
dibromide, diiodide…)
Absence of rearrangements during the halogenation of olefins, ruling out the intervention of
carbocation intermediates (notes of Sept. 25)
Example:
Br
Br
Br2
no formed
Br Br
Mechanistic aspects of the halogenation reaction: predicted initial interaction of the π system
with a halogen molecule, e.g., Cl2, leading to a chloronium ion:
lobes of the σ*Cl–Cl orbital

(phases omitted for clarity)
C every atom has
Cl Cl – C a Lewis octet: C Cl
Cl + Cl
C C much more stable
than a hypothetical ... C
populating the σ*Cl–Cl orbital chloronium ion C with only 6 electrons:
breaks the Cl–Cl bond ... highly unfavorable
notice how electrons flow from the less electronegative C to the more electronegative Cl
Chloronium, bromonium, iodonium, … halonium ions
Concerted (= simultaneous creation / breakup of two or more bonds) formation of halonium ions
Halonium ions as exceedingly reactive, strained electrophiles, which nonetheless are isolable in
some favorable cases
Rapid SN2-like reaction of the halonium (chloronium, bromonium, …) ion with halide (chloride,
bromide, …) ion through donation of an electron pair into the C–X σ* orbital:
–
Cl
C Cl C
Cl
large lobes of the C C Cl
σ*Cl–Cl orbitals
Stereochemical aspects of the halogenation reaction: possible formation of stereoisomeric

products.
Example. The addition of Br2 to cyclohexene could produce the following stereoisomeric
products:
Br2 Br Br Br Br
&/or &/or &/or
[?] Br Br Br Br
A B C D
In products A and B the Br atoms In products C and D the Br atoms
point in the same direction relative point in opposite directions relative
to the plane containing the ring. to the plane containing the ring.
The Br atoms are in a cis relationship The Br atoms are in a trans relationship
A and B are thus cis isomers A and B are thus trans isomers
Now . . .
Structures A and B are different projections of the same molecule; i.e., they represent the
same thing (the cis isomer)! This cis isomer is achiral, even though it possesses stereogenic
carbons; therefore, it is a meso compound.
Structures C and D are enantiomeric forms of the trans isomer: their thermodynamic properties
are identical: if they should form, they will be obtained as a 50:50 mixture.
The cis and the trans isomers are one a diastereomer of the other. But…: diastereomers
possess distinct thermodynamic properties:
could the halogenation reaction form preferentially one type of diastereomeric product ?
Terminology used to describe the stereochemical outcome of the addition of a generic agent X–Y
to a π system: syn and anti additions
Syn addition of a generic molecule X–Y to the π system of an alkene (e.g., cyclohexene): a
process during which the X and Y atoms add from the same face of the π system:
X Y
H
syn addition Y
product of
C C C C syn addition
H H of X–Y H H X
H
plane of the X and Y add to the cis - isomer
olefinic system same face (e.g., top
face) of the π bond
Anti addition of a generic molecule X–Y to the π system of an alkene (e.g., cyclohexene): a
process during which the X and Y atoms add from opposite faces of the π system:
X
H
anti addition Y
product of
C C C C anti addition
H H of X–Y H H X
H
plane of the X and Y add to trans - isomer
olefinic system opposite faces Y
of the π bond
The formation of bromonium (halonium) ions as a syn addition process:

The reaction must start with the formation of a bromonium ion without the intervention of
carbocationic intermediates. The halogen molecule "deposits" a Br atom onto the double bond
through a mechanism that involves the simultaneous motion of three electron pairs (concerted
mechanism):
σ*Br–Br orbital
Br
–
Br
Br
Br
C C C C
H H H H
then, the bromonium ion undergoes SN2-like reaction with the halide (bromide, chloride..) ion:
Br
Br Br
"red" "blue"
C C C C
H H mech. C C mech.
H H
H H
Br Br
large lobes
H of σ*C-Br –
Br H
Br Br
Br only the trans-diastereomer can form Br

H in this reaction! H
The halogenation (e.g., bromination) of alkenes as an overall anti addition
consequence: the cis-isomer of the product is unavailable by any reaction yet known to us
cis-1,2-dibromocyclohexane Br Br trans-1,2-dibromocyclohexane:
(unavailable by any reaction available by bromination of
yet known to us in CHEM 203) Br Br cyclohexene
The halogenation of olefins as a diastereoselective reaction (it selectively forms one diastereomer)
Achiral nature of Br2 (molecular halogens in general) and cyclohexene
Chiral nature of the product of bromination (halogenation) of cyclohexene (trans-1,2-

dibromocyclohexane) and consequent formation of a racemic mixture through the statistically
equally probable occurrence of the "red" and "blue" mechanisms above:
H H
Br Br
(R) enantiomeric forms of (S) (S)
(R) the trans-diastereomer
Br Br
H H
Principle: mechanistic constraints force the halogenation reaction of any alkene to proceed in
the anti mode.
Stereochemical outcome of the halogenation of an acyclic olefin, e.g. the chlorination of trans-
and cis-2-butene:
Cl
H CH3 H CH3
Cl2 (S)
H3C anti- (R)

trans-isomer H H3C
addn. H
plane of the olefinic system
Cl
Cl Cl this molecule is achiral
rotate about
(R) Cl even though it contains
(S) central C–C stereogenic centers:
Cl bond it is a meso form
plane of symmetry
Cl
H H H H
Cl2 (R)
H3C anti- (R)

cis-isomer CH3 H3C CH3
addn.
plane of the olefinic system
Cl
Cl Cl Cl
rotate about (R) chiral molecule,
(R) (S)
Cl formed in a 50:50
central C–C (R) ratio together with (S)
(R) bond Cl Cl
Enantiomeric relationship between the R,R- and the S,S-isomer (non-superimposable mirror
images)
Diastereomeric relationship between R,R- and the R,S-isomer or the S,S- and the R,S-isomer
(stereoisomers that are not mirror images)
Lecture 12: Halogenation, Halohydrins, Stereochemical Aspects
Syn and anti diastereomers of the product of chlorination of, e.g., 2-butene:
(a) draw the carbon backbone in an extended (anti-butane) conformation and consider
the orientation of the halogen atoms relative to the geometric plane containing
the main carbon chain
(b) if the halogen atoms are protruding out of the same face of the plane, then the
stereoisomer in question is the syn diastereomer; if they are pointing in opposite
directions, then the stereoisomer in question is the anti diastereomer:
Cl both up
Cl Cl H
Cl H
or
H
Cl Cl Cl
enantiomeric forms of the syn diastereomer, H Cl
because in either molecule the Cl atoms both down
reside on the same face of the plane molecular plane defined by the
defined by the main chain of the molecule main chain in an extended conformation
in an extended conformation
Cl one up, one down

Cl H
H
Cl
anti diastereomer,because the Cl atoms Cl
reside on opposite faces of the plane
defined by the main chain of the molecule molecular plane defined by the
in an extended conformation main chain in an extended conformation
Attention: the stereochemical descriptors syn and anti as referred to the mode of addition to an
alkene, or to a molecular property of diastereomers, mean two different things:
• as applied to the mode of addition, they indicate whether a generic X–Y adds to the π bond of
an alkene in such a way that X and Y connect to the C atoms of the olefin from the same side
(syn addition) or from opposite sides (anti addition) of the plane of the π bond.
• as applied to a diastereomer, they indicate whether groups X and Y end up pointing toward the
same face (syn diastereomer) or opposite faces (anti distereomer) of a geometric plane
containing the main carbon chain of the molecule in an extended (=anti-butane) conformation.
Consequence of the stereochemical properties of the halogenation reaction:

suppose that we need to prepare the anti-diastereomer of 2,3-dibromopentane (compound A
below) and the syn-diastereomer of the same molecule (compound B): how could we proceed?
Br Br
A Br B Br
(i) both compounds are 1,2-dibromides, which are available by direct bromination of "2-pentene;"
(ii) the C atoms connected to the halogens must have been part of an olefinic system, which has
has subsequently reacted with Br2; but …
(ii) the addition of Br2 to an alkene is a strictly anti-process; meaning that the halogens must have
added from opposite faces of the π system. So:
Compound A is an anti-diastereomer, which must have resulted from the anti-addition of Br2
to trans-2-pentene:
Br
H
reform H
C-C
H
H
Br π bond
Br's on opposite faces compound A can be made by

of the molecular plane
anti-addition of Br2 to trans-2-pentene
Compound B is an syn-diastereomer. One cannot produce B by the addition of Br2 to trans-2-

pentene, because the anti-nature of the addition process will furnish the anti-diastereomer (A).
To deduce how we could create B, we must imagine a conformer of the molecule in which
the halogen atoms are oriented in opposite directions relative to the molecular plane:
Br Br
Br internal reform
H
rotation C-C
H H
around π bond
H σ-bond
Br
Br's on the same face Br's now on opposite
of the molecular plane faces of the molecular plane
consequently . . .
H
H compound C can be
made by anti-addition
of Br2 to cis-2-pentene
Driving force in the above reactions: the electronegative halogen atoms, initially in an
unfavorable oxidation state of 0, are reduced to the favorable oxidation state of –1
Capture of halonium ions with nucleophiles other than halide ion: reaction of an olefin with Cl2
(Br2) and water or simple alcohols: formation of halohydrins (chlorohydrins, bromohydrins, etc.)
or haloethers via an overall anti addition process:
O–R H O–R
H
H H O R H
Br–Br Br2
Br
H2O Br (±H+)
H H
(+ solvated Br–)
H
O–R
If R = H: the product is a bromohydrin
If R = CH3, CH3–CH2, ... alkyl: the product is a bromoether
Br
H
anti-addition:
trans-product only
The halohydrin reaction as a strictly anti-addition to the π bond
The halohydrin reaction as a diastereoselective process (anti-addition only)
Technological importance of halohydrins
Additional examples: preparation of acyclic (= non-cyclic) halohydrins, e.g. bromohydrins, e.g.:

OH OH
H anti-bromohydrin Br2, H2O H
accessible only from
H trans-2-butene: OH and Br add H
Br Br
in an anti mode
OH OH
H syn-bromohydrin Br2, H2O OH
H rotate H
accessible only Br
H from cis-2-butene: OH and Br add H
Br H
in an anti mode Br
Reminder: the halohydrins shown above are chiral molecules that are produced from
achiral reactants; consequently, they will be obtained in racemic form. For convenience,
we depict them as individual enantiomers, with the understanding that both enantiomers
are actually present in equal proportions
Regioselectivity in halohydrin formation from unsymmetrical halonium ions; e.g.:
–
Br Br
Br Br
Br2 an unsymmetrical
H CH3 bromonium ion:
propene: a simple H CH3 C C
unsymmetrical C C H2O H2O could react at
alkene H H H A B H atom A or atom B
Br Br O
H H
will the H2O molecule
ultimate product of ultimate product of prefer to attack atom
reaction at atom A: regioisomers
OH OH reaction at atom B: A or B ?
Br
Br Br an unsymmetrical
e.g., bromonium ion: a
propene: a simple CH3 nucleophile could
unsymmetrical H CH3 H C C react at atom A or
alkene C C Br2
H H H A B H at atom B
will a nucleophile prefer to attack atom A or B ?
• The Br–C bonds are highly polarized

(there is a + charge on Br), so the C
atoms of the bromonium ion support a Br
significant fraction of + charge. Br
A B CH3
H CH3 H
• Carbon atom B accumulates a greater C C C C
H H
fraction of + charge than A, because H δ Δ H
it is better suited to sustain cationic Nu
character due to a greater number of
C–H hyperconjugative interactions Nu
A nucleophile, Nu (=electron-rich species, therefore electrostaticallly negative), will be attracted to

the site of greater + character, so one may predict that it will preferentially attack carbon atom B
Principle: an external nucleophile will attack an unsymmetrical chloronium (bromonium, …

halonium) ion preferentially at the carbon that can sustains the greatest fraction of positive
charge (= the more highly polarized C atom)
Additional examples of halohydrin-like reactions:
CH3 OCH3
CH3 Cl2 OCH3 Cl2
(racemic)
OCH3 OCH3
CH3OH notice anti addition
Cl CH3OH Cl
H
Lecture 13: Ozonolysis of Alkenes
Reactions of alkenes with agents that incorporate an electronegative atom in a high oxidation
state: the case of ozone, O3
ox. st. of highly electrophilic

O = + 1 !! oxygen atom vacant
orbital
O O
O O O O ox. st. of
O = + 1 !!
preferred resonance struct. less accurate res. struct.
Concerted addition of ozone to olefins (easier to visualize from the poorer resonance structure):
O O
O O O O
R1 C 3
C R
R1 R3 R2 R4
C C
R2 R4 "molozonide"
note: elemental oxygen, O2, can (and does) react with alkenes, but in a manner
that will be discussed in more advanced courses
Concerted reaction: one in which two or more bonds are formed / broken simultaneously,
through an orderly movement of multiple electron pairs, leading to a product through a single
chemical event (= without the intervention of reaction intermediates)
Instability of molozonides: fast breakdown of the molozonide structure driven by the tendency of
the O atoms to become reduced to a more favorable oxidation state
ox st. ox st.
=0 ox. st. = –1
ox. st. O ox. st. O =–2
O
=–1 O O =–1 + ox. st. O
C
3 R1 R2 =–1
R1 C C R C
R2 R4 R3 R4
Carbonyl group: an atomic arrangement consisting of C atom doubly bonded to an O atom (i.e., a
C=O system)
Carbonyl compound: a substance that incorporates a carbonyl group:
R1 a carbonyl compound: R1 and R2 can

C O
2
be anything (H, alkyl, halogen, OH ...)
R
Major types of carbonyl compounds: aldehydes, ketones, carboxylic acids:

R1 R1 R1
aldehyde: R1 is an a ketone: R1 and R2 C O a carboxylic acid:
C O C O
H or an alkyl group are both alkyl groups R1 is H or alkyl
H R 2 HO
Facile breakup of the molozonide, driven by the tendency of the O atom at the o.s of 0 to become
reduced to the o.s. of – 1: formation of a carbonyl compound (aldehyde, ketone, …) and a
carbonyl oxide
ox. st. = 0 ox. st.

ox st. a "carbonyl oxide" --
O =–2 O = –1 highly reactive and
ox. st. O ox. st.
O O C 2 ox. st. O electronically similar
=–1 =–1 R1 R
3 =–1 C to ozone: can
R1 C C R a carbonyl R 3 R4 undergo cycloaddition
R2 R4 compound to π systems
Carbonyl oxides as reactive electrophiles that exhibit "carbocation-like" reactivity; e.g.:
symbol
for O OH
O O
resonance CH3OH O O
O O
R H R
C O O
C (e.g.) R'
R R' R'
R R' CH3 CH3
Similarity between the electronic configuration of a carbonyl oxide and that of ozone, and
probable tendency of a carbonyl oxide to react with π systems, just like O3 does
R3 O symbol for R3 O
O symbol for O
O O C O C O
O O resonance
resonance R4 R4
ozone
carbonyl oxide
Facile recombination of the fragments resulting from the break-up of the molozonide: reaction of
the carbonyl oxide with the carbonyl piece leading to an ozonide
ox. st. ox st.

O =–1
R1 O O O = –13 ozonide: end product
R1 R of the reaction of an
C C alkene with ozone
R2 O R2 O R4
R4 R3
ox. st. = – 2
Tendency of the O atoms at the o.s. of – 1 to become reduced to the o.s. of –2
Reaction of ozonides with metallic zinc (source of electrons) and acid: formation of aldehydes
and / or ketones (no mechanism for this reaction – yet…). E.g.:
source of
electrons ox. st. ox. st.
ox. st. ox. st. ox. st.
=–1 =–2 =–2
=–1 =–2
O3 O O Zn CH3–CH2 CH3
CH3–CH2 CH3 O + O + H2O (+ Zn2+)
H O CH3 H+ H CH3
ox. st.
=–2 carbonyl
group (C=O)
ozonide
Description of the overall process detailed above as the ozonolysis (= breakdown using ozone) of
alkenes: the doubly bonded carbon atoms of the initial olefin separate, giving rise to two new
molecules:
R1 R3 1. O3 R1 R3
C C C O O C
R2 R4 2. Zn / H+ R2 R4
Examples of ozonolysis reactions

• ozonolysis of acyclic (=non-cyclic) alkenes:
H 1. O3 H O CH3
C CH3 + C
H C C
2. Zn / H+ H O H
H
formaldehyde acetaldehyde
H 1. O3 H O CH3
C CH3 + C acetone:
H C C
2. Zn / H+ H O CH3 a ketone
CH3
formaldehyde
H 1. O3 H O CH3
C CH3 + C a ketone
H3C C C
2. Zn / H+ H3C O CH3
CH3
H H
1. O3
C CH3 C + O CH3
H3C C H3C O C
2. Zn / H+
H H
trans-2-butene two molecules of acetaldehyde
H H
1. O3 same products: ozonolysis
C H C
H3C C + O CH3 does not distinguish between
H3C O C
CH3 2. Zn / H+ cis & trans alkene isomers
H
cis-2-butene
• ozonolysis of cyclic alkenes:
H CH3 CH3
C C C
C C C
H H CH3
1. O3 1. O3 1. O3
2. Zn / H+ 2. Zn / H+ 2. Zn / H+
H CH3 CH3
C O C O C O
C O C O C O
H H CH3
A twist on the ozonolysis reaction: fragments of the initial alkene that would be obtained as
aldehydes if the ozonide were treated with Zn/H+, emerge as carboxylic acids if the ozonide is
treated with H2O2 and acid. Fragments that would emerge as ketones are still obtained as
ketones (no mechanism yet for this reaction). Example:
Zn
CH3–CH2 CH3
C O + O C
O3 H+ H CH3
CH3–CH2 CH3
C C CH3–CH2 O O CH3
H C C
CH3 H O CH3
H2O2 CH3–CH2 CH3
C O + O C
H+ H–O CH3
Further examples of ozonolysis reactions that involve treatment of the ozonide with H2O2 / H+:
• ozonolysis of acyclic (=non-cyclic) alkenes:
H H O CH3
1. O3 + C
C CH3 C
H C HO O OH
2. H2O2 / H+
H formic acid acetic acid
H H O CH3
1. O3 C + C
C CH3
H C HO O CH3
CH3 2. H2O2 / H+ acetone
formic acid
H OH O CH3
1. O3 + C
C CH3 C
H3C C H3C O CH3
2. H2O2 / H+
CH3 acetic acid acetone
H 1. O3 OH
C CH3 C + O CH3
H3C C H3C O C
2. H2O2 / H+
H OH
trans-2-butene two molecules of acetic acid
H 1. O3 OH OH
C H C + C
H3C C H3C O O CH3
2. H2O2 / H+
CH3
cis-2-butene still two molecules of acetic acid:
ozonolysis does not distinguish between
cis & trans alkene isomers
• ozonolysis of cyclic alkenes:
H CH3 CH3
C C C
C C C
H H CH3
1. O3 1. O3 1. O3
2. H2O2 / H+ 2. H2O2 / H+ 2. H2O2 / H+
OH CH3 CH3
C O C O C O
C O C O C O
OH OH CH3
Lecture 14: Osmylation of Alkenes
"Cycloaddition:" an addition reaction that forms a new ring, such as the formation of a
molozonide from ozone + an alkene (or the formation of a halonium ion from a halogen
molecule + an alkene)
Ozone as a "1,3-dipole:"
O O
O O O O 1,3-dipole!
The addition of O3 to an alkene as a concerted "1,3-dipolar cycloaddition:"
O
O O O
O O 1,3-dipolar cycloaddtion
R1 3
C C R
R1 R3 R2 R 4
C C
R2 R4 molozonide
Drawing the above mechanism using the more accurate resonance form of O3:
O
O O O
O O
R1 3
R1 R3 CC R
R2 R 4
C C
R2 R4 molozonide
Pericyclic reaction: one that can be described as a "circular" movement of electrons
The above 1,3-dipolar cycloaddition as a syn addition reactions: new bonds form from the same
face of the π system"
The breakup of the molozonide as an inverse 1,3-dipolar cycloaddition; i.e., a cycloreversion:
O O O
O O O
C +
R1 C R3 R1 R2 C
C
R3 R4
R2 R4
Concerted nature (multiple bonds broken/formed simultaneously) of the above cycloaddition and
cycloreversion reactions
note: examples of concerted / non concerted reactions seen in CHEM 203

concerted reactions
• the formation of a halonium ion from an olefin + a molecular halogen
• the formation of a molozonide upon reaction of ozone with an alkene
• the reverse cycloaddition (=cycloreversion) of a molozonide to a carbonyl oxide + a carbonyl
compound
• the formation of an ozonide upon reaction of a carbonyl oxide with a carbonyl compound
non-concerted reactions
–
• the addition of HBr to alkenes (first a carbocation forms, then Br adds to the carbocation)
• the hydration of alkenes (first a carbocation forms, then H2O adds to the carbocation)
• the halogenation of alkenes (first a halonium ion forms, then a halide ion reacts with it)
Absence of rearrangements during the ozonolysis of alkenes (= no cationic intermediates)
Peroxide: a molecule incorporating an O–O linkage
Instability and explosive properties of peroxidic compounds, including ozonides, due to the
presence of O atoms at the oxidation state of –1
Agents containing metals in a high oxidation state: MnO4– (+7), RuO4, OsO4 (both +8), …
Analogy between the electronic distribution in the molecule of O3 and in that of OsO4:
Os (VIII): extremely electrophilic
O O O O
O
O O Os Os
O O O O
ozone
notice osmium
similarity tetraoxide
Ability of OsO4 to add to olefinic π bonds through a concerted mechanism similar to a 1,3-
dipolar cycloaddition:
O VIII O O VI O
Os Os
O O concerted O O
an osmate ester
R1 R3 syn addition R1 R3
C C C C
R2 R4 R2 R4
Driving force for the above reaction: reduction of Os(VIII) to Os(VI):
Strictly syn course of the addition of OsO4 (but also of MnO4— and RuO4) to alkenes
Absence of rearrangements in reactions involving OsO4 (= no cationic intermediates)

Stable character of osmate esters (unlike molozonides …)
Treatment of osmate esters with aqueous NaHSO3 leading to the release of Os and formation of
vicinal diols (also described as 1,2-diols. Diol = double alcohol):
O VI O
Os
aqueous HO OH
O O
R1 R3 + reduced forms of osmium
R1 R3 NaHSO3 C C
C C
R2 R4
R2 R4
a 1,2 diol
osmate ester (vicinal diol)
(stable )
Dihydroxylation (osmylation) reaction: the conversion of an alkene to a 1,2-diol by reaction with

OsO4 followed by reduction of the intermediate osmate ester, e.g., with NaHSO3
Strictly syn course of the dihydroxylation (osmylation) reaction
Representative examples of osmylation reactions:
1. OsO4 OH
H
OH (chiral: formed as the racemate)
2. Aq. NaHSO3
OH
1. OsO4 H
(chiral: formed as the racemate)
2. Aq. NaHSO3 H
OH
1. OsO4 OH OH
H H
OH (meso compound: achiral)
2. Aq. NaHSO3 H H
HO
H
1. OsO4 OH
(meso compound: achiral)
2. Aq. NaHSO3 OH
H
CH3
1. OsO4 OH
(chiral: formed as the racemate)
2. Aq. NaHSO3 OH
H
Lecture 15: Hydroboration of Alkenes
Chemically and technologically important reactions of alkenes initiated by the interaction of the
π system with molecules containing a strongly Lewis acidic site: the case of borane, BH3
Strongly Lewis acidic character of borane, BH3
the molecule is H vacant atomic

H B p-type orbital:
trigonal: B is sp2 H Lewis acid
Probable initial interaction of the π electrons of the alkene with the vacant p orbital of BH3
Development of positive character on the C atoms of the alkene as the BH3 molecule draws
electronic density away from the π system, resulting in the ultimate transfer of one of the H
atoms (as a formal hydride) from boron to carbon:
H H
H B H B δ
H H BH2
H
H H H C C H
H H
C C C C H H H
H
H H δ δ
Hydroboration reaction: the addition of a B–H bond across the π system of an alkene
Alkylboranes or organoboranes: compounds containing a C–B bond
Rich chemistry and technological importance of alkylboranes
Lewis acidic character of the B atom in an alkylborane and possible formation of mono, di-,
trialkylboranes through multiple cycles of the above reaction, until all B-H bonds have reacted
E.g., with ethylene:
H H
H B CH3-CH2 B CH2–CH3
H repeat CH3-CH2 B
H H
H H
C C
H H monoethylborane: diethyl borane:
a monoalkyl borane a dialkyl borane
CH2–CH3 repeat
triethyl borane: CH3-CH2 B
a trialkyl borane CH2–CH3
Important reaction of alkylboranes: oxidation of the C–B bond with H2O2 / aq. NaOH leading to
the formation of alcohols
ox. st. = –1
R ox. st. = –2
B R oxid. HO–OH HO
state H3C CH2 oxid. + H2O (+ various
H3C CH2 =–3 aq. state forms of B)
NaOH = –1
an alcohol
a generic alkylborane
(could be mono, di or
tri: R = alkyl or H)
Description of the overall process shown above as the hydroboration / oxidation of alkenes
General mechanism of the oxidation of boranes with H2O2 / NaOH (aq.)
• deprotonation of H2O2 and formation of the hydroperoxy anion:
oxidation state of
HO H–O-OH HO-H + O–OH peroxy O's = –1
pKa ≈ 12 pKa ≈ 16 hydroperoxy anion Then . . .
• significant nucleophilicity of the hydroperoxy anion and facile addition thereof to the B atom of
an organoborane
σ* orbital
oxidn. state O-O
O–OH of both O's OH a 1,2-shift similar
is = –1 R to the one seen
R
CH3 CH2 B O
B R in carbocation
R R = ethyl group
or H σ bond rearrangement
B-C
B still has a vacant
p-type orbital CH 3 CH 2
The oxygen atoms in the peroxy linkage "want" electrons, because they strive to attain the
oxidation state of – 2. Additional electrons can be accommodated into the O–O σ* orbital.
Hyperconjugative interactions between the C–B σ bond and the O–O σ* orbital begin to weaken
the O–O σ bond and the terminal OH group begins to depart by taking the pair of electrons
connecting it to the internal O atom (i.e., the O–O σ electrons) with it.
–
The departure of the OH group as HO would leave a highly unfavorable (+) charge on the O atom
attached to B. An alkyl group migration occurring in concert with OH departure avoids formation of
+
a highly energetic "O ". Both O atoms thus reach the more favorable oxidation state of –2.
oxidation state
HO of both O's = –2 CH3
O–CH2–CH3 CH3–CH2–OH
CH2
R B H2O
oxidn. proceeds O O
O B an alcohol (ethanol
R until all R groups CH3 CH2 in this case)
CH3 CH2 have reacted (no need to
a trialkyl borate: know mech.) + B(OH)3
a "boronic ester" decomposes in
H2O (no mech.) boric acid
(or its Na salt)
–
note: the alkylborane can certainly combine with OH or with water, both of which are
Lewis basic and nucleophilic:
OH
R OH
R
CH3 CH2 B R B
R CH3 CH2 A
OH2
R OH2
R
CH3 CH2 B R B
R CH3 CH2 B
however, such events are non-productive, in the sense that they promote no further reaction.
Then, the resulting complexes A and B will simply equilibrate back with the staring alkylborane.
–
Only when HOO connects to the B atom will the complex undergo further chemical change
(oxidation to an alcohol, as seen above)
Regiochemical course of the hydroboration reaction of unsymmetrical olefins: the H atom of the
H–B bond connects to the more highly substituted C atom of the alkene; the B atom, to the less
highly substituted C:
H H
H B H B δ
H H BH2
H
H H H C C H
H H
C C C C H H3C H
H3C
H 3C H Δ δ
as the interaction between the B atom and the π system becomes stronger, the more
highly substituted C atom acquires a greater fraction of positive charge (better
hyperconjugative stabilization). Consequently, it is the more highly substituted, more
positive C atom that captures the (formal) hydride from BH3.
Interesting consequence of the hydroboration / oxidation of unsymmetrical olefins: formation of

"anti-Markownikov" alcohols. E.g.:
H H BH2
BH3 H B repeat,
H
H H H C C H
C C etc.
propene H3C H
H3C H
R R
B H2O2 OH 1-propanol: an
CH3–CH2–CH2 "anti-Markownikov"
CH3–CH2 CH2 alcohol
aq.
NaOH
WHEREAS
H2O H–OSO3H OH
OH2
H H CH3 CH CH3
H2SO4 C C CH3–CH–CH3
propene H3C H 2-propanol:
"Markownikov" alcohol
The hydroboration – oxidation process as a net "anti-Markownikov" addition of water to an

alkene (i.e. the regioselectivity is opposite that of an acid-catalyzed hydration reaction)
Absence of rearrangements in the hydroboration reaction (no carbocation intermediates are

formed); e.g.:
BH3 R
B (mono, di or trialkyl
R borane: R = alkyl or H)
Stereochemical aspects of the hydroboration/oxidation reaction: the question of syn vs. anti
addition of BH3 to an alkene
e.g., with a more complex olefins such as 1-methylcyclohexene:
H2B H syn-addition
H2B H
CH3
H CH3 CH3
1-methylcyclohexene H
plane of the π system
CH3
repeat,
H etc.
R = H, alkyl, ... B R
H R
(racemic)
The hydroboration reaction as a strictly syn addition: B and H atoms must necessarily add from
the same face of the π system.
Stereochemical aspects of the oxidation of alkylboranes to alcohols with H2O2 / aq. NaOH
The oxidation of boranes is a substitution reaction
General pattern of a substitution reaction (no mechanism implied):
C—X + Y —> C—Y + X

Possible stereochemical outcomes of a generic substitution reaction:

retention of configuration: the substituting group, Y, enters with the same orientation as the
departing group, X:
R1 R1
Y
C X product resulting through
R3 C Y retention of configuration
R3
R2 R2
inversion of configuration: the substituting group, Y, enters with the opposite orientation
relative to the departing group, X:
R1 R1
Y
C X product resulting through
R3 Y C
R3 inversion of configuration
R2 R2
loss of configuration: the substituting group, Y, enters partly with the same orientation
and partly with the opposite orientation relative to the departing
group, X
R1 R1 R1
Y
C X products resulting through
R3 C Y + Y C loss of configuration
R3 R3
R2 R2 R2
Strict retention of configuration observed during the oxidation of boranes, as a result of

mechanistic constraints:
HO HO R
R
O O B R
CH3 O–OH B R
σ∗
H O-O
H
H
B R σ
C-B
bond σ
C-O
bond
H R
H
H H3C
p orbital of H3C
the B atom
then
OR
B OR CH3
oxidn. proceeds O H2O H net syn addition
H
of H2O to the
until all R groups (decomposes - OH olefinic π bond
have reacted no mechanism) H
H
H3C
The hydroboration – oxidation process as a net "anti-Markownikov" syn addition of water to an

alkene (i.e. the regioselectivity is opposite that of an acid-catalyzed hydration reaction)
Lecture 16: Hydrogenation of Alkenes
Hydrogenation (= saturation) of olefins in the presence of finely divided transition metal

catalysts (Ni, Pd, Pt, Rh, Ru ...):
H H
H H
R1 R3 finely divided R1 R3 a generic
generic C C C C
alkene R2 R4 R4 alkane
Pd (or Pt or R2
Ni, or....)
The hydrogenation of alkenes as a method to form alkanes
Ability of elemental metals such as Ni, Pd, Pt, etc., to react with H2 through oxidative addition:
a metal atom on the surface H H oxidative

of a microscopic metal particle H2 has reacted
addition H H with Mt, which
or of an appropriate support
(Mt = Ni, Pd, Pt...). The oxidn. Mt (0) Mt (II) is now at the
state of the metal is 0 of Mt to H2 ox. st. of +2
a metal hydride
Greater electronegativity of H relative to most metals
Mechanistic outline of the hydrogenation reaction:

R1 R3
C C
H H R2 R4
oxidative H H H H
addition Mt (II)
Mt (0) Mt (II)
of Mt to H2
surface of a metal H2 has reacted Mt(II) has a vacant
particle (Mt = Ni, with Mt, which orbital that can draw
Pd, Pt...). The ox. st. is now at the
of the metal is 0 e– density from the
ox. st. of +2 π system of an alkene
R1 R3
R2 C C R4 R1 R3
reductive R2 C C R4
H H elimination the alkyl-Mt-H product
Mt (II) H H is unstable: it decomposes
of Mt to Mt(0) plus an alkane.
Mt (0)
A reaction similar Overall syn addition of H2
to a hydroboration
takes place
Strictly syn course of the hydrogenation reaction
Technological importance of the hydrogenation of alkenes
Principle: the hydrogenation reaction is an exothermic process (ΔH <0):

H H
H H
R1 R3 finely divided
C C R1
R2 R4 C C R3
Pd (or Pt, or....) R2 R4
bonds broken (ΔH, kcal/mol) bonds formed (ΔH, kcal/mol)

C=C π bond ca. 60 2 C–H bonds @ ca. 95 ea.
H–H ca. 100
overall + 160 – 190
ΔHreact ≈ – 30 kcal/mol
Important physical properties of alkenes that transpire from a thermochemical study of the
hydrogenation reaction:
a. the stability of an alkene increases with increasing substitution around the C=C system;
i.e., a more highly substituted alkene is more stable (=less energetic) than a less highly
substituted isomer
Example 1: the hydrogenation of positional isomers of butene to butane:
Enthalpy
trans-2-butene contains
almost 3 kcal / mol less
ΔH ≈ – 30.3 ΔH ≈ – 27.6 energy than 1-butene: it
kcal/mol kcal/mol is the more stable isomer
Example 2: the hydrogenation of positional isomers of methylbutenes to 2-methylbutane:
Enthalpy
the olefinic linkage in

2-methyl-2-butene is
more highly substituted:
ΔH ≈ – 30 ΔH ≈ – 27 a stabilization of ca. 3
kcal/mol kcal/mol kcal / mol results
Putative origin of the greater stability of more highly substituted alkenes relative to
less highly substituted isomers: hyperconjugative interactions between σC–H and π*C=C
orbitals:
H lobes of the
"allylic hydrogens"
those bound to an sp3 π*C=C orbital
R R
C atom, which in turn is C C
H C R (phases omitted
attached to an olefinic
for clarity)
sp2-carbon atom H
b. trans alkenes are more stable (=less energetic) than their cis isomers.
Example: the hydrogenation of cis- and trans-2-butenes to butane:
Enthalpy
trans-2-butene contains
1 kcal / mol less energy
ΔH ≈ – 28.6 ΔH ≈ – 27.6 than cis-2-butene: it is
kcal/mol kcal/mol the more stable isomer
Putative origin of the greater stability of trans-alkenes relative to their cis isomers :
absence of steric interactions between alkyl groups:
cis-isomer: electronic trans-isomer: electronic

clouds around the CH3 clouds around the CH3
CH3 CH3 CH3
groups are compressed CH3 groups are well away
against each other: from each other:
more energetic arrangement less energetic arrangement
c. benzene is unusually stable.
Enthalpy
ΔH ≈ – 49.8
kcal/mol
ΔH ≈ – 28.6 ΔH ≈ – 57 instead of
kcal/mol kcal/mol – 85.8 !!!!
benzene contains
36 kcal / mol less
energy than expected
"Aromaticity" of benzene and of related compounds possessing 6 π electrons delocalized within

a ring
Inertness of the "olefinic" bonds of benzene (and related compounds) to the various reagents
encountered in CHEM 203
Examples:
H OCH2
O + O=CH2
H2SO4
1. O2 CH3OH
2. Zn, H+
OH
1. BH3 1. OsO4
OH 2. H2O2 2. aq. NaHSO3 OH

aq. NaOH styrene
Br2
OH
Br Br2 H2O
HCl
Cl
Br
Br
the double bonds of benzene do not react with any of the above reagents !!
Lecture 17: Radical Addition to Alkenes - I
Addition of HBr to olefins in the presence of alkyl peroxides (but not hydrogen peroxide): anti-
Markownikov addition
H
H–Br
Br
R-O-O-R
Weakness of the peroxidic linkage in alkyl peroxides (ΔHdiss RO–OR' ≈ 40 kcal/mol) and facile
homolytic dissociation thereof at or near room temperature
Use of one-barbed arrows to indicate the movement of individual electrons when writing
mechanisms, e.g.:
R–O O–R' R–O + O–R'
σO-O bond a pair of oxygen radicals
Radicals: species in which an atom possesses a complement of only 7 valence electrons and a
formal charge of zero:
is an oxygen radical, in the sense that

R-O
the O atom has only 7 valence electrons
Oxygen, carbon, halogen – centered radicals
Radicals as extremely reactive, electron-deficient species that tend to react in such a way as to
re-establish an octet of electrons around the electron-deficient atom
Possible ways in which a generic radical, R•, can reacquire an electronic octet:
(i) Recombination with another radical (uninteresting case); e.g.:
R R' R–R '
(ii) Atom transfer reaction; e.g.:
lobes of the σ*X-Y orbital
R X Y R X + Y
generic
radical a new radical...
σX-Y bond
(iii) Addition to a π system, especially the π system of an olefin; e.g.:
πX-Y bond
lobes of the π*X-Y orbital
R
X Y
generic X Y
radical R
Principle: radicals tend to undergo exothermic (ΔH < 0) reactions.

Consequence: processes through which radicals can reacquire a complete Lewis octet, such
as atom transfer reactions and addition to π systems, occur especially readily if ΔHreact < 0
• recombination: R–R ' this reaction is necessarily

R R' exothermic (ΔH < 0)
• atom- the reaction will proceed

transfer: R X–Y R X + Y
substantially only if ΔH < 0
• addition to R the reaction will proceed

π-bond: R X Y substantially only if ΔH < 0
X–Y
Principle: the ΔH of a reaction involving radicals can be estimated by determining the enthalpic
balance between bonds broken and bonds formed (see homework 1)
Note: an extensive tabulation of bond dissociation enthalpies is available on the Internet as well as in
your book
Thermodynamically favorable transfer of H from H–Br to an oxygen radical created by the

homolytic dissociation of an alkyl peroxide (NOT H2O2: the O–O bond in H2O2 is much
stronger than the the O–O bond in an alkyl peroxide):
ΔHH–Br = 87 kcal/mol
ΔHH–O ≈ 110 kcal/mol
RO OR 2 RO • H Br RO–H + Br
ΔHtot ≈ –23 kcal/mol
Thermodynamically favorable addition of Br• to the π system of an olefin — a special case of

atom-transfer reaction — leading to the formation of a carbon radical:
Br Br a carbon radical: the lone electron resides in a

C C C C p-type atomic orbital. The electron-deficient C
atom is essentially a trigonal planar sp2 hybrid
generic olefin
ΔHC=C π ≈ 60 kcal/mol
ΔHC–Br ≈ 70 kcal/mol
Nearly planar geometry of carbon radicals (sp2 hybridization)

Thermodynamically favorable transfer of an H atom from H–Br to the carbon radical above:
H Br Br ΔHH–Br = 87 kcal/mol
Br C C H + Br ΔHC–H ≈ 95 kcal/mol
C C
a bromine radical: ΔHtot ≈ –8 kcal/mol
an alkyl bromide:
end-product of the participates in a
reaction second round of
the reaction ...
Principle: the Br • regenerated in the course of the above step may add to an intact molecule of
olefin, producing a carbon radical that can react with an intact molecule of HBr, thus creating
more Br •, which sustains the reaction cycle. The process will continue until all reactants (olefin
+ HBr) are consumed.
Principle: like carbocations, carbon radicals are electron-deficient, so they are stabilized by
hyperconjugative forces
Possible modes of addition of Br• to the π system of an unsymmetrical olefin, e.g., 1-butene:
pathway Br primary radical stabilized by 1

Br
H H H hyperconjugative interaction with
C C a H C C
H C–H bonds: less highly stabilized
CH3–CH2 H CH3–CH2 forms at a slower rate
pathway Br
Br H secondary radical stabilized by 4
H H hyperconjugative interactions with
C C b H C C
H CH2–CH3 CH2–CH3 C–H bonds: more highly stabilized
H
1-butene forms at a faster rate
just as in the case of carbocations, reaction pathway b will be dominant
Thermodynamically favorable H-atom transfer reaction from an intact molecule of HBr to the
carbon radical generated via reaction pathway a above: regeneration of Br• :
H Br
Br Br ΔHH–Br = 87 kcal/mol
H C H ΔHC–H ≈ 95 kcal/mol
C H C CH2—CH2—CH3 + Br
H CH2–CH3 H
"anti-Markownikov"
alkyl bromide
Extremely fast rate of addition of HBr to olefins under radical conditions (all exothermic step)
compared to ionic addition processes (endothermic formation of carbocations)
Failure of H–F, H–Cl, H–I to undergo anti-Markownikov addition to olefins under radical
conditions, due to:
for H–F and H–Cl: thermodynamically unfavorable transfer of the H atom from the H–X
•
bond and consequent inaccessibility of X under the above conditions
(plus other reasons not covered in CHEM 203):
ΔHH–F ≈ 125 kcal/mol

ΔHH–Cl ≈ 110 kcal/mol
R H—X R H + X ΔHC–H ≈ 95 kcal/mol
unfavorable ! ΔHtot ≈ + 15 to + 30 kcal/mol
•
for H–I: thermodynamically unfavorable addition of I to the π bond of an olefin:
ΔHH–I ≈ 70 kcal/mol
ΔHC–H ≈ 95 kcal/mol
R H—I R H + I
ΔHtot ≈ –25 kcal/mol OK, BUT...
I ΔHC=C π ≈ 60 kcal/mol
I
C C C C ΔHC–I ≈ 50 kcal/mol
generic olefin
ΔHtot ≈ + 10 kcal/mol unfavorable !
Principle: unlike carbocations, radicals do not undergo rearrangement by the 1,2-shift

mechanism seen earlier; e.g.:
H–Br
Br
HBr rearrangement Br
(ionic) via 1,2-shift Br
BUT
no
HBr H–Br rearrangement
Br • Br
Br
+ Br
radical occurs
initiator
Note: the reason why radicals do not rearrange by the 1,2-shift mechanism seen earlier for
carbocations becomes apparent only through a detailed analysis of the migration process
based on MO theory.
This aspect of radical chemistry is beyond the scope of CHEM 203, but on the basis of what
was said in class in response to one of your questions (see notes of Sept 25), one must conclude
that a hypothetical 1,2-shift of a radical would require the promotion of the lone electron into a
much more energetic antibonding orbital. The energy required is unavailable to the system under
ordinary conditions:
M = migrating group
σ-electrons
M (M–C bond) M
• • + • •
• M •
C C • C C
••
C C
parent radical transition state for
the rearrangement: rearranged radical
3-center, 3-electron
bonded structure
Energy
antibonding
energy of the low-energy orbital:

initial radical bonding
Lecture 18: Radical Additions to Alkenes - II
Terminology of radical chemistry
Radical chain reaction: a radical process like the "anti-Markownikov" addition of HBr to
alkenes, which becomes self-sustaining through the constant regeneration of reactive radical
species:
R R 2 R• H–Br Br • H–Br
•
Br
R–H
(inert)
Br
product
Radical initiators: molecules like peroxides (and many other compounds), that possess a weak
bond (ΔHdiss < 50 kcal/mol), and that consequently can easily dissociate into a pair of radicals,
thereby setting radical chain processes in motion:
a generic radical initiator

(many types known): the R–R bond R R 2 R•
is weak (ΔHdiss < 50 kcal/mol)
Hazardous properties of peroxides and example of a commonly used radical initiator that is safer
to use: AzobisIsoButyroNitrile (AIBN)
heat just CN
NC N CN N2 + 2
N
above rt
AIBN
Initiation, propagation, and termination steps of a radical chain process:
e.g. in the anti-Markownikov addition of HBr to propene:
generic
radical R R 2 R•
initiator initiation steps: those that lead to the initial
formation of the radical species responsible for
the conversion of the substrate into the product
R• H–Br R–H + • Br (Br• in the present case)
Br • Br
propagation steps: those that lead to
the regeneration of the radical species
responsible for the conversion of the
H–Br substrate into the product (Br• in this case)
Br Br + • Br
Radical termination steps: recombination events that interrupt the radical chain reaction. For
example, the following termination steps could theoretically occur during the above reaction:
hypothetical recombination of radical

R R R R
fragments coming from the initiator
hypothetical recombination of Br
Br Br Br Br
radicals leading to the formation of Br2
hypothetical recombination of a radical

R Br R Br
fragment from the initiator with Br •
R
hypothetical recombination of a radical
R
fragment from the initiator with the carbon
Br Br radical involved in product formation
Br
Br hypothetical recombination of a
Br Br Br radical with the carbon radical
involved in product formation
Br Br hypothetical recombination of a
Br pair of carbon radicals involved
Br in product formation
Principle: in a radical chain process, the number of radicals instantly present in the reaction
medium is very small, so recombination events are statistically unlikely; i.e., insignificant
amounts of radical recombination products are typically obtained from such reactions.
Vinyl group, phenyl group: the alkyl groups originating from ethylene and benzene, respectively:
H H
H H H H H H H
H H H H H H H
ethylene vinyl group H H
benzene phenyl group
Radical polymerization of particular olefins (ethylene, propene, styrene, vinyl chloride, and
many others, also described as vinyl monomers) induced by radical initiators, e.g., by AIBN (or
related agents):
Cl
Z
ethylene propene styrene vinyl chloride
radical
initiator
R R 2R R then ...
Z (R–R) Z Z
heat
R R
Z Z Z Z Z Z Z Z
Z Z
Elemental (atmospheric) oxygen as a diradical

Reminder: VB theory cannot account for the diradical nature of O2, but MO theory does:
E O (6 e–) O2 (12 e–) O (6 e–)

2σ∗ bond order =
0.5 x (8 – 4) = 2
2π∗ The oxygen atoms
2px 2py 2pz 2px 2py 2pz in O2 share a double
2π bond, but the molecule
2s 2s has 2 unpaired electrons:
2σ it is a diradical (strongly
paramagnetic)!
1σ∗
1σ
Ability of oxygen to initiate various radical reactions, including the polymerization of particular
olefins
Toxicity of O2 due to its ability to initiate radical processes in biological systems
Radical inhibitors (also described as antioxidants): molecules that react with / destroy radicals,
thereby halting radical chain reactions.
These substances are of interest, e.g., as preservatives of chemical intermediates
that can polymerize easily (e.g., styrene); processed foods containing unsaturated
(olefinic) fats, rubber products (including chewing gum!), etc.
Unusual strength of the O–H bond in ordinary alcohols (ΔHdiss ≈ 110 kcal/mol), but unusual
weakness of the O–H bond in a phenol (for reasons that are not covered in CHEM 203)
reminder: a phenol is a compound
in which an OH group is directly OH
attached to a benzene ring; e.g.:
Ability of the O–H bond of a phenol to transfer a hydrogen atom to a reactive radical, R•,
creating an inert R–H and an equally inert "phenol radical"
Butylated Hydroxy Toluene (BHT) as a useful radical inhibitor
generic radical: R H R–H: inert

BHT radical:
reactive O inert
O
BHT (Butylated Hydroxy Toluene ):
the O–H bond is unusually weak
(for reasons not covered in CHEM 203)
Widespread presence of antioxidants (phenolic or otherwise) in biological media to control the

damage that oxygen inflicts to biomolecules.
Lecture 19: Chemistry of Alkynes
Alkynes or acetylenes: compounds in which two carbon atoms share a triple bond
R1 C C R2 the R groups can be H or alkyl
Terminal and internal alkynes:
R1—C a teminal an internal

C—H R1—C C—R2 alkyne
alkyne
Acetylene as the simplest possible alkyne
H C C H acetylene
Principle: alkynes incorporate two independent π systems that engender reactivity analogous to
that of alkenes. Consequently, they will undergo all of the reactions seen earlier for olefins
Principle: most of the addition processes seen for alkenes are of limited interest in the alkyne
series. An exception is the hydrogenation reaction
Complete hydrogenation of alkynes by reaction with two molecules of H2: formation of alkanes:
H2; finely divided one or both of the R

R1 C C R2 R1 CH2 CH2 R2 groups may be H
Pd (or Pt or Ni, or....)
High reactivity of the finely divided metals (Ni, Pd, Pt, Rh, Ru, …) typically employed as
catalysts in hydrogenation reactions and consequent difficulty of stopping the reaction at the
stage of the addition of only one molecule of H2
Possible formation of a cis alkene upon addition of only 1 molecule of H2 to the C-C triple bond,
in the presence of an appropriate catalyst, due to the syn nature of the hydrogenation reaction
H H H H
R1—C C—R2 note: the cis geometry is a
C C consequence of the
imagine that both R special R1 R2 syn course of the rx.
groups were alkyls... catalyst cis isomer
Technological importance of the "semihydrogenation" of alkynes, i.e., in the addition of only 1

molecule of H2 to their π systems, as a route to cis-alkenes
Lindlar catalyst: finely divided Pd deposited on BaSO4 particles and modified with sulfur and
other substances that moderate the reactivity of Pd
Semihydrogenation of alkynes with the Lindlar catalyst: conversion of alkynes to cis-alkenes

through a syn addition of H2:
H H H H
R1—C C—R2 note: the cis geometry is a
C C consequence of the
imagine that both R Lindlar R1 R2 syn course of the rx.
groups were alkyls... catalyst cis isomer
Unusually high electronegativity of sp-hybridized carbon atoms relative to sp3 and sp2 hybrids,
as a result of considerable s-character (50%) in their orbitals:
R1 R2 R3
C H
R2 3 R1 C C H
R R1 H
e.n. sp3-C ≈ 2.5 e.n. sp2-C ≈ 2.6 e.n. sp-C ≈ 2.8
Strong electron electron-accepting ability of sp-hybridized carbon atoms
Reactions that reflect the electron-accepting ability of carbon sp-hybrids: the semihydrogenation
of alkynes with Na/NH3(liq) leading to the formation of trans-alkenes
Na, liq. H R2
R1—C C—R2
C C trans isomer
internal alkyne NH3 R1 H
"Dissolving" metals: alkali metals such as Li, Na, K, that form stable solutions in liquid NH3
Deep blue color of a solution of Li or Na or K in NH3 (liq) due to the dissociation of metal atoms
into a metal cation and a free solvated electron:
NH3 (liq.) –
Mt + e Mt = Li, Na, K
Mt (solid) Mt (solution) (solvated) (solvated)
Reducing properties of a solution of Li (or Na, or K) in liquid NH3 (≈ a solution of electrons)

Presumed mechanism of the dissolving metal reduction of alkynes – part 1:
one of the a radical anion
π bonds
associated an sp2
π* orbital •• hybrid
(phases SET
R1 C C R2 = R1 C C R2 omitted R1 C C orbital
– for clarity) R2 occupied
e• •
by 2 e's
Radical anions
Single electron transfer reactions (SET processes)

Carbon anions ("carbanions") as the conjugate bases of hydrocarbons
Approximate pKa values for hydrocarbons and for NH3:
H H C–H of N–H of
alkene: H2N–H ammonia:
pKa ≈ 40 pKa ≈ 34
H H
Basicity of carbanions and facile protonation thereof
Presumed mechanism of the dissolving metal reduction of alkynes – part 2:

pKa ≈ 34
pKa ≈ 40
H NH2
•• H
SET
R1 C C R1 C C + NH2 amide
anion
R2 – • R2
• e•
a radical
pKa ≈ 40
R1 H a carbanion: the R groups R1 H
C C assume a more favorable
trans-orientation C C + NH2 amide
•• R2 anion
H R2
H NH2 pKa ≈ 34 a trans-alkene
notice the use of one-barbed arrows to illustrate the movement of individual electrons
Increasing polarization of the C–H bond as the C atom goes from an sp3 to an sp2 to an sp
hybridization state:
R1 R2 R3
C H C C
R2 3 R1 C C H
R R1 H
e.n. sp3-C ≈ 2.5 e.n. sp2-C ≈ 2.6
e.n. sp-C ≈ 2.8
e.n. of H ≈ 2.1 e.n. of H ≈ 2.1 e.n. of H ≈ 2.1
least polarized bond intermediate polarization highest polarization
Increasing C–H bond Bronsted acidity with increasing s-character of the carbon orbitals:
R1 R2 R3
C H C C R1 C C H
R2 3
R R1 H
e.n. sp3-C ≈ 2.5 e.n. sp2-C ≈ 2.6 e.n. sp-C ≈ 2.8

e.n. of H ≈ 2.1 e.n. of H ≈ 2.1 e.n. of H ≈ 2.1
least degree of intermediate degree of greatest degree of
C–H bond polarization C–H bond polarization C–H bond polarization
pKa sp3-C–H ≈ 50 pKa sp3-C–H ≈ 40 pKa sp3-C–H ≈ 25
Deprotonation of terminal alkynes with strong bases such as NaNH2

note: for the equilibrium:
+
H2N–H H2N + H pKa ≈ 34
ammonia amide ion
—
therefore, NH2 is a very strong base, and for the equilibrium:
Na+ Na+
R1 C C H + NH2 R1 C C + NH3 Keq ≈ 109
acetylide ion: pKa ≈ 34
pKa ≈ 25 a carbanion
(as a sodium acetylide)
Acetylide ion: the carbanion obtained by deprotonantion of a terminal alkyne
Nucleophilic properties of acetylide ions and their use as nucleophiles in SN2 reactions
SN2 Alkylation of the carbanion obtained upon deprotonation of terminal alkynes ("acetylide
ion") with alkyl halides, e.g.:
an acetylide ion
pKa ≈ 25 (as a sodium acetylide)
H SN2
R C C–H R C C
••
Na+ R C C–CH3 (+ NaI)

•• H C I
Na+ NH2
••
(+ NH3) H
pKa ≈ 34
Notice how this reaction forms a new C–C bond

Lecture 20: Alkyl halides – Halogenation of C–H Bonds
The chemistry of alkyl halides
Primary, secondary, tertiary alkyl halides: those in which the halogen is attached to a primary,
secondary, or tertiary C atom, respectively; e.g.:
Cl
Br 2-bromo-2-methylpropane
Br (tert-butyl bromide): a
tertiary halide
1-bropropane: 2-chloropropane:
a primary halide a secondary halide
Preparation of certain alkyl halides by radical halogenation of alkanes
Radical fluorination reactions of alkanes as extremely exothermic processes, which are very
difficult to control (explosions, etc.)
Radical chlorination of particular alkanes as a means to prepare alkyl chlorides, e.g.:
hν
CH4 + Cl2 CH3–Cl + HCl
(= light)
Mechanism of the radical chlorination of, e.g., methane, leading to monochloromethane:
Initiation step: the dissociation of Cl2 into a pair of Cl atoms. This process is endothermic
(ΔHdiss Cl–Cl ≈ 59 kcal / mol). The energy required for this reaction is provided by a photon
(indicated below as hν):
hν notice that the Cl is surrounded by only 7 valence

Cl—Cl 2 Cl • electrons: it may be described as a chlorine radical.
chlorine atoms:
very reactive
Propagation steps:
atom transfer
Cl • H—CH3 • CH3 + H–Cl ΔH ≈ – 10 kcal/mol
reaction exothermic
methyl radical: ΔHdiss ≈
ΔHdiss ≈ +100 kcal/mol very reactive +110 kcal/mol
atom transfer
Cl—Cl • CH3 ΔH ≈ – 26 kcal/mol
Cl–CH3 + Cl • exothermic
reaction
ΔHdiss ≈ the Cl atom thus formed reenters
ΔHdiss ≈ +59 kcal/mol +85 kcal/mol the above reaction cycle
Possible termination steps (statistically unlikely because of the very low instant concentration of
radical species during a radical chain reaction):
recombination of 2 Cl •
Cl • + • Cl Cl—Cl
to form a Cl2 molecule
recombination of a CH3•
H3C • + • Cl H3C—Cl
with a Cl • to form CH3Cl
recombination of a pair of
H3C • + • CH3 H3C—CH3
CH3• 's to form CH3–CH3
Possibility of multiple chlorination of methane under radical conditions, resulting in formation of

CH2Cl2 (dichloromethane or methylene chloride); CHCl3 (chloroform, sometimes called
trichloromethane); CCl4 (carbon tetrachloride, sometimes called tetrachloromethane). These
compounds are common solvents in organic chemistry.
Limiting the occurrence of multiple chlorinations by controlling the stoichiometry of alkane +

Cl2 mixtures (a large excess of alkane ensures the formation of monochloro derivatives with only
small amounts of di- tri- and tetra-chloro products)
Principle: only alkanes in which all the H atoms are symmetry-equivalent, e.g., methane, ethane,
simple cycloalkanes..., are useful substrates for radical chlorination. This avoids formation of a
multitude of isomers. Example:
Good substrates for Poor substrate for

CH4 CH3–CH3
radical chlorination: radical chlorination:
the same monochloro mixtures of isomeric
derivative forms monochloro derivatives
regardless of which will form depending on
C–H bond reacts with Cl• which C–H bond reacts
with Cl•
Radical iodination reactions of alkanes as unfeasible processes due to the strongly endothermic
nature of the H-atom transfer from a C–H bond to an I radical (mentioned on Oct 26):
atom transfer
I H—R H–I + •R ΔH ≈ + 20 to + 30
reaction kcal/mol strongly
ΔHdiss ≈ endothermic
ΔHdiss ≈ +90 - 100 kcal/ mol + 71 kcal/mol
depending on precise struct.
Radical bromination of simple alkanes as a feasible, but generally impractical, process (with a
few exceptions) due to the slightly / moderately endothermic nature of the transfer of an H atom
from the substrate alkane to a Br radical:
atom transfer
H—R ΔH ≈ + 2 to + 12
Br • H–Br + •R kcal/mol slightly
reaction
ΔHdiss ≈ to moderately
ΔHdiss ≈ +90 - 100 kcal/ mol endothermic
+ 88 kcal/mol
depending on precise struct.
Successful radical bromination of unusually weak C–H bonds (those with a bond dissociation
energy ≈ 85-90 kcal/mol)
Successful radical bromination of unusually weak C–H bonds, such as allylic, benzylic,
propargylic, or tertiary ones (bond dissociation energy ≈ 85-90 kcal/mol)
Allylic, benzylic, propargylic hydrogens: those connected to a carbon atom, which in turn is
attached to an alkene, a benzene, or an alkyne framework:
H H H
H C–CH=CH2 H C H C–C C–H
H H H
red: allylic hydrogens red: benzylic hydrogens red: propargylic hydrogens

blue: allylic carbon blue: benzylic carbon blue: propargylic carbon
Weakening of allylic, propargylic, and benzylic C–H bonds through hyperconjugative

delocalization of electron density from the σC–H bond into the π* orbital (notes of Oct. 16), and
also of electron density from the neighboring π bond into the σ*C–H orbital:
red: allylic
H lobes of the C–H bonds
allylic C–H bonds H
H H π*C=C orbital dissociation energy H H
C C (phases omitted C C
H C H for clarity) ≈ 85-90 kcal / mol H C H
H H
electron donation from the σC–H bond into the π*C=C as does electron donation from the πC=C
orbital (notes of Oct. 8) weakens the allylic bond . . . bond into the allylic σ*C–H orbital orbital
Identical considerations hold for propargylic and for benzylic C–H bonds; e.g.:
red: benzylic
C–H bonds
H H
lobes of a benzene H
H C C
C C π*C=C orbital benzylic C–H bonds H C C H
C C (phases omitted dissociation energy C C
H C H C
for clarity) ≈ 85-90 kcal / mol H H
H
H
electron donation from σC–H bonds into a π*C=C orbital as does electron donation from a πC=C bond of
of benzene weakens the benzylic C–H bonds . . . benzene into the the benzylic σ*C–H orbital
Weakening of tertiary C–H bonds through hyperconjugative delocalization of electron density

from neighboring C–H bonds into the σ*C–H orbital:
red: lobes of the

H σ*C–H orbital H3C
H3C H3C
C H C H
C H H H3C C H
H H
H H3C
H H3C
methane: ethane: propane: 2-Me-propane:
no hyperconjugation 3 hyperconj. (blue H's) 6 hyperconj. (blue H's) 9 hyperconj. (blue H's)
ΔHdiss C–H ≈ 105 kcal/mol ΔHdiss C–H ≈ 101 kcal/mol ΔHdiss C–H ≈ 98 kcal/mol ΔHdiss C–H ≈ 95 kcal/mol
Radical bromination of allylic positions as a favorable process that is widely employed in

contemporary organic chemistry
Principle: the success of an allylic radical bromination reaction depends on the presence of a very
small instant quantity of Br2 in the reaction medium (for reasons not covered in CHEM 203).
This avoids addition of Br• or of Br2 to the π bond, and other side reactions.
N-Bromosuccinimide ("NBS", structure below): a reagent that is especially valuable for the
radical bromination of allylic positions, because it releases very small amounts of Br2 over time
during the reaction
O N O O N O
H Br
succinimide N-bromo succinimide (NBS)
Radical bromination of allylic positions with NBS / light; e.g.:
NBS
CH2 CH–CH3 CH2 CH–CH2–Br
hν
via :
hν
Br—Br 2 Br
H–Br Br—Br Br
contaminant H Br
in NBS H
CH2 CH–CH2 CH2 CH–C CH2 CH–CH2
H
an allylic radical
Ability of NBS to react with the HBr formed in the above steps, leading to the release of Br2:
O O
± H+
O N O H–Br O N OH Br—Br + N NH
Br – Br
Br
NBS OH O
succinimide
High degree of stabilization of allylic radicals through resonance interactions:
• •
CH2–CH=CH2 CH2=CH–CH2
symbol for
resonance
Lecture 21: SN2 Reactions - I
Radical bromination of benzylic positions as a favorable process that is also widely employed in
contemporary organic chemistry, and that works particularly well with NBS:
H Br
NBS
CH2 CH2
hν
via :
trace of
O O + Br—Br
O N O N
H–Br H very small amounts
NBS Br
succinimide
reacts with NBS
propagates the
to make more Br2 chain reaction
hν
Br—Br 2 Br
H–Br Br
Br—Br
H
Br
H
CH2 C CH2
H
a benzylic radical
reminder: the "olefinic" bonds in a benzene ring are unusually unreactive toward Br2,
HBr, BH3, OsO4, radicals, etc, due to "aromaticity" (a set of properties, to
be discussed in detail in CHEM 213, that cause the π bonds of benzene
to behave differently from those of ordinary alkenes).
High degree of stabilization of benzylic radicals through resonance interactions:
• •
CH2 CH2
etc.
symbol for
resonance
Elevated strength of sp2-C–H bonds: ΔHdiss ≈ 110-120 kcal/mol:
H H
H H
H C H C H
C C H
H H H
H H H
bold: C–H bonds connecting to an sp2 carbon: unusually strong (ΔHdiss ≈ 110 kcal/mol)
Radical bromination of tertiary C–H bonds as a feasible, but not particularly useful, reaction
Principle: the chemistry of alkyl halides is largely controlled by a low-lying carbon-halogen

sigma antibonding orbital:
H small lobe
large lobe
of σ*C–X H C X of σ*C–X
H
Principle: alkyl halides tend to interact with electron-rich species, A, which introduce electrons
into the above σ*C–X orbital and promote substitution reactions according to the following
general scheme:
C–X + A C–A + X
Principle: substitution reactions of alkyl halides require the introduction of two electrons into the
σ*C–X orbital. These electrons may be introduced either simultaneously ("nucleophilic" or "ionic"
mechanisms) or one at a time ("SET" mechanisms – notes of Oct. 23)
Nucleophilic substitution reactions: processes in which a nucleophilic Lewis base functions as

the A reagent in the following equation above
C–X + A C–A + X
Interaction of an electron pair from the nucleophile, Nu: , with the σ*C–X orbital during a
nucleophilic substitution reaction:
H H
Nu
H C X Nu C H + X
H H
Rupture of the C–X bond as the Nu: introduces electron density into the σ*C–X orbital
Leaving group or nucleofuge: that fragment of the substrate that is expelled by the incoming
nucleophile in the course of a nucleophilic substitution reaction
–
The halide ion X (chloride, bromide, iodide) in the above diagram functions as a leaving
group (= nucleofuge) in the depicted substitution reaction
Thermodynamic driving force for the above substitution reaction: the decrease in the basicity of
the system — as gauged from changes in pKa's — as a more Bronsted basic agent (Nu:) is
consumed and a less Bronsted basic one (X–) is released:
changes in the basicity of the system (ΔpKa's) incurred during a nucleophilic substitution
process can be correlated with approximate equilibrium constants, Keq, for the reaction,
which in turn can be used to estimate the driving force (ΔG) for the reaction:
H H
Nu X = Cl, Br, or I:
H C X Nu C H + X
pKa ≈ –7 to –9
pKa ≥ 5 H H
ΔpKa < –12 Keq > 1012 ΔG° = – nRT ln Keq << 0 very favorable
Principle: most nucleophiles that successfully engage alkyl halides in nucleophilic substitution
processes are conjugate bases of weak acids (pKa ≥ 5)
Correlation between the pKa of the conjugate acid of X– and the ability of X– to function as a
leaving group in a substitution reaction of the above type:
H–X H–F H–Cl H–Br H–I
approx. pKa +4 –7 – 8 –9
comments F– does not Cl– is substituted Br– is an even I– is substituted

behave as a fairly easily by more rapidly the fastest
leaving group nucleophiles substituted in the above
in the above rxs. in the above rxs. in the above rxs. reactions
the ability of "X" to function as a leaving group in nucleophilic substitution reactions

increases with decreasing Bronsted basicity (=weaker bases are better leaving groups)
Principle: the leaving group in a nucleophilic substitution reaction of the above type must be the
conjugate base of a strong Bronsted acid with pKa < 0. Conjugated bases of weak Bronsted
acids, e.g. F–, cannot function as leaving groups in such reactions, regardless of how favorable
(negative) ΔGreact may be, i.e., regardless of how strong the driving force for the reaction is.
Stereochemical aspects of nucleophilic substitution reactions of alkyl halides proceeding through

the interaction of an electron pair from the nucleophile with the σ*C–X orbital:
R1
R1 R1
Nu C X Nu C X Nu C R3 + X
R3 R2
R2 R3 R2
X is the "leaving
R groups: H or transition state: the Nu–C bond group" in this rx.
alkyl substituents not fully formed; the C–X bond is
not fully broken. For an instant,
the C atom is trigonal bipyramidal
Note: the nucleophile, Nu, has become connected to the C atom with a spatial orientation that is
opposite that of the original X: the reaction has occurred with inversion of configuration
"Backside" attack of the nucleophile onto the alkyl halide and consequent inversion of
configuration during the substitution process
Lecture 22: SN2 Reactions - II
Kinetic rate laws: differential equations that relate the velocity of a reaction (= the change in
concentration of product or of starting material over time) to the instant concentrations of the
various reactants
Second-order kinetic rate law for a nucleophilic substitution reactions proceeding by the
following mechanism:
R1 R1
R1
Nu C X Nu C X Nu C R3 + X
R3
R2 R3 R2 R2
transition state
d [product]
rate = = k [ Nu ] [alkyl halide]
dt
This equation reflects the fact that the occurrence of the substitution process is a
function of the probability that a molecule of Nu will collide with one of alkyl halide
(with the correct orientation). In turn, this is a function of the number of molecules
of Nu and of the number of molecules of alkyl halide present in the reaction
medium; i.e., of the concentration of Nu and of alkyl halide
SN2 reactions: those nucleophilic substitutions that are characterized by second-order kinetics
and that proceed stereoselectively with inversion of configuration ("backside attack").
Walden inversion: the inversion of configuration observed in the SN2 reaction
Principle: increasing substitution at the halogen-bearing C atom diminishes the accessibility of

σ*C–X orbital, thereby retarding the rate of SN2 reactions:
methyl halides primary alkyl halides secondary alkyl halides
e.g., CH3–Br e.g., CH3–CH2–Br e.g., (CH3)2CH–Br
electronic H
cloud of H this H H H
H atoms these H's C Br
C Br
hinders C Br H C
access to hinder H
large lobe H H H H
H the σ*C–X H C access to H C
of σ*C–X
the σ*C–X H
H
σ*C–X is well exposed: σ*C–X less accessible: σ*C–X even less accessible:
reacts the fastest in SN2 ca. 10 times slower- ca. 100 times slower-reacting
reacting than CH3–X in SN2 than CH3–X in SN2
Steric hindrance: the effect of alkyl groups that hamper access to a particular molecular feature;
e.g., to the σ*C–X orbital of an alkyl halide
The CH3 groups in the above molecules are said to engender steric hindrance in the backside
of the C–Br bond, thereby retarding the rate of SN2 reaction
Inaccessibility of the σ*C–X orbital in tertiary alkyl halides, e.g in (CH3)3C–Br:
H
H C H
extreme steric hindrance in σ*C–X is now inaccessible: the
H
the backside of the C–Br C Br
bond: 3 H's block access to H C tertiary alkyl halide cannot
H H undergo SN2 reaction
the σ*C–X orbital H C
H
Principle: tertiary alkyl halides do not undergo SN2 reaction (= they can undergo substitution,
but not by the SN2 mechanism). Consequently, SN2 chemistry is characteristic of methyl,
primary, and many secondary alkyl halides
Nucleophiles of special interest in SN2 reactions: those based on C, N, O, and S (pKa values refer
to the conjugate acid):
oxygen - based
alkoxides, e.g
carboxylate, e.g. O hydroxide methoxide ion
acetate ion CH3–O
H3C O (pKa ≈ 16) H–O (pKa ≈ 16-20)
(pKa ≈ 5)
H
H H H3C C
H3C C H3C C H
H H
I
I I
O
– –
– HO CH2–CH3 (+ I ) CH3O CH2–CH3 (+ I )
H3C O CH2–CH3 (+ I )
an alcohol an ether
an ester
Alkoxides ( R–O– ) as the conjugate bases of alcohol, R–OH (pKa ≈ 17-19)
Williamson reaction (=Williamson ether synthesis): the preparation of ethers by SN2 reaction of
an alkyl halide with an alkoxide
Conversion of alcohols into alkoxides (R–O– ) by reaction with reactive metals such as Li, Na, K:
Li, or Na
R O–H R O Mt ( Mt = Li, Na, K ) + H2
or K
Hydride ion as the conjugate base of H2 (pKa ≈ 40)

Hydride ion as a powerful base
Preparation of alkoxides by reaction of alcohols with metal hydrides such as NaH or KH:
NaH –
R–O–H :H
R–O–H R–O Na+ (K+) + H2
or KH
pKa ≈ 17 pKa ≈ 40
sulfur - based
hydrogen alkyl sulfide
sulfide ion CH3–S ion (pKa ≈ 10):
H–S S analog of
(pKa ≈ 7): alkoxide ion
S analog H H
H3C C H3C C
of HO– H H
Br Br
– –
HS CH2–CH3 (+ Br ) CH3S CH2–CH3 (+ Br )
a thiol a thioether
carbon - based
acetylide ions –
R C C R–C C CH2–CH3 (+ I )
(pKa ≈ 25)
H
H3C C a structurally more
H complex alkyne
I
N C –
cyanide ion H CH3–CH2 C N (+ I )
(pKa ≈ 10) H3C C
H
a nitrile
I
nitrogen - based
ammonia
(pKa ≈ 9) H3N –
NH3 Br
H C H
C H H
Br
alkylammonium ion
--as a bromide salt
Lecture 23: SN2 vs. Elimination Reactions
ammonia
(pKa NH4+ ≈ 9) H3N –
NH3 Br
nitrogen - based H alkylammonium ion
C H -- as a bromide salt
nucleophiles: the C H H
case of ammonia
Br
Conversion of alkylammonium ions into amines ("free bases") by reaction with, e.g., aq. NaOH:
Br –
H2N H Na+ NH2
:
C H : OH C H + H2O ( + NaBr)
H H
:
pKa ≈ 10-12 stronger weaker pKa ≈ 16

stronger acid base base weaker acid
Primary amines: compounds of general formula R–NH2, where R = alkyl
Technological importance of primary amines
Nucleophilic reactivity of primary amines
Problems with the SN2 preparation of primary amines by reaction of ammonia with alkyl halides:
possibility of multiple substitutions leading to mixtures of products in which 1,2,3 or even 4
alkyl groups have become attached to the N atom:
SN2 X–
R–CH2–X + NH3 R–CH2–NH3 + NH3 R–CH2–NH2 + NH4 X–
primary alkylammonium free primary ammonium

ion: pKa ≈ 10-12 amine ion: pKa ≈ 9
SN2 X– NH3
R–CH2–NH2 + R–CH2–X R–CH2—NH2 R–CH2—NH + NH4 X–
2 2
primary amine secondary alkylammonium free secondary ammonium

SN2 X– NH3
R–CH2—NH + R–CH2–X R–CH2—NH R–CH2—N + NH4 X–
2 3 3
secondary amine tertiary alkylammonium free tertiary ammonium
and even:
SN2 X–
R–CH2—N + R–CH2–X R–CH2—N
3 4
tertiary amine quaternary alkylammonium salt
Secondary and tertiary amines: compounds in which the N atom carries 2 or 3 alkyl substituents
Nucleophilic reactivity of secondary and tertiary amines, as apparent from the foregoing, and
potential problems with the preparation of such compounds by SN2 chemistry
Azide ion (available as sodium azide, NaN3) as the conjugate base of hydrazoic acid, pKa ≈ 5
H N N N
N N N N N N Na
sodium azide: the Na+
hydrazoic acid azide ion salt of hydrazoic acid
Azide ion as a powerful nucleophile
Interest of azide ion as a nucleophile in the above reactions: only 1 substitution event can occur
N=N=N azide ion N=N=N –

(pKa ≈ 5) (+ Br )
C H
H H
C H
Br an alkyl azide
Reduction of alkyl azides to primary amines with Zn / H+ (same reagent seen earlier for the
reduction of ozonides) as a valuable method for the selective formation of primary amines:
H H H H
Zn, H+
N N N NH2 + N2
an alkyl azide a primary amine
Strong hyperconjugative interaction between the σC–H electrons of the C–H bond anti to the C–Br
bond and the σ*C-Br orbital, as a consequence of the partial (+) charge present on the C atom.
This significantly enhances the Bronsted acidity of the C–H bond aligned with the σ*C-Br orbital.
significant H large lobe of

hyperconjugative R2 σ*C–X orbital
interaction H
H C R1
δ
generic alkyl halide X δ
Formation of alkenes (= olefins) upon reaction of tertiary halides with basic agents:
generic base B :
H large lobe of
H σ*C–X orbital CH3
CH3
H C B–H + X + H2C C
CH3
δ CH3
generic tertiary halide X δ
The enhanced acidity of the C–H bond aligned with the large lobe of the σ*C-Br orbital may allow
(–)
proton transfer to a suitable base, B: , thereby releasing the σC-H electrons into the neighboring
σ*C-Br orbital. This would cause the break-up of the C–X bond, release of X as a halide ion, and
formation of a C=C double bond
Description of the above process as an elimination reaction: one leading to formation of a double
bond through expulsion of appropriate fragments from a substrate molecule
in the example above, the molecule of tert-butyl bromide eliminates (i.e., it "expels") HBr
to form the alkene, 2-methyl-2-propene ("isobutene")
The elimination reaction as formally the reverse of an addition reaction:
the addition of HBr to 2-methyl-2-propene would lead to 2-bromo-2-methylpropane. But in the

above transformation, a molecule of 2-bromo-2-methylpropane eliminates (="loses", or "expels")
HBr to form 2-methyl-2-propene. So, the reaction is formally the inverse of an addition process
Nature of the basic agent required to induce the above elimination reaction: conjugate base of a
weak acid with pKa ≥ 4-5
Bronsted basic properties (pKa of conjugate acid ≥ 5) of the nucleophiles commonly employed
in SN2 reactions (notes of Oct. 28)
Ability of the basic nucleophiles discussed on Oct 28, which are otherwise useful in SN2
reactions, to induce elimination from tertiary alkyl halides
Nucleophilicity as carbon affinity; basicity as proton affinity
Behavior of the "nucleophile" as a Bronsted base in the elimination reaction
Driving force for the above elimination reaction: decrease in the basicity of the species present in
the reacting medium:
H CH3 CH3
Nu : H2C C CH3 Nu–H + H2C C + X
X CH3 pKa ≤ –7
pKa ≥ 5
ΔpKa ≤ – 13 Keq > 1013 ΔG << 0
Mechanistic picture for the above elimination reaction:
Hyperconjugative delocalization of σ electrons from adjacent C–H bonds into the σ*C–Br orbital
weakens the C–H bond, polarizes it so that the H atom acquires significant (+) character, and
enhances its the Bronsted acidity. This effect is most significant for the C–H bond that is perfectly
aligned with the σ*C–X orbital (dihedral angle θ = 0°), because experiences the extent of electron
2
delocalization is a function of cos θ , so it is maximal for θ = 0° (notes of Sept. 21):
hyperconjugative weakening of H H lobe of

adjacent C–H bonds is especially H σ*C–Br orbital
pronounced for those H's that are H H H
aligned with the σ*C–X orbital. H H
These H's become more positive H
and more Bronsted acidic Br
The basic agent attacks the weakened, highly polarized C–H bond in the substrate and takes up
the proton, at the same time that the σC–H electrons are funneled into the σ*C-Br orbital, thereby
breaking the C–Br bond and triggering the departure of the Br atom as a bromide ion:
conjugate base of B
an acid with pKa > 5 H
(cannot access the H CH3
H
σ*C–X orbital due H H H B–H + H 2 C C + Br –
to steric hindrance) H H CH3
H
Br
–
Removal of the H and departure of Br may thus be thought as occurring simultaneously; i.e., in a
concerted manner
Lecture 24: E2 Reactions
Predicted — and experimentally observed — second-order kinetics for elimination reactions of

tertiary alkyl halides promoted by basic agents:
B: H H CH3
H H2C C
H H H
Cl generic base CH3
H H
(pKaB–H > 5) H
2-chloro-2-methylpropane + B–H + Cl —
(= tert-butyl chloride): Cl
a typical tertiary alkyl halide transition state
the probability of that a molecule of alkyl halide and one base will interact as shown above
(see also notes of Nov 2nd) is a function of the number of molecules of each present in
solution at any point in time; i.e., it depends on the instant concentration of halide and base
(see also notes of Oct 30)
d [alkene]
rate = = k [ B:— ] [alkyl halide]
dt
Description of the above process as an E2 reaction: an elimination reaction characterized by

second-order kinetics and believed to proceed through the above mechanism
Principle: elimination reactions are always observed to occur in competition with nucleophilic
substitution reactions (except in the case of methyl halides):
methyl halides react with basic nucleophiles in an SN2 mode: E2 reaction is not possible
primary halides react with basic nucleophiles substantially in an SN2 mode: elimination
competes only to a minor / marginal extent;
secondary halides do undergo SN2 reaction with many basic nucleophiles, but a greater
extent of elimination is observed with these substrates;
tertiary halides do not undergo SN2 reaction when exposed to basic nucleophiles: only
β-elimination occurs.
Principle: increasing basicity (pKa) of the nucleophile favors the occurrence of elimination
reactions at the expenses of SN2 processes
Ethanolic KOH as a traditional base for elimination reactions (now fallen into disuse)
Properties of the E2 reaction:
i. The E2 as a β-elimination reaction:

shorthand H the E2 reaction occurs with removal of a proton

B
for "base" situated on a C atom adjacent to the halogen
H R1 bearing carbon. If one takes the halogen-bearing
C 2
H β Cα R carbon as a point of reference (the "α " carbon),
then the proton is lost from the "β" carbon; hence
X the term "β–elimination."
ii. The E2 as an anti-elimination reaction, due to the requirement that the departing H
atom be oriented anti to the halogen atom:
B CH3
H the conformational relationship between the H atom involved
H H
H R1 C in an E2 reaction and the departing halogen, X, is reminiscent
C 2 H C H
H C R of that between the methyl groups in anti-butane; hence the
CH3 term "anti-elimination."
X
anti-butane
Stereoelectronic control during a reaction: the fact that the reaction requires a particular orbital
orientation in order to occur
Stereoelectronic control in the E2 reaction (anti-elimination)
Some consequences of the stereoelectronic properties of the E2 reaction:
Br
H H H H H
CH3 KOH CH3
a. H
H
EtOH
Br Me
H H
H sole product
HO
E2 can occur only in this way
θ = 180° : E2 can occur

only from this conformation
Br Br
Br2 H Br
Ph KOH, EtOH H Br
b. Ph
H Ph Ph Ph Ph
Br anti-
elimination H E-alkene is the
phenyl group (Ph): the alkyl
group derived from benzene sole product
HO
likewise:
θ = 180° : E2 can occur

only from this conformation
Br Br
Br2 H KOH, EtOH Ph
Ph H H Ph
c. Ph
Ph Ph Ph Br Ph Br
Br anti-
elimination H Z-alkene is the
HO sole product
The Saitzeff rule: "if an alkyl halide can undergo E2 reaction to give isomeric olefins, the more
highly substituted olefin tends to form preferentially." Examples:
a. In principle, 2-bromo-2-methylbutane can undergo E2 reaction to give either 2-methyl-1-butene

or 2-methyl-2-butene. In fact, 2-methyl-2-butene will form preferentially:
Br KOH
+
EtOH
2-bromo-2-methylbutane major product some
b. In principle, 2-bromobutane can undergo E2 reaction to give either 1-butene or 2-butene. In

fact, 2-butene (mostly trans) will form preferentially:
Br KOH
+
EtOH
2-bromobutane major product some
Principle: steric hindrance around the nucleophile, as well as the substrate, disfavors substitution
and favors elimination
Sterically hindered alkoxides: potassium tert-butoxide:
CH3 CH3
2-methyl-2-propanol K metal
"tert-butanol" CH3 C O–H CH3 C O K+ potassium
pKa ≈ 19 – H2 tert-butoxide
CH3 CH3
Poor nucleophilicity and good basicity of potassium tert-butoxide
Sterically hindered alkoxides such as potassium tert-butoxide as effective bases for E2 reactions
of alkyl halides, even primary ones:
tert-BuOK CH3 the tert-butoxide ion is too hindered

+ CH3 C OH + KBr to function as a nucleophile: it only
Br expresses basic reactivity (=proton
( E2 ) CH3 affinity) toward the halide
Steric effects in the E2 reaction: Saitzeff vs. Hofmann Selectivity:
KOH
+ (Saitzeff selectivity)
EtOH
Br major product some
OK +
(Hofmann selectivity)
major product some
Lecture 25: SN1 and E1 Reactions
Principle: hindered alkyl halides, such as tertiary ones, cannot undergo substitution by the SN2
mechanism, but they can do so by alternative mechanisms
Principle: hindered alkyl halides, such as tertiary ones, may undergo substitution reactions, but
typically with non-basic nucleophiles (i.e., nucleophiles that are the conjugate bases of acids
with pKa's < 0; such as H2O, CH3OH, etc.) and in media of high dielectric constant (ε > 20)
Obviously, basic nucleophiles (pKa > 5) would promote E2 reaction of tertiary halides
Dielectric constant: a measurable property of bulk matter (solid, liquid or gas) that indicates the
extent of weakening of the electrostatic force between two charges embedded in that matter,
relative to the force between the same charges in a vacuum
reminder: the electrostatic force where:

between two charges, q1 and q2,
1 q1 • q2
separated by a distance d and ε0 = dielectric permittivity
F =
embedded in a medium (gas, of vacuum
4 π ε0 εr d2
liquid, or solid), is given by the εr = dielectric constant of
Coulomb equation: the medium
High dielectric constants of solvents such as CH3OH (εr ≈ 30), water (εr ≈ 80), etc.
Polar solvent (medium): one of high dielectric constant, e.g. H2O (εr ≈ 80), CH3OH (εr ≈ 30), etc.
Nonpolar solvent (medium): one of low dielectric constant
Possible dissociation of alkyl halides to give a carbocation plus a halide ion (analogous to the
dissociation of H–X):
R1 R1
[?]
C X C + X X = Cl, Br, I
R2 R2 R3
R3
The above dissociative process as an energetically unfavorable one (one must separate a + charge
from a – charge), which will be facilitated in a medium of high dielectric constant, such as an
aqueous, methanolic, etc., solution
Principle: if the above dissociation reaction were to take place at all in a medium containing
H2O, CH3OH, etc., the resultant carbocation would be intercepted by H2O, CH3OH, etc., to give
an alcohol, an ether, etc.; e.g.:
B (generic base)
R1 H
CH3OH R1
O R1 CH3 O
C CH3
R2 R3 R3
R3 R2 R2
Principle: the above dissociation reaction is likely to be easiest with tertiary alkyl halides, much
less so with secondary halides, very difficult with primary halides, and virtually impossible with
methyl halides, due to the relative degree of hyperconjugative stabilization of tertiary (most
highly stabilized), secondary, primary and methyl (not at all stabilized) carbocations
Stereochemical aspects of the above reaction: loss of configuration:
CH3-CH2
dissolve in CH3
CH3 C Br CH3OH –
C CH2CH3 + Br then:
Ph
(ε ≈ 30)
(or other tertiary planar carbocation

alkyl halide) (C atom is sp2)
CH3 if CH3OH (Nu) H CH3

CH2CH3 O
Ph C attacks from
H–O–CH3
OCH3 CH3 C
the top face: CH2CH3
(R)-configuration Ph
CH3
C CH2CH3 – H+
– H+
Ph
OCH3
CH3
CH2CH3 if CH3OH (Nu)
Ph C CH3–O–H CH3 C
CH2CH3
attacks from Ph
O
H CH3 the bottom face: (S)-configuration
there is no reason why CH3OH (in general, the nucleophile) should favor attack from one
side or the other (top or bottom) of the carbocation. Therefore, top- and bottom-face attack
will occur with equal probability, leading to a 1:1 mixture of (S)- and (R)-products, i.e., to a
racemic mixture.
Kinetic aspects of the above reaction: unlike the SN2 reaction, which proceeds in a single kinetic
event (the Walden inversion), the substitution process outlined above involves two distinct and
independent steps: ionization of the starting halide and nucleophilic capture of the resulting
carbocation
Endothermic nature of the dissociative process leading to formation of the carbocation (slow,
difficult)
Exothermic nature of the capture of the carbocation by the nucleophile (fast, facile)
The dissociation of the starting alkyl halide (slow, difficult) as the rate-limiting step of the above
substitution reaction (= the rate of the substitution reaction depends only on the rate of formation
of the carbocation, i.e., the rate of dissociation of the alkyl halide)
The rate of formation of the carbocation (= the rate of the overall substitution process) as a
function of the instant concentration of alkyl halide only; i.e., the substitution reaction proceeds
with first order kinetics
d [substitution product ]
rate = = k [alkyl halide]
dt
SN1 reactions: those nucleophilic substitutions (i) typical of tertiary (in general, hindered) alkyl
halides reacting with non-basic nucleophiles in media of high dielectric constants, (ii)
characterized by first-order kinetics, and (iii) proceeding with loss of configuration.
Strong Bronsted acidity of carbocations (pKa < 10–11) and consequent possibility that the
carbocation generated through dissociation of, e.g., a tertiary halide in a medium of high
dielectric constant may release a proton and form an olefin
Exothermic nature of the deprotonation of the carbocation by CH3OH, H2O, etc. (fast, facile)
Preferential formation of the more highly substituted olefin isomer (Seytzeff rule) during
deprotonation of carbocations; e.g.:
CH3-CH2
dissolve in
CH3 C Br CH OH CH3 –
3 C CH2CH3 + Br then:
Ph
(ε ≈ 30)
CH3
CH3 formation of the olefin as
C CH–CH3 C CH–CH3
per the Seytzeff rule
Ph H Ph
CH3OH
The above process as a special type of β-elimination reaction
The dissociation of the starting alkyl halide (slow, difficult) as the rate-limiting step of the above
elimination reaction (= the rate of the elimination reaction depends only on the rate of formation
of the carbocation, i.e., the rate of dissociation of the alkyl halide)
The rate of formation of the carbocation (= the rate of the overall elimination process) as a
function of the instant concentration of alkyl halide only; i.e., the elimination reaction proceeds
with first order kinetics
d [elimination product]
rate = = k [alkyl halide]
dt
E1 reactions of alkyl halides: those elimination reactions that occur as a consequence of

dissociation of, e.g., tertiary alkyl halides in media of high dielectric constants, and that proceed
with first-order kinetics
Principle: just as in the case of SN2 and E2 reactions, SN1 and E1 reactions always occur in
competition with each other
Possible rearrangement of carbocations formed by ionization of alkyl halides

Example: the case of neopentyl chloride:
CH3OH
neopentyl chloride: CH3 prolonged very fast
CH3
the backside of the heating 1,2-alkyl
CH3 C CH3 C
C–Cl bond is blocked CH2–Cl C H
CH3 (very slow CH3 shift
by the neighboring CH3's H
dissociation)
CH3–OH
CH3 H
CH3 O ± H+ OCH3
CH3OH
C
CH3 SN1-like CH3 CH2–CH3
C
CH3 CH2–CH3
CH3OH CH3
C + CH3–OH2
E1-like CH3 CH–CH3
H (Seytzeff olefin)
CH3–OH
Lecture 26: SET Reactions of Alkyl Halides - Organometallics
Substitution reactions of alkyl halides believed to proceed by SET mechanisms
Carbon-based nucleophiles: carbon-centered anions ("carbanions") such as cyanide and acetylide

ions, as agents that permit the formation of C–C bonds in an SN2 mode, enabling the assembly of
more complex carbon architectures from smaller building blocks
Desirability of a general method for the creation of a "carbanion" from any alkyl segment
Principle: a carbon atom bound to an element of very low electronegativity will be likely to
exhibit carbanionic character because of strong bond polarization
Bonding of carbon to electropositive metals such as Li, Mg, etc. (e.n. ≈ 1.0 – 1.3) as a logical
approach to the creation of carbanionic species
Substitutions reactions of alkyl halides that are believed to proceed through SET mechanisms:
reaction of alkyl halides with electropositive metals such as Li, Mg, etc.
Organometallic agents: organic compounds in which a carbon atom is bound to a metal
Organolithium compounds: organometallics of general structure R–Li obtained upon reaction of

R–X (X = Cl, Br, I) with metallic Li; e.g.:
CH3Br + 2 Li ——> CH3–Li + LiBr
Organomagnesium compounds: organometallics of general structure R–Mg-X obtained upon

reaction of R–X (X = Cl, Br, I) with metallic Mg:
Grignard reagents (after Victor Grignard, 1912 Nobel Prize in chemistry): organomagnesium
compounds of the type R–Mg–X (R = any alkyl, X = Cl, Br, I) obtained upon reaction of R–X
(X = Cl, Br, I) with metallic Mg; e.g.:
CH3Br + Mg ——> CH3–Mg–Br
Principle: Li and Mg form reactive, but well-behaved organometallic species; whereas other
alkali (Na, K, …) or alkali earth (Be, Ca, …) metals, yield organometallics, the reactivity of
which is difficult to control
Preparation of organometallic species by the direct method: reaction of an alkyl halide with
elemental Li or Mg
SET mechanisms in the reactions leading to the formation of organo-Li and –Mg compounds: the
metal transfers electrons, one at a time, into the σ*C–X orbital of an alkyl halide.
Organolithium compounds: organometallics of general structure R–Li obtained upon reaction of

R–X (X = Br, Cl) with metallic Li; e.g., reaction of CH3Br with Li:
Br δ–
H if the molecule of organic halide
C-lobe C δ+ –
of σ*C–Br H H gets sufficiently close to the H
metal surface, an electron may (solvent)
"jump" into the σ*C–Br orbital, C Br
H
attracted by the δ+ character of H
the carbon atom
a radical anion: extremely short-lived. It
breaks down into a radical and an anion
Li atoms (Li0) on the surface of a metallic
chip, surrounded by a "sea of electrons"
Li has 1 electron in a 2s orbital. H
a methyl (alkyl) radical: –
It tends to release the electron C Br
to acquire a He-like electron config. wants to re-establish an
electronic octet . . . H
H
then, perhaps
H
C H
H
H
Li0
C Li "methyllithium"
H
H
Formation of Grignard reagents (RMgX) by reaction of an alkyl halide with metallic Mg; e.g.,
reaction of CH3Br with Mg:
Mg • +
H H – H
large lobe of σ*C–Br (solvent) –
• Br
H C Br H C Br • C
Mg0 H Mg • +
H H H
••
a Mg atom on the surface of a metallic a methyl (alkyl)

chip: there are 2 electrons in a 3d orbital. a radical anion: extremely
short-lived. It breaks down radical: wants to
It tends to release both to acquire a Ne-like re-establish an
electronic configuration into a radical and an anion
electronic octet
so, perhaps:
H Br Br
C H
H CH3–Mg CH3–Mg-Br
Mg
Note: while the occurrence of an SET process in the first step of the reaction
of alkyl halides with reactive metals is fairly well established, the precise sequence
of events that lead to the formation of the ultimate organometallic reagent is unknown.
Organo-Mg (Grignard reagents) and– Li compounds as carriers of carbanions:

R–Li or R–MgBr ≈ "R " Li / MgBr
Carbanions as the conjugate bases of alkanes
Basicity of carbanions carried by organo-Li or by Grignard reagents (pKa ≈ 50)
Protonation of Grignard and R-Li reagents will occur upon exposure to most Bronsted acids with
a pKa < 35-38, such as strong protonic acids (pKa < 0), weak ones such as carboxylic acids (pKa
≈ 5), as well as:
Water:
"R " R H + OH ΔpKa ≈ –34

H–OH
Keq ≈ 1034
a carbanion carried by a hydroxide ion:
pKaH–OH ≈ 16 ΔG << 0
Grignard or an organo-Li
reagent: pKa R–H ≈ 50
weaker base
stronger base
Alcohols:
R–Li H–OCH3 R H + Li+ OCH3 ΔpKa ≈ –33

ΔG << 0
pKa R–H ≈ 50 alkoxide ion:
pKaH–OR ≈ 17
stronger base
weaker base
Terminal alkynes:
R H + Li+ : C C R ΔpKa ≈ –25

R–Li H C C R ΔG << 0
pKa R–H ≈ 50 acetylide ion:
pKaH–CC ≈ 25
stronger base
weaker base
Carboxylic acids:
O O
R–Li R H + Li+ O CH3 ΔpKa ≈ –45

H–O CH3 ΔG << 0
pKa R–H ≈ 50 carboxylate ion:
pKaH–OR ≈ 5
stronger base
weaker base
and others still . . .
Deuteration and tritiation of organometallic species as a method for the creation of deuterated /
tritiated compounds of interest in biological / medicinal chemistry, physiology, pharmacology,
etc. [note: tritiated compounds are radioactive (β-emitters)]:
R–Li D–OD R H + Li+ OD ΔpKa ≈ –34

ΔG << 0
deuteroxide ion
stronger base
weaker base
R–Li T–OT R H + Li+ OT ΔpKa ≈ –34

tritioxide ion ΔG << 0
stronger base weaker base
Note: the pKa's of D2O and T2O are similar to that of H2O (≈ 16). Also, it is difficult to
create pure T2O, so the above formulation is a bit misleading: tritiated water is T2O diluted
in a considerable amount of H2O, which leads to the formation of H–O–T.
Efficient SN2 reactions of alkyl halides with Grignard and organolithium reagents in the presence
of Cu(I) salts; e.g.:
CH3
a carbanion carried CuBr CH3 –
by an organo-Li or "R " C Br + Br
H R CH2
a Grignard reagent
H
Note: the Cu salt is required to induce the formation of organo-Cu species that
are much more effective nucleophiles than organo-Li or organo-Mg reagents.
Details will be discussed in more advanced courses.
Change in the basicity of the medium (ΔpKa) as a powerful driving force for the reactions of
carbanions
CH3 CuBr CH3 ΔpKa ≈ –58
CH2 – Keq ≈ 1058
(SN2) R CH2 + Br
"R " ΔG << 0
Br
a formal carbanion bromide ion:
carried by a Grignard pKaH–Br ≈ – 8
or an organo-Li reagent:
pKa R–H ≈ 50
weaker base
stronger base
Hypothetical reaction of a carbanion with a carbonyl compound such as an aldehyde or a ketone:

donation of electrons from the carbanion into the π*C=O orbital:
lobes of the π*C=O orbital

(phases omitted for clarity) R
R R1 R1 C O
C O
R2 R2
Favorable change in the basicity of the medium (ΔpKa) during the above reaction
R1 R1 ΔpKa ≈ –33
a formal carbanion carried
O R O Keq ≈ 1033
by a Grignard / organo-Li "R "
R2 R2 ΔG << 0
reagent: pKa R–H ≈ 50
stronger base an alkoxide: pKaRO–H ≈ 16-20
(avg. value ≈ 17) weaker base
Lecture 27: Addition of Organometallics to Carbonyl Groups
Favorable change in the basicity of the medium (ΔpKa) during the hypothetical reaction of a
carbanion with a carbonyl compound such as an aldehyde or a ketone:
lobes of the π*C=O orbital

(phases omitted for clarity)
a formal carbanion
R an alkoxide:
carried by a Grignard R
R1 pKaRO–H ≈ 16-20
or organo-Li reagent: C O R1 C O (avg. value ≈ 17)
pKa R–H ≈ 50 R2
R2 weaker base
stronger base
ΔpKa ≈ –32 Keq ≈ 1032 ΔG << 0
Description of the above process as a nucleophilic addition to the C=O group
Treatment of the above alkoxides with mild H3O+ to produce electrostatically neutral alcohols:
R1 H Keq ≈ 1019 R1
R O H O R OH + H2O
R 2
R2 H ΔG<<0
an alkoxide: hydronium ion: an alcohol: water
pKa ≈ –2 pKaRO–H ≈ 17
stronger base stronger acid weaker acid weaker base
Nucleophilic addition of Grignard or lithium reagents to aldehydes and ketones:

reaction of a Grignard (or organo-Li) reagent with formaldehyde: formation of primary
alcohols; e.g.:
CH3–CH2-MgBr ≈ CH3–CH2 MgBr
CH3–CH2 MgBr H O+ CH3–CH2

3
H a primary alcohol
formaldehyde C O H C O H C OH
H H
H
reaction of a Grignard (or organo-Li) reagent with generic aldehydes: formation of secondary
alcohols; e.g.:
CH3–MgBr ≈ CH3 MgBr

H3C MgBr H O+ H3C
3
H
benzaldehyde: a C O H C O H C OH
typical aldehyde
a secondary alcohol
reaction of a Grignard (or organo-Li) reagent with generic ketones: formation of tertiary
alcohols; e.g.:
CH3–MgBr ≈ CH3 MgBr

CH3 MgBr H O+ CH3
3
CH3
acetone: a C O CH3 C O CH3 C OH
typical ketone CH3 CH3 CH3 tert-butanol: a
tertiary alcohol
Nucleophilic addition of acetylide-type carbanions to aldehydes and ketones:
Mt Mt = Li, Na, ... R R

R C C C C
C Mt C
H3O+
R2
C O R2 C O R2 C OH
R1 R1
R1
R1 = H; R2 = alkyl: aldehyde R1 = H; R2 = alkyl: secondary alcohol
R1, R2 = alkyl: ketone R1, R2 = alkyl: tertiary alcohol
Reaction of Grignard (or organo-Li) reagents with CO2: formation of carboxylates and — upon
protonation — of carboxylic acids; e.g.:
CH3–CH2-MgBr ≈ CH3–CH2 MgBr

CH3–CH2 MgBr H O+ CH3–CH2
3
O C O C O C OH a carboxylic acid
O O
anionic: resists further addition
Principle: Grignard and organolithium reagents may be prepared from virtually any alkyl
chloride, bromide or iodide (but not fluoride), including allylic, benzylic, vinyl, and aryl halides
Li (Mg) Br MgBr
CH3I CH3Li CH3MgI Li (Mg) Li
Li MgCl
Li (Mg)
Cl Li (Mg)
Br Li MgBr
Br Li (Mg) Li MgBr
Mg
Br MgBr
Mg
Mg
Br MgBr Cl MgCl
2
reminder: vinyl halides are those in which the halogen atom is attached to the sp carbon of
2
an alkene; halides in which the halogen atom is attached to the sp carbon of a benzene (more
generally, of a benzene-like) ring are described as phenyl (more generally, aryl) halides:
Cl H Br
vinyl chloride: bromobenzene:
a vinyl halide an aryl halide
H H
Incompatibility of Grignard / organo-Li reagents with:
a. Bronsted acidic groups (pKa less than ca. 40) present on the same molecule, e.g.:
H–O H–O H boldface H's will

Br Br protonate Grignard /
pKa ≈ 18 pKa ≈ 5 O pKa ≈ 25 organo-Li species
Br
b. Electrophilic groups present on the same molecule, e.g.:
electrophilic: the Grignard rgt. would add to the C=O
H EtO
Br Br Br
O O O
c. Potential leaving groups present at the β-position, e.g.:
lobe of σ*C–Br
β Br MgBr MgBr
Mg
CH2 CH2 CH2 CH2 ≈ CH2 CH2 CH2=CH2 + Br— + MgBr ΔG << 0
α (or Li) pKa ≈ –8
Br Br Br
pKa ≈ 50
lobe of σ*C–O
β Br MgBr MgBr
Mg
CH2 CH2 CH2 CH2 ≈ CH2 CH2 CH2=CH2 + OCH3 + MgBr ΔG << 0
α (or Li) pKa ≈ 17
OCH3 OCH3 OCH3
pKa ≈ 50
therefore, the above alkyl halides fail to yield stable Grignard or organolithium reagents
Compatibility of Grignard reagents with functional groups that are neither Bronsted acidic, nor
electrophilic, nor potential leaving groups situated at the β-position; e.g.:
γ β α
Mg
CH3O–CH2–CH2–CH2–Br CH3O–CH2–CH2–CH2–MgBr OK
The CH3O group in the above organometallic reagent is located at the γ, not the β, position;
so it does not interact with the anionic site. The Grignard reagent is stable.
Preparation of organo-Li and Grignard reagents in ether solvents, e.g., in diethyl ether
Reminder: the leaving group in an SN2 reaction must be the conjugate base of a very strong acid
–
(pKa < 0). Consequently, organo-Li or –Mg reagents could not possibly displace, e.g., CH3CH2O
from diethyl ether, even though theoretically the reaction is thermodynamically favorable:
CH3 CH3
"R " CH2 O-CH2-CH3 R CH2 + O-CH2-CH3
pKa R–H ≈ 50: pKa RO–H ≈ 17:
stronger base ΔpKa ≈ –33 weaker base
ΔG << 0 yet, no reaction!!
Lecture 28: Preparation of Ethers and Epoxides
Ethers: acyclic and cyclic
diethyl ether: a tetrahydrofuran (THF):

typical acyclic ether O a typical cyclic ether
O
Poor reactivity of ethers and consequent use thereof as solvents for many organic reactions
The Williamson reaction: synthesis of ethers via the SN2 alkylation of a metal alkoxide with an
appropriate alkyl halide:
Na Br
+
OH O Na O
HO Cl Cl
O O
Cleavage of ethers with H–X resulting in formation of a molecule of alcohol and one of alkyl
halide; e.g.:
HBr
O OH + Br
via:
–
Br
O O OH +
Br
H
H–Br
Epoxides or oxiranes: cyclic ethers in which the oxygen atom is part of a three membered ring:
O
R1 R4
a generic epoxide (oxirane):
R2 R3
Enhanced reactivity of epoxides due to angle strain
Nomenclature of epoxides: attaching the term "oxide" to the name of the corresponding alkene:
H
O
ethylene oxide
O cyclohexene oxide
H2C CH2
H
Preparation of epoxides by cyclization of halohydrins. Examples:
Br2 OH
base O
H2C CH2 H2C CH2 H2C CH2
H2O Br (e.g., NaH)
H H
Br2 Br base
O
H2O OH (e.g., NaH)
H H
The base-promoted cyclization of halohydrins as an intramolecular variant of the Williamson

reaction, which is itself a special case of SN2 reaction; e.g.:
H O Na+ O
– O –
NaH ≈ Na+ H + Na+ Br
••
Br Br
Direct conversion of olefins into epoxides by formal reaction with an "oxygen atom"
vacant O hypothetical
note: the electronic configuration orbital oxygen atom
[?] O
of O shown in this diagram
is not necessarily in the most C C C C
favorable one
generic alkene
Peroxycarboxylic acids (formula below) as reagents that behave as formal carriers of "oxygen
atoms" in epoxide-forming reactions
O H the O atom that is transferable

R = any alkyl group R to an alkene is shown in red
O O
a peroxycarboxylic acid
Meta-chloroperoxybenzoic acid (MCPBA) as an especially convenient peroxyacid reagent for

olefin epoxidation:
O H
Cl C O meta-chloroperoxybenzoic acid
O
The epoxidation reaction of alkenes: their conversion into epoxides, e.g., by reaction with
MCPBA
O H O
Cl C O Cl C
O O OH
R2 R3 R2 R3
+ C C C C +
R1 R4 R1 R4
MCPBA an epoxide meta-chlorobenzoic
red: transferable O atom a generic alkene
acid: largely inert
Concerted mechanism of peroxyacid epoxidation of alkenes: the epoxide forms in a single

kinetic step though a mechanism that involves no radical or ionic intermediates:
H O
O
R C H + O + R C
O O OH
H
rc
Presumed mechanism of peroxyacid epoxidation of olefins; e.g., with MCPBA:
H O H H O
O C Cl O + Cl
O O
H
meta-chloroperoxybenzoic meta-chlorobenzoic acid

acid (MCPBA)
Strictly syn course of the epoxidation of alkenes with peroxyacid reagents: both C–O bonds form
from the same face of the olefinic π system
Retention of olefin geometry during epoxidation reactions; e.g.:
O O
R C H H H R C H
O O
O O O O
H
H
Principle: more reactive, basic nucleophiles (= conjugate bases of acids with pKa >10; such as
Grignard reagents, acetylide ions, etc.), induce nucleophilic opening of epoxides through SN2-
type reactions despite the poor leaving group abilities of the epoxide oxygen (now departing as
an alkoxide). These reactions are driven by release of strain. Examples:
R–MgBr mild
O O MgBr OH
R R
H3O+
R Li mild
O O Li+ OH
R R
H3O+
Lecture 29: Chemistry of Epoxides
Principle: more reactive, basic nucleophiles (= conjugate bases of acids with pKa >10; such as
Grignard reagents, acetylide ions, alkoxides, hydroxide, amines, cyanide ion, etc.) induce
nucleophilic opening of epoxides through SN2-type reactions despite the poor leaving group
abilities of the epoxide oxygen (now departing as an alkoxide). These reactions are driven by
release of strain
NH
O ± H+ OH
O
N N
H
CH3ONa mild
O O Na+ OH
CH3-O CH3O
H3 O+
R–MgBr mild
O O MgBr OH
R R
CuBr H3 O+
R Li mild
O O Li+ OH
R R
H3O+
Regiochemical course of SN2 cleavage of unsymmetrical epoxides with basic nucleophiles:

attack at the less sterically hindered position (more accessible σ*C–O orbital). Examples:
NH
O ± H+ OH
O
N N
H
CH3ONa mild
O O Na+ OH
CH3-O CH3O
H3 O+
R–MgBr mild
O O MgBr OH
R R
CuBr H3O+
R Li mild
O O Li+ OH
R R
H3O+
Inversion of configuration in the above reactions (the Nu: interacts with the σ*C–O orbital); e.g.:
CH3MgBr
H OH H H
O H CuBr CH3
CH3S Na+
O
H then mild
H then mild CH3S H OH
H3O+ H
H3O+
R–MgBr CH3
H CH3 OH
H R Li OH CuBr
O O
H then mild R
H then mild H H
H3O+ R H3O+
Principle: weak, nonbasic nucleophiles (= conjugate bases of acids with pKa < 0) such as H2O,
alcohols, etc. react with epoxides upon activation of the epoxide oxygen; e.g., by protonation
Approximate pKa of a protonated epoxide: ≈ –3
Requirement for a strong Bronsted acid (pKa < 0, such as H2SO4, H3O,+ HCl, HBr ...) to generate
concentrations of protonated epoxide sufficient to induce the above transformations
Electronic similarity between protonated epoxides and halonium ions and predictable halonium
ion – like reactivity of protonated epoxides
H–OSO3H OSO3H
H
O O Br
electronically analogous to:
H2SO4
Regiochemical course of acid-catalyzed cleavage of unsymmetrical epoxides: preferential attack

at the more substituted position (site of greatest + charge density — direct consequence of the
"halonium ion-like" nature of a protonated epoxide)
• extreme degree of C–O bond polarization H

CH3O H OCH3 OCH3
• the more highly substituted carbon sustains ± H+
more (+) charge than the less substituted one
• H2O, alcohols, etc., tend to react at the more
OH OH
highly substituted carbon; e.g.: O
H
Inversion of configuration in acid-catalyzed epoxide opening (the nucleophile interacts with the
large lobe of the σ*C–O orbital, which is associated with the C atom)
Type of nucleophiles that may be used in an acid-catalyzed opening of an epoxide: those

nucleophiles such as H2O, CH3OH, Br–, Cl–, etc., that are conjugate bases of strong acids
(pKa<0), and that therefore are relatively insensitive to the action of protonic acids.
Note: basic nucleophiles (=conjugate bases of weak acids with pKa ≥ 5), such as amines,
cyanide ion, alkoxide ions, acetylide ions, Grignard reagents, etc., cannot be used in
an acid-catalyzed opening of an epoxide, because they would be protonated instantly
and irreversibly by strong acids.
General mechanism of acid-promoted cleavage of epoxides by weak, nonbasic nucleophiles:

H H H
SN2 - like OH
O H–Z OH
H a generic
Bronsted H Nu
H
acid Nu
Reaction of epoxides with H3O+ (e.g., aqueous sulfuric acid): preparation of trans-diols by
addition of water to (=hydration of) epoxides:
H H H H
SN2 - like OH OH
O H–OH2 OH + H3O+
H H OH OH
H H
OH2 H
OH2 a trans-diol
Stereochemical complementarity of the above process vs. the OsO4 reaction:
H H H
SN2-like OH
O H–OH2 OH
H H O H : OH2
: OH2
H
H
OH
a trans-diol !! cannot make this with OsO4 . . .
OH
H
Stereochemical aspects of the nucleophilic opening of epoxides: inversion of configuration at the

epoxide carbon being attacked by the nucleophile (SN2 . . .) during the above reactions
Regiochemical course of acid-catalyzed cleavage of unsymmetrical epoxides: preferential attack

at the more substituted position (site of greatest + charge density — direct consequence of the
"halonium ion-like" nature of a protonated epoxide):
CH3 CH3
CH3 CH3OH OCH3
Br HBr
O
(no H2O) H2SO4 OH
OH H
H H
moreover . . .
syn-1,2-diol
H OH
MCPBA O H3O+ H
H
H
1. OsO4 HO
2. Aq. NaHSO3 1. OsO4
2. Aq. NaHSO3
OH
H H3O+ H O MCPBA
H
HO H
anti-1,2-diol
Lecture 30: Chemistry of Alcohols – Conversion into Halides
The OH group as a highly reactive functionality that "activates" neighboring atoms, in particular,
the α and β C atoms and the H atoms attached to them, toward a variety of transformations.
C–O and O–H: very reactive bonds
β α
C C O H
Hβ Hα
Principle: the reactivity of alcohols is controlled by the Bronsted acidity, the Bronsted basicity
and the nucleophilicity of the OH group
Weak Bronsted acidity of the O–H bond of alcohols (pKa = 17-20; average value ≈ 18)
Reminder: formation of alkoxides by reaction of alcohols with reactive metals (Li, Na, K, ...) or
metal hydrides such as NaH or KH:
(Mt = Li, Na, K)

2 R–O-H + 2 Mt 2 R–O-Mt + H2
R–O-H + NaH R–ONa + H2

Weak Bronsted basicity of alcohols: protonation of the OH group:
H
R–O–H + H–X R O H + X
pKa ≈ –2 - –3
reminders:
(a) thermal activation of a protonated alcohol results in "dehydration" of alcohols vis dissociation
and E1-like olefin formation:. Example:
H
H OSO3H O H
OH H–OSO3H O H OSO3H
H heat
H above H E1
150°C
favored at
lower T
(b) Ease of acid-catalyzed dehydration of alcohols: tertiary > secondary > primary due to the
relative degree of stabilization of tertiary (best stabilized – faster-forming) vs. secondary (less
stabilized – formed slower) vs. primary (least well stabilized: slow to form) carbocations
(c) Possibility of rearrangements during the dehydration of alcohols due to the intervention of
carbocation intermediates; e.g.:
H H–OSO3H H H
1,2
OH OH2
shift H
T>150°C H H
H
OSO3H
OSO3H OSO3H
Principle: protonation of alcohols transforms the OH group into an incipient molecule of H2O,
which is the conjugate base of a strong Bronsted acid, H3O+ (pKa ≈ –2). So, H2O can function as
a leaving group in SN2/SN1 or E2/E1 reactions (cf. the case of ethers; notes of Nov. 16)
Note: the OH group per se cannot function as a leaving group in SN2/SN1 or E2/E1
–
reactions, because then it would have to leave as HO , which is the conjugate base
of the weak acid, H2O (pKa≈16). Recall that only conjugate bases of strong acids
(pKa<0) can function as leaving groups in such reactions (notes of Oct. 28).
Reactions in which a protonated alcohol undergoes nucleophilic substitution of H2O:
Reactions of alcohols with H–X: formation of alkyl halides:
H–X
R–OH R–X X = Cl, Br, I
primary, secondary primary, secondary
or tertiary alcohol or tertiary alkyl halide
for a primary alcohol, e.g., 1-butanol: –

Br Br
H–Br
OH OH2
primary: backside readily accessible

reacts by SN2 mechanism
for a tertiary alcohol, e.g., tert-butanol:

– H2O
Cl –
H–Cl Cl
OH OH2 Cl
tertiary: backside inaccessible

reacts by SN1 mechanism
for a secondary alcohol, e.g., (S)-2-butanol:

H–I –
I
OH OH2 I alkyl halide may forms
H H with partial erosion of
stereochemical purity
secondary: backside fairly accessible
tends to react partly by SN2 and partly by SN1 mechanism: precise
extent of SN2 / SN1 reactivity depends on structure and conditions
Principle: alkyl halides are best prepared from alcohols
Potential usefulness of halogenation reagents that might permit the conversion of secondary
alcohols into secondary halides in a stereochemically unequivocal manner (= 100% inversion or
100% retention of configuration)
Phosphorus and sulfur halides that convert alcohols to alkyl halides in a stereochemically clean
manner: phosphorus trichloride / tribromide (PCl3, PBr3), thionyl chloride (SOCl2)
Electrophilic character of the above reagents and facile reaction thereof with nucleophiles
Principle: the above reagents rely on the nucleophilic properties of the OH group to achieve
conversion of alcohols into alkyl halides
Principle: only primary and secondary alcohols are sufficiently nucleophilic to react with the
above reagents. The OH group of tertiary alcohols is poorly nucleophilic due to steric hindrance:
PCl3 or OH PCl3 or X
OH X X = Cl, Br X = Cl, Br
PBr3 or PBr3 or
SOCl2 SOCl2
PCl3 or
little / no alkyl
OH halide formation
PBr3 or
SOCl2
Inversion of configuration during the reaction of secondary alcohols with the above reagents:
Br PBr3 OH PCl3 or Cl
H H H
SOCl2
Probable mechanism of the conversion of primary / secondary alcohols to alkyl bromides with,
e.g., PBr3 (PCl3 reacts in the same fashion):
H – R1 H
R1 Br similar to an Br SN2
C C
P Br
R2 OH Br Br R2 O P
SN2 reaction Br rx.
H
R1 Br Br
C + O P
R2 H Br
H
notice inversion of config.
at the carbon atom
note: HO–PBr2 still posseses P–Br bonds, so it may undergo a 2nd and a 3rd round of the
same reaction, ultimately producing phosphorous acid, P(OH)3
Probable mechanism of the conversion of primary and secondary alcohols into alkyl chlorides
with SOCl2:
–
Cl
H R1 H an SN2 R1 Cl O
R1 O a substitution O
C C C + O S
S O S Cl
R2 OH Cl Cl reaction R2 reaction R2 H H
H Cl
note: this step proceeds
with inversion of config. decomposes
at the carbon atom rapidly to HCl + SO2
Lecture 31: Activation of Alcohols as Sulfonate Esters
Desirability of a method for "alcohol activation" that would be stereochemically complementary

to that involving reaction of an alcohol with P / S halides (notes of Nov 20):
PBr3 CH3S Na+

overall
(inversion of H (inversion) H retention
configuration) Br SMe
(S)-2-bromobutane (R)-configured pdt.
H
OH
(R)-2-butanol ? H (S)-configured pdt. overall
inversion
SMe
Sulfonyl chlorides: para-toluenesulfonyl ("tosyl") chloride, methanesulfonyl ("mesyl") chloride
O O O
R S Cl H3C S Cl S Cl
O O O
A generic sulfonyl methanesulfonyl chloride Toluene para-toluenesulfonyl chloride
chloride: R = any ( "mesyl chloride" ) (= methyl benzene) ( "tosyl chloride" )
alkyl group
Pyridine: a weakly basic, nucleophilic analog of benzene in which an N atom replaces a CH unit:
pyridine
N
Reaction of primary and secondary alcohols with sulfonyl chlorides in the presence of pyridine:
formation of sulfonate esters (= alkyl sulfonates):
R1 O R1 O
OH + Cl S R N O S R +
R2 O R2 O N –
H Cl
a generic primary or an "alkyl sulfonate"
secondary alcohol ("tosylate", "mesylate," etc.)
note: tertiary alcohols are insufficiently nucleophilic to react with sulfonyl chlorides
Presumed mechanism for the formation of sulfonate esters from primary and secondary (but not
tertiary) alcohols and sulfonyl chlorides:
• slow rate of reaction of an alcohol with sulfonyl chlorides in the presence of generic bases
• pyridine as a nucleophilic catalyst that greatly accelerates the reaction of an alcohol with a
sulfonyl chloride by:
(i) reacting with sulfonyl chloride first, leading to a complex …
Cl –
O O O
S Cl S Cl
S N
O O
O N
N
notice the mechanistic similarity with the chemistry of SOCl2
(ii) which reacts at a very fast rate with primary and secondary alcohols:
Cl – Cl –
O O
N S N S
O O
R1 O
R1 H
OH R2
R2 notice the mechanistic similarity with the chemistry of SOCl2
N Cl –
R1 O Cl –
H O O S + NH
R1 O S R2 O
R2 O
an alkyl tosylate protonated form of pyridine
note: the reasons why the pyridine-sulfonyl group complex reacts with alcohols at a much faster
rate than the parent sulfonyl chloride will be discussed in more advanced courses.
Sulfonic acids such as para-toluenesulfonic acid or methanesulfonic acids as strongly Bronsted

acidic agents (sulfuric acid-like!!)
O O O
R S OH H3C S OH S OH
O O O
A generic sulfonic methanesulfonic acid Toluene para-toluenesulfonic
acid: R = alkyl group (= methyl benzene) acid
Anions of sulfonic acids, i.e., sulfonate ions, as excellent leaving groups in SN2 and E2 reactions,
due to the fact that they are the conjugate bases of strong Bronsted acids (the parent sulfonic
acids have pKa ≤ 0):
O O
para-toluenesulfonate S O H3C S O methanesulfonate
ion ion
O O
Principle: alkyl sulfonates undergo SN2 and E2 reaction in a manner essentially identical to that
of alkyl halides
Substitution reactions of sulfonate esters; e.g.:
NaN3 O Li
S O
N3 SN2 H Cu(I)Br
H O H
(S)-2-azidobutane (R)-2-butyl tosylate
Stereochemical complementarity of sulfonate ester vs. PBr3 technology:
PBr3 CH3S Na+

(inversion of H (inversion) H
Br SMe
configuration)
(S)-2-bromobutane (R)-configured pdt.
H enantiomers!
OH TsCl
pyridine CH3S Na+
(R)-2-butanol
(retention of H (inversion) H
OTs SMe
configuration)
(R)-2-butyl tosylate (S)-configured pdt.
one may thus access either enantiomer of a product of SN2 reaction of a suitably activated
alcohol by the judicious choice of the activation method: sulfonate technology produces overall
inversion of configuration; PBr3 technology, overall retention (via a double inversion)
E2 reactions of sulfonate esters; e.g.:
O O K+
S O
O E2
Possible mode of activation of the α-H of a primary or secondary alcohol:
Hα Hα R1
connect a potential induce an
R1 C OH R1 C O C O
leaving group L to elimination
R2 the oxygen atom R2 L reaction R2
a generic primary or a carbonyl compound

secondary alcohol
Principle: activation of the α-H of a primary or secondary alcohol as seen above results in the
conversion of the starting alcohol into a carbonyl compound
The conversion of an alcohol into a carbonyl compound as an oxidation reaction
oxid. st. = –1 if R2 = H oxid. st. = +1 if R2 = H

oxid. st. = 0 if R2 = alkyl oxid. st. = +2 if R2 = alkyl
H R1
R1 C OH 2
C
R O
R2
the OH-bearing C atom goes from the oxidation state of –1 or 0 to that of +1 or +2: it undergoes
a two-electron oxidation; so "something else" must undergo a two-electron reduction...
Principle: the leaving group L in the above reaction must undergo a two-electron reduction
Principle: the leaving group L in the above reaction is often a metal in a high oxidation state
Chromium (VI) as an especially valuable metal for the above reactions

Lecture 32: Oxidation of Alcohols
Oxidation of alcohols to carbonyl compounds with Cr(VI) – based reagents
Chromiun trioxide, CrO3 (inexpensive industrial chemical), as a convenient source of Cr(VI)
Toxic and carcinogenic properties of Cr(VI) compounds – including CrO3
Electrophilic reactivity of metal-oxo linkages, Mt=O:
Nu:
O O O
nucleophiles add
Mt = any metal Mt Mt Mt Nu
easily to the metal
Pyridinium chlorochromate (PCC):
electrophilic O
metal-oxo O Cl Cr O
linkage – N N
Cr Cl H O
O VI O H
chromium trioxide: a pyridinium
common source of Cr (VI) chloride pyridinium chlorochromate
PCC oxidation of primary alcohols to aldehydes & secondary alcohols to ketones
R CH2 OH VI
O O
O O O VI
generic Hα Cr ± H+ a special type
Hα Cr
primary Cl Cr O O OH
VI
alcohol R C O of elim. react.
O H H R CH
O
substitution
of chloride a chromate ester
IV OH complex
R O + O Cr Cr(III) + Cr(VI)
OH redox rxs.
H
an aldehyde a Cr(IV) complex
fine details of the mechanism of PCC oxidation remain unclear. The mechanism shown above
is one of a number of plausible mechanism that differ for the precise sequence of events leading
to the Cr(VI) complex that ultimately decomposes to give the carbonyl product.
OH PCC O
Likewise: R1 R1
H R
2 R2
a ketone
generic secondary alcohol
The conversion of an alcohol into a carbonyl compound as an oxidation reaction:
oxid. st. = –1 if R2 = H overall: oxid. st. = +1 if R2 = H

oxid. st. = 0 if R2 = alkyl oxid. st. = +2 if R2 = alkyl
H O R1 O
O
1
R C OH + Cl Cr O C + Cr
VI R 2 O IV OH
R2 O Cl
the OH-bearing C atom advances from the oxidation state of –1 or 0 to that of +1 or +2:
it undergoes a two-electron oxidation.
the Cr atom recedes from the oxidation state of +6 to that of +4:
it undergoes a two-electron reduction.
Inability of tertiary alcohols to undergo oxidation, due to the absence of α-H's
Conversion of chromium trioxide into chromic acid, H2CrO4 (the Cr analog of H2SO4)
electrophilic O O H ± H+ O
H2O chromic acid: a
metal-oxo Cr O Cr O HO Cr OH Cr(VI) compound
O VI O VI
linkage VI
O H O
The Jones reagent: a solution of chromic acid, H2CrO4, in aqueous H2SO4:
electrophilic O O H ± H+ O the Jones reagent is

H2O
metal-oxo Cr O Cr O HO Cr OH prepared by adding
VI VI
linkage O VI O H CrO3 to aq. H2SO4
O O
chromic acid: a
Cr(VI) compound
IMPORTANT: PCC is used ONLY in anhydrous (=water-free) media, while Jones rgt. is an
aqueous solution. This seemingly minor difference has a major influence on the course of the
reaction of primary alcohols with the two reagents.
The Jones reagent: oxidation of primary alcohols to carboxylic acids and secondary alcohols to
ketones in aqueous medium
Reaction of the Jones reagent with primary alcohols: initial formation of a chromate ester:
VI OH VI OH
O O O
Hα Cr OH ± H+ Hα Cr OH
HO Cr OH O OH
R CH2 OH VI
O R C
H
O R C
H
O
H
Reaction of the Jones reagent with primary alcohols: decomposition of the chromate ester to give
an aldehyde:
VI OH R O
O
Hα Cr OH
OH H
R C
H
O
an aldehyde
but the aldehyde is not the final product of the reaction (the carboxylic acid is): evidently,
something must happen to the aldehyde that causes it to become a carboxylic acid…
Acid-promoted equilibration of the aldehyde with a geminal diol in aqueous acid:
H H H H
O O
H H H OH
R O R O O H
H O H OH R OH + H O
R
H H very H H H
H
electrophilic a geminal
("gem") diol
note: geminal diols (obtained by the reversible hydration of carbonyl functions)

display a pair of OH groups connected to the same carbon atom. Vicinal diols
(obtained by OsO4 oxidation of alkenes) have their OH groups connected to
adjacent carbon atoms:
OH HO OH
R1 C OH R1 C C R4
R2 R2 R3
a geminal diol: both OH groups a vicinal diol: the OH groups are
are attached to the same C atom attached to adjacent C atoms
(iii) further oxidation of the gem-diol to an acid by Cr(VI) through a second round of the
mechanism shown earlier:
H2CrO4
OH "round II" O
R CH OH R C OH [ + Cr(III) ]
gem-diol of Jones carboxylic acid
mechanism
Oxidation of secondary alcohols to ketones with the Jones reagent; e.g.:
HO O HO OH
O +
a generic R2 Cr OH ± H Cr OH R1 O
HO Cr OH H O O
secondary R1 C OH O
alcohol O O R1 C R2
H R1 C
H R2 H a ketone
R2
+
note: ketones can — and do — form geminal diols by reaction with H3O , but the geminal diol of
a ketone cannot undergo further oxidation because it has no α-H's
Summary of the above oxidation reactions:

R–CH2–OH to R–CHO possible only in a water-free medium: requires PCC
R–CH2–OH to R–COOH possible only in an aqueous medium: requires Jones reagent
1 2 1 2
R R CH–OH to R R C=O may be achieved with either PCC or Jones reagent
Principle: any carbonyl compound will equilibrate with the corresponding geminal (gem-) diol in
an aqueous acidic medium. However, gem-diols are thermodynamically disfavored relative to
carbonyls, and this primarily on entropic grounds. Therefore, any attempt to isolate gem-diols
will actually return the corresponding carbonyl compounds (at least as far as the carbonyl
compounds seen in CHEM 203 are concerned)
H H H H
O O
H H H OH
R1 O R1 O O
H OH a geminal
H O R1 R1 OH ("gem") diol
R2 H R2 R2
R2
Overall ΔG slightly positive

Lecture 33: Addition of Alcohols to Aldehydes and Ketones
Principle: much like H2O can add reversibly to protonated carbonyl groups of aldehydes and
ketones to form germinal diols, so alcohols (e.g., methanol) can do the same thing, leading to the
formation of special types of ethers called hemiacetals and hemiketals, respectively:
CH3OH (e.g.)
H ± H+ HO O CH3
O OH H
HO O CH
O–CH3 3 R1 H
R1 H cat. H–Z R1 H R1 H
a hemiacetal
generic aldehyde
H–Z = generic Bronsted acid (HCl, H2SO4, para-toluenesulfonic acid....)
CH3OH (e.g.) H ± H+ HO O CH3

O OH H
HO O CH
O–CH3 3 R1 R2
R1 R2 cat. H–Z R1 R2 R1 R2
a hemiketal
generic ketone
Note 1: other nucleophilic alcohols such as ethanol, 1-propanol, etc., react in a like manner
Note 2: hemiacetal = "half of an acetal"; hemiketal = "half of a ketal" …
so, what are acetals and ketals?
Acetals: products of acid-catalyzed addition of two molecules of alcohol to an aldehyde:
O 2 CH3OH (e.g.) CH3 O O CH3 H–Z = generic Bronsted acid

R1 H (HCl, H2SO4, para-
R1 H cat. H–Z
toluenesulfonic acid....)
generic aldehyde an acetal
Ketals: products of acid-catalyzed addition of two molecules of alcohol to a ketone:
O 2 CH3OH (e.g.) CH3 O O CH3 H–Z = generic Bronsted acid

R1 R2 (HCl, H2SO4, para-
R1 R2 cat. H–Z
toluenesulfonic acid....)
generic ketone a ketal
Presumed mechanism of formation of acetals and ketals:
H2O
R1 CH3OH (e.g.) OCH3 heat OCH3 OCH3 OCH3
C O R1 C OH R1 C OH2 R1 C R1 C
R 2 cat. H–Z R2 H–Z R2 R2 R2
aldehyde or ketone
H2O CH3O H2O CH3O H2O

OCH3 ± H+
H R1 C OCH3 R1 C OCH3
then: R1 C
O CH3
R2 H R2
R2
Principle: the above reactions occurs under conditions of reversibility; therefore, they establish
an equilibrium between reactants and products
Slightly unfavorable nature (ΔG ≥ 0) of the above reaction
Removal of water (by any of a number of methods) from the above reaction mixture as a means
to displace the equilibrium toward the formation of the acetal (Le Chatelier principle):
R1 cat. H–Z OCH3

aldehyde C O acetal
R1 C OCH3
or ketone R2 or ketal
CH3OH R2
– H2O
"Hydrolysis" of acetals and ketals: the treatment of these substrates with dilute aqueous acid,
resulting in their breakdown into and aldehyde / ketone plus two molecules of alcohol, by a
reversal of the above mechanism
CH3 O O CH3 aqueous O

+ 2 CH3OH
R1 R2 dilute H2SO4 R1 R2
acetal or ketal (or HCl, or ...) aldehyde or ketone
via
CH3O H+ CH3O OCH3 OCH3

R1 C OCH3 R1 C OCH3 R1 C R1 C
H2O OH2
R2 R2 H O CH3 R2
R2
H
H
H O CH3
OCH3 H+ OCH3 H+ OCH3 R1 H+ R1
1 R1 C OH C O–H C O
R1 C OH2 R C OH
R2 R2 R2 R2
R2
aldehyde or ketone
Lecture 34: Carbohydrates - Monosaccharides
Carbohydrates: a group of naturally occurring aldehydes and ketones, formally composed of C

atoms and H2O molecules in a ratio equal or close to 1 : 1 [general formula: (CH2O)n ... or close]
Immense biological importance of carbohydrates

blood group determinants energy storage & generation genetic disease
antigens, immune responses nucleic acids, glycoproteins materials & fibers
cancer cell markers extracellular support matrices etc.
Simple sugars or monosaccharides: a family of carbohydrates of general formula (CH2O)n (3≤n ≤
9) that possess a structure based on a linear polyhydroxy aldehyde or polyhydroxy ketone motif:
HOCH2–(CHOH)n–CHO or HOCH2–(CHOH)n–CO–CHOH (1 ≤ n ≤ 6-7)
Complex sugars or polysaccharides: a family of carbohydrates of general formula (CH2O)n –

(H2O)m (m << n; i.e., carbohydrates slightly deficient in water) that upon treatment with dilute
aqueous acid afford one or more types of monosaccharides (more about this later)
Aldoses (monosaccharides that possesses an aldehyde function) and ketoses (monosaccharides

that possesses a ketone function)
Triose, tetrose, pentose hexose, heptose, octose ...: a monosaccharide incorporationg 3, 4, 5, 6, 7.

8 ... C atoms, respectively
note: monosaccharides incorporating more than 6 C atoms are known, but they are quite
rare, and rarity increases with increasing number of C atoms. Most monosaccharides
of biological importance contain 5 or 6 C atoms
Frequent use of Fischer projections to represent monosaccharides. Examples:
CHO OH
CHO
H OH O
H OH
HO H HO H
ribose H OH glucose fructose
H OH H OH
H OH
H OH H OH
OH
OH OH
Ribose as a pentose, glucose and fructose as hexoses
Ribose and glucose as aldoses, fructose as a ketose
Ribose as an aldopentose, glucose as an aldohexose, fructose as a ketohexose
Monosaccharides as generally chiral molecules, due to the presence of multiple stereogenic C's
Principle: virtually all of the naturally occurring monosaccharides are enantiomerically pure
The simplest aldotriose: glyceraldehyde

HO-CH2–(CHOH)–CHO
D- and L-forms of glyceraldehyde:

CHO CHO
HO H enantiomers H OH
HO OH
L-(S)-(–)-glyceraldehyde D-(R)-(+)-glyceraldehyde
(OH on the left) (OH on the right)
Reaction of an aldehyde (or ketone) with hydrocyanic acid (HCN): formation of cyanohydrins
H C N C N N
O OH HO C
R1 R2 R1 R2 R1 R2
aldehyde or ketone a cyanohydrin
D-Glyceraldehyde as the formal progenitor of all common monosaccharides
The Fischer-Kiliani (F-K) method for the synthesis of monosaccharides from – e.g. – D-
glyceraldehyde
O H N C
C addition of H–CN: N C–H O H
C HO H
H OH formation of two C
OH H OH H OH
diastereomeric OH
D-(R)-(+)-glyceraldehyde: products: OH
a triose
N N
C C
separate the H C OH
+ HO C H
diastereomers H OH H OH
OH OH
CHO
CN convert CN
to CHO (will H C OH repeat repeat
pure H C OH pentoses hexoses
H OH
H OH learn next
semester how) OH
OH
erythrose: a tetrose
CHO
CN convert CN HO C H repeat repeat
HO C H to CHO (will
H OH pentoses hexoses
pure
H OH learn next OH
OH semester how)
threose: a tetrose
Fischer structures of naturally occurring aldoses and stereochemical relationship thereof to

glyceraldehyde of – e.g. – (R)-configuration (= D-(R)-glyceraldehyde):
key stereogenic center: CHO

defines D- or L- series H OH
OH
glyceraldehyde CHO
CHO (aldotriose)
HO H
H OH
F-K 1 H OH
H OH
OH
OH
erythrose threose
(aldotetroses)
F-K 2 F-K 2
CHO CHO CHO CHO
H OH HO H H OH HO H
H OH H OH HO H HO H
H OH H OH H OH H OH
OH OH OH OH
ribose arabinose xylose lyxose
(aldopentoses)
F-K 3 F-K 3 F-K 3 F-K 3
CHO CHO CHO CHO CHO CHO CHO CHO

H OH HO H H OH HO H H OH HO H H OH HO H
H OH H OH HO H HO H H OH H OH HO H HO H
H OH H OH H OH H OH HO H HO H HO H HO H
H OH H OH H OH H OH H OH H OH H OH H OH
OH OH OH OH OH OH OH OH
allose altrose glucose mannose gulose idose galactose talose
(aldohexoses)
Stereochemical convention for monosaccharides: D and L sugars

enantiomers!
CHO CHO
HO H H OH
HO OH
L-(S)-(–)-glyceraldehyde D-(R)-(+)-glyceraldehyde
CHO (OH on the left) (OH on the right) CHO
HO H CHO CHO H OH
CHO CHO
H OH HO H H OH HO H
HO H H OH
HO H HO H H OH H OH
HO H H OH
HO H HO H H OH H OH
HO OH
HO HO OH OH
L-erythrose D-erythrose
L-glucose L-ribose D-ribose D-glucose
Principle: most natural monosaccharides belong to the D-stereochemical series. The much rarer
L-sugars are produced primarily by certain fungal and microbial organisms for specialized uses.
Facile formation of cyclic hemiacetal / hemiketal structures (5- or 6-membered rings) in

molecules incorporating both an alcohol and an aldehyde / ketone functionality:
R
R O O R HO R O O OH
HO OH
aldehyde (R = H) or cyclic hemiacetal aldehyde (R = H) or cyclic hemiacetal

ketone (R = alkyl) or hemiketal ketone (R = alkyl) or hemiketal
Chemical structure of carbohydrates: hemiacetal formation

hemiacetal forms of ribose (building block of RNA) and glucose:
CHO H H
OH O OH wavy line means that
H OH HO CHO HO either configuration is
H OH possible
H OH HO OH HO OH
OH common hemiacetal form
aldehyde (carbonyl)
Fischer projection form of D-ribose of D-ribose (preferred)
of D-ribose
CHO
H OH H wavy line means that
H OH O OH either configuration is
HO CHO HO
HO H possible
H OH HO OH HO OH
H OH OH OH
OH common hemiacetal form
aldehyde (carbonyl)
form of D-glucose of D-glucose (preferred)
Fischer projection
of D-glucose
Furanose and pyranose forms of monosaccharides
O O O
O
furan tetrahydrofuran pyran tetrahydropyran

H
H OH O OH
O HO pyranose form
furanose form HO
of D-ribose of D-glucose
("D-ribofuranose") HO OH ("D-glucopyranose")
HO OH OH
Anomeric position (= anomeric carbon; anomeric center) of the cyclic form of a simple sugar
(i.e., of a monosaccharide): the former carbonyl carbon that now sustains the hemiacetal system
Existence of two diastereomers of the hemiacetal form of a monosaccharide: α and β "anomers":
α-anomer: the OH group of the hemiacetal moiety is trans relative to the CH2OH fragment
connected to the carbon atom that defines the D/L stereochemical series
β-anomer: the OH group of the hemiacetal moiety is cis relative to the CH2OH fragment
connected to the carbon atom that defines the D/L stereochemical series
anomeric carbon
H H
H H O OH O OH
O OH O OH HO HO
HO HO
HO OH HO OH
HO OH HO OH OH OH
α-anomer of β-anomer of α-anomer of β-anomer of

D-ribofuranose D-glucopyranose D-glucopyranose
D-ribofuranose
(α-D-ribofuranose) (β-D-ribofuranose) (α-D-glucopyranose) (β-D-glucopyranose)
Lecture 35: Mutarotation, Glycosides, Polysaccharides
Interconversion of furanose and pyranose forms and of α and β anomers of a monosaccharide in

solution: the case of ribose and glucose
H OH
O
HO
CHO β-D-ribofuranose
H OH
H OH HO OH
HO
H OH H
CHO O OH
H OH HO HO
OH OH α-D-ribofuranose
D-ribose HO OH
O OH
CHO β-D-ribopyranose
H OH HO OH
H OH
HO OH
H OH
CHO O OH
H OH HO
OH OH α-D-ribopyranose
D-ribose HO OH
OH
CHO H
HO O OH
H H OH HO
O OH
HO HO H
HO OH
b H OH a
OH
HO OH H OH
OH β-D-glucopyranose (1)
β-D-glucofuranose (3)
D-glucose
H
HO b a O OH
HO
H OH a
O
HO H OH HO OH
HO CHO OH
HO OH α-D-glucopyranose (2)
HO OH
α-D-glucofuranose (4) OH
b
at equilibrium in H2O: 1 ≈ 64%; 2 ≈ 36%; 3 + 4 < 1%
Conformations of pyranoses: the case of glucose
just like an ordinary cyclohexane, the six-membered ring of a pyranose favors a chair
conformation in which as many groups as possible occupy an equatorial position
H OH HO OH
H H
O OH O H HO
HO HO H
HO OH H
H O
HO OH HO H
H H OH H
OH HO
all equatorial: all axial:
β-D-glucopyranose favored disfavored
H H HO OH
O OH H OH H
HO O H
HO H H
HO H H O
HO OH
HO H OH OH
OH H OH HO
α-D-glucopyranose all but 1 OH equatorial: favored all but 1 OH axial: disfavored
Mutarotation of monosaccharides: the case of glucose

It is possible to obtain pure α-D-glucopyranose or pure β-D-glucopyranose. These two anomeric
forms of glucose, being diastereomeric, differ in solubility, melting point (146 °C for the α-anomer,
25
150 °C for the β-anomer), and specific optical rotation ([α]D = +112° for the α-anomer, + 19° for
the β-anomer).
However: if one prepares an aqueous solution of either pure anomer, and one measures the
specific optical rotation of the solution over time, one observes that the rotation of a solution of
pure α-anomer, initially equal to +112°, drops to a final value of ca. +53°, while that of a solution
of pure β-anomer, initially equal to +19°, increases to a final value of ca. +53°. WHY?
H OH H H H OH
H H OH OH [ H+ ] H
O [ H+ ] OH
H O
HO HO HO OH HO
HO OH HO O HO H HO H
HO H HO H HO H HO H
H H H H H OH
H O
β-D-glucopyranose internal
rotation α-D-glucopyranose
[α]D = + 19° [α]D = + 112°
This phenomenon is termed mutarotation (="rotation change"). At equilibrium, the solution
contains a mixture of ca. 64% of β-anomer (all equatorial, more stable) and ca. 36% of α-anomer:
(0.64 x 19°) + (0.36 x 112°) = 12.2° + 40.3° = +52.5°
Chemical reactions of monosaccharides: because these compounds contain hemiacetal, OH and

C=O groups, their chemistry reflects that of hemiacetals, alcohols and aldehydes / ketones
Important reactions of monosaccharides: formation of glycosides (= glycosidation). Much like a

hemiacetal reacts with an alcohol in the presence of acid to form an acetal, so a monosaccharide
will react under the same conditions to form a glycoside (riboside, glucoside, fructoside ...).
Examples:
HO O CH3OH HO H HO OCH3
OH O O
+
H HCl H OCH3 H H
HO OH – H2O HO OH HO OH
α- or β-D-ribofuranose α-methyl-D-ribofuranoside β-methyl-D-ribofuranoside
OH OH OH
CH3OH O O
HO O HO + HO
HO HO H HO OCH3
HCl
HO OH HO HO
– H2O OCH3 H
α- or β-D-glucopyranose α-methyl-D-glucopyranoside β-methyl-D-glucopyranoside
Note: the mechanism of glycoside formation is analogous to that seen earlier (notes of Nov 27)
for the formation of acetals:
H—Cl Cl — H2O
generic hemiacetal O OH O OH2 O
form (furanose or OCH3
pyranose) of a H
monosaccharide
H
methyl glycoside derivative
O OCH3 ± H+ O OCH3 of the original sugar: the
wavy line means that the
anomeric prosition may be
of α− or β-configuration
Reversibility of glycoside formation in aqueous acidic media (glycoside hydrolysis)
OH OH
O aqueous
HO HO O
HO HCl HO
HO OCH3 HO OH
α- or β-methyl-D-glucopyranoside α- and β-D-glucopyranoses
Note: the mechanism of glycoside hydrolysis is analogous to that seen earlier (notes of Nov 27)
for the hydrolysis of acetals
Important difference between "free" sugars (hemiacetal present) and their glycoside derivatives
(no hemiacetal present): reducing and non-reducing sugars and the Tollens test
hemiacetal: OH
OH reducing sugar OH OH
O Ag(NH3)2 NO3 HO
HO HO OH O + Ag0
HO
HO HO
CHO aq. NH3 HO
HO OH HO O metallic
(basic pH)
free aldehyde ammonium silver
α- or β-D-glucopyranose carboxylate
("mirror")
no hemiacetal:
nonreducing sugar OH
OH
O Ag(NH3)2 NO3
HO HO OH
no reaction
HO HO
OCH3 CHO aq. NH3
HO HO (basic pH)
α- or β-methyl-D-glucopyranoside free aldehyde
Historical importance of the Tollens test in the structural elucidation of natural carbohydrates
Glycosylation of a monosaccharide with another monosaccharide: formation of complex sugars

or polysaccharides
Disaccharides, trisaccharides … polysaccharides: complex sugars composed of 2, 3, … many

monosaccharide units
Important disaccharides: sucrose (table sugar), lactose, maltose:
the molecule of sucrose results upon glycosylation of α-D-glucopyranose with β-D-fructofuranose:
OH
HO O
OH
HO O
HO
HO
OH HO
α-D-glucopyranose glycosylation HO no hemiacetals:
HO OH O
non-reducing
HO O
OH
O OH
OH
OH HO
HO sucrose (table sugar):
β-D-fructofuranose
a disaccharide
hemiacetal:
reducing
OH OH OH OH
O OH glycosylation O OH
HO OH HO O HO O O
HO HO HO HO
HO OH HO OH
α-D-galactopyranose
lactose (found in milk):
α- or β-D-glucopyranose a disaccharide
OH OH hemiacetal:
O OH glycosylation O reducing
HO HO
HO HO O HO OH
HO HO HO O
OH OH O
HO maltose:
α-D-glucopyranose HO
α- or β-D-glucopyranose a disaccharide HO OH
A trisaccharide: raffinose (found in beans, broccoli, cabbage, etc.):
OH OH
galactose O
HO
HO
O
HO O
glucose no hemiacetals:
HO non-reducing
HO
sucrose HO OH O
O
fructose
OH
HO
Important polysaccharides: amylose (starch) and cellulose
OH
O O
HO OH
HO O
O
HO OH
HO O
O
HO OH
HO O
O
amylose: a major HO
component of starch
HO
O n
OH
O O OH
HO O O OH
HO HO O O OH
HO HO O O OH
HO HO O O OH
HO HO O O
cellulose: key structural material in HO HO O
plants (cotton ≈ 90%; wood ≈ 50%) HO n
Lecture 36: Chemistry of Mono- and Polysaccharides, Nuclear Bases
Hydrolysis of a complex sugar (disaccharide, trisaccharide, ..., polysaccharide) to simpler

carbohydrates with dilute aqueous acid; e.g.:
OH
HO O
HO HO
OH OH
HO O OH
HO OH O dil. aq. HO O
O HO +
HO OH OH
H2SO4
sucrose OH HO
HO D-glucopyranose
D-fructofuranose
OH OH OH OH OH
O OH dil. aq. O O
O HO
HO O +
HO HO
HO HO H2SO4 OH HO OH
HO
HO OH
galactose D-galactopyranose D-glucopyranose
OH OH
O OH dil. aq. HO O
HO
HO O O 2 HO
HO OH
HO HO H 2SO 4
cellobiose HO OH
D -glucopyranose
Important reactions of monosaccharides: formation of ethers by Williamson reactions
Principle: a reducing sugar is a generally poor substrate for a traditional Williamson reaction,
and it must be first converted into a glycoside; e.g.:
OH OH NaH, CH3I; or OCH3

O CH3OH (e.g.) O NaH, (CH3O)2SO2 H3CO O
HO HO
HO HO H3CO
cat. HCl or NaOH, (CH3O)2SO2 H3CO OCH3
HO OH HO OCH3
α- or β-D-glucopyranose α- or β-methyl-D-glucopyranoside
Reasons for the above: basic conditions induce undesirable reactions of aldehydes (CHEM 213)
Mild modification of the Williamson reaction: alkylation of an alcohol with MeI / Ag2O:
OH OCH3
HO O Ag2O, CH3I H3CO O
HO H3CO
OH OCH3
α- or β-D-glucopyranose HO H3CO
Complete methylation ("permethylation") of polysaccharides, followed by hydrolysis, as a means

of structural elucidation; e.g., with cellobiose, a typical disaccharide:
OH OCH3
HO O OH O OCH3
Ag2O CH3O
HO O O O
CH3O O
HO HO CH3I CH3O CH3O
HO OH CH3O OCH3
cellobiose
OCH3 A OCH3
O O dil. aq.
CH3O + HO
CH3O CH3O
OH H2SO4
CH3O B CH3O OH
the structures of the simple carbohydrates thus obtained indicates that, in the original
disaccharide, OH group A must have been connected to the anomeric carbon B
Important redox reactions of monosaccharides: oxidation of aldoses to aldonic acids and

aldaric acids (no mechanisms):
Monosaccharides react with aqueous Br2 to produce aldonic acids and with nitric acid to form
aldaric acids (complex reactions – no mechanism). Example with glucose:
COOH CHO COOH

H OH H OH H OH
HNO3 Br2
HO H HO H HO H
H OH H2O H OH H2O H OH
H OH H OH H OH
COOH OH OH
D-glucaricacid: D-glucose D-gluconicacid:
an aldaric acid an aldonic acid
Important redox reactions of monosaccharides: reduction to alditols
Possible nucleophilic additions of hydride ion (H:–) to the C=O group of aldehydes or ketones:
a nucleophilic form R1
R1 an alkoxide ΔpKa ≈ –23
of hydride ion O
H– H O pKa O–H ≈ 17 ΔG << 0
(pKa H–H ≈ 40) R2 R2 weaker base strong driving force
stronger base
Metal hydrides: compounds possessing a metal – H bond: Mt–H (Mt = any metal)
Principle: the nature of the metal influences the reactivity of the hydride ion carried by a Mt–H.
Thus, certain metal hydrides carry a basic form of H– (= an H– that exhibits affinity for protons;
e.g. NaH), while others carry a nucleophilic form of H– (an H– that exhibits affinity for carbon)
Sodium borohydride (NaBH4): a reagent that carries a nucleophilic form of hydride ion:
Na+ H
sodium borohydride H B H
H
Sodium borohydride (NaBH4) as a carrier of a nucleophilic form of hydride that adds easily to
the C=O group of aldehydes and ketones
H
Na+ H B H H Na+ H
mild
H R2
C O R2 C O R2 C OH
R1 H3O+ R1
R1
R1 = H; R2 = alkyl: aldehyde R = H; R2 = alkyl: primary alcohol
1
a sodium alkoxide
R1, R2 = alkyl: ketone R1, R2 = alkyl: secondary alcohol
The addition of hydride ion to a carbonyl group as a reduction (the oxidation state of the
carbonyl carbon becomes more negative):
NaBH4
O then OH
[+1] [ –1 ] a 2-electron reduction
C C
R H R H has occurred
generic aldehyde mild H
H3O+
NaBH4
O then OH
[+2] [0]
C C a 2-electron reduction
R R' mild R R' has occurred
generic ketone H
H3O+
Conversion of aldoses to alditols by treatment with NaBH4; e.g.:

CHO OH
OH OH H OH H OH
HO O OH NaBH4
HO HO H HO H
HO HO CHO
OH H OH H OH
HO HO
H OH H OH
α- or β-D-glucopyranose free aldehyde
OH OH
D-glucitol, a.k.a. D-sorbitol
(noncaloric sweetener)
CHO OH
OH OH OH OH HO H HO H
HO O OH NaBH4
HO HO H HO H
HO HO CHO
OH H OH H OH
H OH H OH
α- or β-D-mannopyranose free aldehyde
OH OH
D-mannitol
Conversion of ketoses to a mixture of two diastereomeric alditots by treatment with NaBH4; e.g.:
OH OH OH
HO HO O H OH HO H
OH OH OH
O OH OH NaBH4 HO H HO H
HO H
OH +
O H OH H OH H OH
HO HO H OH H OH H OH
α- or β-D-fructofuranose free ketone OH OH OH
D-glucitol D-mannitol
(D-sorbitol)
the formation of two diastereomeric products is easily rationalized by considering that NaBH4
may deliver hydride ion to either face of the carbonyl group:
OH
H3B—H
H OH
H mild HO H
HO HO
O H OH D-glucitol
rest of the rest of the H3O+
molecule molecule O H OH
OH
OH
HO H
O mild
HO HO HO H
O D-mannitol
rest of the rest of the H3O+ H OH
molecule molecule H
H OH
OH
H3B—H
Acid-catalyzed reaction of aldehydes and ketones with primary amines: formation of imines (=
Schiff bases: the nitrogen analogs of carbonyl systems):
R1 H2N–R3 R1
O N + H2O
R2 cat. Z–H R2 R3
aldehyde Z–H = generic an imine, also termed
or ketone Bronsted acid a Schiff base
Presumed mechanism of the above reaction:
H–Z
H–Z Z
R1 R1 OH Z R1 OH
R1
O OH H
N H R2 NH
R2 R2 R2
R3 R3
aldehyde H2N–R3
or ketone
H Z Z
R1 H R1
R1 O H N + H 2O N
R2 R2 R3
R2 NH–R3 R3
Enormous importance of Schiff bases (= imines) in biological chemistry (enzymatic reactions,

aminoacid metabolism, biosynthetic pathways, etc.)
Important reactions of monosaccharides: formation of glycosylamines
OH OH Schiff OH OH
O aq. OH base HO OH O
HO HO HO
HO HO H HO H HO
OH NH3 form. HO NH2
HO HO NH HO
O
D-glucopyranose glucosylamine:
a glycosylamine
O aq. O
HO OH HO NH2
likewise: NH3
HO OH HO OH
D-ribofuranose ribosylamine: a glycosylamine
Pyrimidine and purine
N N
N
N N
N H
pyrimidine purine
Important pyrimidine and purine N-glycosides ("nucleosides"): building blocks of nucleic acids
O NH2
O
NH2 N
NH N
NH
N HO
HO N N N
N O N O O
O
H N N
H adenosine
uracil HO OH
HO OH uridine adenine
O
NH2 N
NH2 NH
O
N HO
N N N N NH2
HO NH O
N O
N O O N
H H N NH2
cytidine HO OH guanosine
cytosine guanine
HO OH
(components of RNA)
O O
NH NH
HO
N O N O
O
H
thymine
NH2 HO 2-desoxythymine O
NH2
N N
N NH
HO N
N HO
O N HO N N NH2
N O O
O
HO 2-desoxyadenosine HO 2-desoxyguanosine
HO 2-desoxycytidine
(components of DNA)

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CHEM 203

Summary of Topics to be Covered in the Course

B. Aspects of the Electronic Theory of Organic Chemistry p. 5

F. Ethers and Epoxides p. 115

Lecture 1: Structural Theory of Organic Chemistry

Organic chemistry as the study of carbon-based compounds ("organic" compounds)

of course it's difficult!!

Structural theory of organic chemistry: chemical individuality is determined by the precise

all C5H10, yet each is chemically different from the others...

Principle: the structure of an organic compound is defined by:

i. the atomic connectivity (= the constitution), and,

ii. the spatial orientation of atoms within a molecule (= the configuration).

Lecture 2: Electronic Theory of Organic Chemistry

Electronic theory of organic chemistry: an intellectual framework that allows one to

Fundamental principles of the electronic theory of organic chemistry:

Electrostatic properties of molecules as important factors that influence their reactivity

The formal charge on an atom is calculated by:

The case of CH4, NH4, and BH4

The formal charge on the C atom in methane, CH4

Conclusion: the C atom in methane is surrounded by 4 valence electrons

• The C atom in methane has 4 valence electrons

• The C atom in methane is electrostatically balanced

Conclusion: the formal charge on C in methane is zero

The formal charge on the N atom in NH4

Step 1: draw a complete Lewis structure of the molecule:

• N is in group 5: it needs 5 valence electrons to balance out the nuclear charge.

Conclusion: the formal charge on N in NH4 is + 1

The formal charge on the B atom in BH4

Step 1: draw a complete Lewis structure of the molecule:

• B is in group 3: it needs 3 valence electrons to balance out the nuclear charge.

Conclusion: the formal charge on B in BH4 is – 1

Electronegativity and bond polarization

Li = 1.0; Be = 1.5; B = 2.0; C = 2.5; N = 3.0; O = 3.5; F = 4

Influence of permanent dipole moments on the chemical reactivity of a molecule; in particular,

electron cloud in the bond is

Example: the oxidation state of C in CH4, CF4, and CH3F

• the formal charge on C is zero

• the formal charge on C is zero

• the formal charge on C is zero

• the formal charge on N is + 1

Lecture 3: Lewis Acid-Base Interactions

vacant, atomic the B atom has an incomplete

Predictable (and experimentally verifiable) reaction between, e.g., CH3–S–CH3 ("dimethyl

BH3 is a Lewis acid because the B atom has a vacant orbital

Necessity to distinguish between Lewis acidity / basicity (intrinsic molecular properties

Lewis basic CH3-S-CH3 functions as a nucleophile in the above reaction

Lewis acidic BH3 functions as an electrophile in the above reaction

electrophilic / nucleophilic character: ability of a Lewis acid / base to express

Bond order (BO): BO = (# electrons in bonding orbitals – # electrons in antibonding orbitals) / 2

Lecture 4: Bronsted Acid-Base Equilibria, Alkenes

Bronsted acid-base equilibria as fundamental aspects of a great many organic chemical

Electronic analogy between proton transfer reactions and SN2 reactions

Reminder: the pKa of a generic Bronsted acid H–A is defined as:

pKa = – log Ka, where:

[A–] [H+] [A–] KaAH [B–] [H+] [BH] [H+]

[A–] [BH] [A–] [BH] KaAH [H+] KaAH

log Keq = log KaAH – log KaBH

– log Keq = – log KaAH – (– log KaBH)

pKeq = pKaAH – pKaBH