P K Nag Exercise problems - Solved

Thermodynamics
Contents

Chapter-1: Introduction

Chapter-2:

Temperature

Chapter-3: Work and Heat Transfer

Chapter-4: First Law of

Thermodynamics

Chapter-5: First Law Applied to Flow

Process Chapter-6: Second Law of

Thermodynamics Chapter-7: Entropy

Chapter-8: Availability & Irreversibility

Chapter-9: Properties of Pure

Substances

Chapter-10: Properties of Gases and Gas

Mixture Chapter-11: Thermodynamic Relations

Chapter-12: Vapour Power

Cycles Chapter-13: Gas Power

Cycles Chapter-14: Refrigeration

Cycles

Solved by

Er. S K Mondal
IES Officer (Railway), GATE topper, NTPC ET-2003 batch, 12 years teaching
experienced, Author of Hydro Power Familiarization (NTPC Ltd)
 Benefits of solving Exercise (unsolved) problems of P K Nag
 The best ways is to study thermodynamics is through problems, you must
know how to apply theoretical concepts through problems and to do so you
must solve these problems
 It contains Expected Questions of IES, IAS, IFS and GATE examinations
 It will enable the candidates to understand thermodynamics properly
 It will clear all your doubts
 There will be no fear of thermodynamics after solving these problems
 Candidate will be in a comfortable position to appear for various
competitive examinations
 Thermodynamics- “the Backbone of Mechanical Engineering” therefore
Mastering Thermodynamics is most important many of the subjects which
come in later like Heat and Mass Transfer, Refrigeration and Air
Conditioning, Internal Combustion Engine will require fundamental
knowledge of Thermodynamics

Every effort has been made to see that there are no errors (typographical or otherwise) in the
material presented. However, it is still possible that there are a few errors (serious or
otherwise). I would be thankful to the readers if they are brought to my attention at the
following e-mail address: swapan_mondal_01@yahoo.co.in

S K Mondal

Page 2 of 265
 Introduction
By: S K Mondal Chapter 1

1. Introduction
Some Important Notes
 Microscopic thermodynamics or statistical thermodynamics
 Macroscopic thermodynamics or classical thermodynamics
 A quasi-static process is also called a reversible process

Intensive and Extensive Properties

Intensive property: Whose value is independent of the size or extent i.e. mass of the system.
e.g., pressure p and temperature T.

Extensive property: Whose value depends on the size or extent i.e. mass of the system (upper
case letters as the symbols). e.g., Volume, Mass (V, M). If mass is increased, the value of
extensive property also increases. e.g., volume V, internal energy U, enthalpy H, entropy S, etc.

Specific property: It is a special case of an intensive property. It is the value of an extensive

property per unit mass of system. (Lower case letters as symbols) e.g: specific volume, density
(v, ρ).

Concept of Continuum
The concept of continuum is a kind of idealization of the continuous description of matter where
the properties of the matter are considered as continuous functions of space variables. Although
any matter is composed of several molecules, the concept of continuum assumes a continuous
distribution of mass within the matter or system with no empty space, instead of the actual
conglomeration of separate molecules.

Describing a fluid flow quantitatively makes it necessary to assume that flow variables
(pressure, velocity etc.) and fluid properties vary continuously from one point to another.
Mathematical descriptions of flow on this basis have proved to be reliable and treatment of fluid
medium as a continuum has firmly become established.
For example density at a point is normally defined as
⎛ m⎞
  lim
⎜
O0 O
⎟
⎝ ⎠
Here O is the volume of the fluid element and m is the mass

If O is very large ρ is affected by the in-homogeneities in the fluid medium. Considering

another extreme if O is very small, random movement of atoms (or molecules) would change
their number at different times. In the continuum approximation point density is defined at the
smallest magnitude of O , before statistical fluctuations become significant. This is called
continuum limit and is denoted byOC .

 OO
lim ⎛ m ⎞
⎜ ⎟
C ⎝ O ⎠
One of the factors considered important in determining the validity of continuum model is
molecular density. It is the distance between the molecules which is characterized by mean
free path (λ). It is calculated by finding statistical average distance the molecules travel
between two successive collisions. If the mean free path is very small as compared with
some characteristic length in the flow domain (i.e., the molecular density is very high) then
the gas can be treated as a continuous medium. If the mean free path is large in comparison
to some characteristic length, the gas cannot be considered continuous and it should be
analyzed by the molecular theory.

A dimensionless parameter known as Knudsen number, K n = λ / L, where λ is the mean free

path and L is the characteristic length. It describes the degree of departure from continuum.
Usually when Kn> 0.01, the concept of continuum does not hold good.

In this, Kn is always less than 0.01 and it is usual to say that the fluid is a continuum.

Other factor which checks the validity of continuum is the elapsed time between collisions. The
time should be small enough so that the random statistical description of molecular activity
holds good.

In continuum approach, fluid properties such as density, viscosity, thermal conductivity,

temperature, etc. can be expressed as continuous functions of space and time.

The Scale of Pressure

Gauge Pressure

Vacuum Pressure
Absolute
Pressure

Local
atmospheric
Pressure Absolute Pressure

Absolute Zero
(complete vacuum)

At sea-level, the international standard atmosphere has been chosen as P atm = 101.325 kN/m2
Some special units for Thermodynamics

kPa m3/kg

Note: Physicists use below units

Universal gas constant, Ru= 8.314 kJ/kmole  K

Ru
Characteristic gas R
constant, c
M

8.314 kJ/kmole- K
For Air R = =
29 kg/kmole
= 0.287 kJ/kg- K
8.314
For water R = kJ/kmole-K
18
kg/kmole
= 0.461 kJ/kg -K
Units of heat and work is kJ
Units of pressure is kPa
1 atm = 101.325 kPa
1 bar = 100 kPa
1 MPa =1000 kPa.

Page 5 of 265
 Questions with Solution P. K. Nag
Q1.1 A pump discharges a liquid into a drum at the rate of 0.032 m 3/s. The
drum, 1.50 m in diameter and 4.20 m in length, can hold 3000 kg of the
liquid. Find the density of the liquid and the mass flow rate of the liquid
handled by the pump.
(Ans. 12.934 kg/s)
d
Solution: Volume of drum = 2h
4
.50
2
3
= 4   m
3
= 7.422 m
density  kg
mass 3000 kg  404.203

Volume 7.422 m3 m3
mass flow rate  Vloume flow rate  density
kg
= 0.032  404.203
s
kg
 12.9345
s

Q1.2 The acceleration of gravity is given as a function of elevation above sea

level by
6
g = 980.6 – 3.086 ×10 H
Where g is in cm/s2 and H is in cm. If an aeroplane weighs 90,000 N at
sea level, what is the gravity force upon it at 10,000 m elevation? What
is the percentage difference from the sea-level weight?
(Ans. 89,716.4 N, 0.315%)
Solution: 6
g´  980.6  3.086  10  10,000  100
 977.514 cm 2  9.77514 m 2
s s
90,000
W  90,000 N  kgf
sea
9.806
 9178.054 kgf
Wete  9178.054  9.77514 N  89716.765 N
90,000  89716.765
% less  90,000 100%
 0.3147% less

Q1.3 Prove that the weight of a body at an elevation H above sea-level is

given by
mg ⎛ d ⎞2
W
g0 ⎜⎝ d  2H ⎠⎟
Where d is the diameter of the earth.
Solution: According to Newton’s law of gravity it we place a man of m at an height of
H then
 Introduction
By: S K Mondal Chapter
m
1
Force of attraction GMm
=
 d H
2 2  …

H
(i)
If we place it in a surface of earth
then d
Force of attraction GMm

   mg o

d2 2

or g GM

o
d 2 
2

1.3
 Weight  W   GMm

d 2 
mgo
H2 

d 2 
2

from equation... i

 d 2  H 2
⎛ d ⎞2
 mgo ⎜ ⎟ Pr oved.
⎝ d  2H ⎠

Q1.4 The first artificial earth satellite is reported to have encircled the earth
at a speed of 28,840 km/h and its maximum height above the earth’s
surface was stated to be 916 km. Taking the mean diameter of the
earth to be 12,680 km, and assuming the orbit to be circular, evaluate
the value of the gravitational acceleration at this height.
The mass of the satellite is reported to have been 86 kg at sea-level.
Estimate the gravitational force acting on the satellite at the
operational altitude.
(Ans. 8.9 m/s2; 765 N)
Solution: Their force of attraction = centrifugal force
mv
Centirfugal force  2
r
⎛ 28840 1000 ⎞2
⎟
86  ⎜ 60  60
⎝ ⎠
 ⎛ 12680 103 3⎞
N
 916 10
⎜ ⎟
2
⎝ ⎠

 760.65 N (Weight)

Q1.5 Convert the following readings of pressure to kPa, assuming that the
barometer reads 760 mmHg:
(a) 90 cmHg gauge (b) 40 cmHg vacuum
(c) 1.2 m H2O gauge (d) 3.1 bar
Solution: 760 mm Hg = 0.760 × 13600 × 9.81 Pa
= 10139.16 Pa
= 101.4 kPa
Page 7 of 265
 Introduction
By: S K Mondal Chapter 1
(a) 90 cm Hg gauge
= 0.90  13600 × 9.81 × 10-3 + 101.4 kPa
= 221.4744 kPa

(b) 40 cm Hg vacuum
= (76 – 40) cm (absolute)
= 0.36 × 43.600 × 9.81 kPa
= 48.03 kPa

(c) 1.2 m H2O gauge

= 1.2 × 1000 × 9.81 × 10-3 + 101.4 kPa
= 113.172 kPa

(d) 3.1 bar = 3.1 × 100 kPa = 310 kPa

Q1.6 A 30 m high vertical column of a fluid of density 1878 kg/m 3 exists in a

place where g = 9.65 m/s2. What is the pressure at the base of the column.
(Ans. 544 kPa)
Solution: p = z g
= 30 × 1878 × 9.65 Pa
= 543.681 kPa

Q1.7 Assume that the pressure p and the specific volume v of the atmosphere
are related according to the equation pv  2.3  10 , where p is in N/m2
1.4 5

abs and v is in m3/kg. The acceleration due to gravity is constant at 9.81

m/s2. What is the depth of atmosphere necessary to produce a pressure
of l.0132 bar at the earth’s surface? Consider the atmosphere as a fluid
column.
(Ans. 64.8 km)

Page 8 of 265
Solution: dp  dh g

or dp  1 Zero HO-h
dh  g line
v
gdh
or v h
dp
pv  2.310  2300
1.4 3 p = hg dh
1
p
⎛ 2300 ⎞1.4 ⎛ 2300 ⎞n 1 dh
v⎜ ⎜ ⎟ where n 
or ⎟ p p + dp
⎝ p ⎠ ⎝ ⎠ 1.4 h
or g dh  ⎜⎛ 2300⎟ ⎞n
dp p
⎝ ⎠
⎛ 2300 ⎞n p = hg
or g dh  ⎜ ⎟ dp
⎝ p ⎠

H n
2300
101320
dp
or  dh  g
 pn
0 0

or h   
2300 ⎡101320  1n  0 ⎤  2420 m  2.42 km
n

g 1  n  ⎣ ⎦

Q1.8 The pressure of steam flowing in a pipeline is

measured with a mercury manometer, shown in
Figure. Some steam condenses into water. Estimate
the steam pressure in kPa. Take the density of
mercury as13.6  10 kg/m , density of water as 103
3 3

kg/m3, the barometer reading as 76.1 cmHg, and g as

9.806 m/s2.

Solution:
po  0.50   Hg  g  0.03  H O  g  p2

p  0.761 13.6 10  9.806  0.5 13.6 10  9.806  0.03 1000  9.806 Pa.
3 3
or
 167.875 kPa
Q1.9 A vacuum gauge mounted on a condenser reads 0.66 mHg. What is the
absolute pressure in the condenser in kPa when the atmospheric
pressure is 101.3 kPa?
(Ans. 13.3 kPa)
Solution: Absolute = atm. – vacuum
3 3
= 101.3 – 0.66 ×13.6 ×10 × 9.81 ×10 kPa
= 13.24 kPa
Page 10 of 265
 Temperature
By: S K Mondal Chapter 2

2. Temperature
Some Important Notes
Comparison of Temperature scale

Boiling 100o 212oF 373K 80o 30cm

Point C

Test C F K x
Temperature

Freezing Point
o
0 C 32oF 273 K 10cm

C0
Relation: F  32 K  273 0 x  10
100  0 = 212  = 373  =80  0=
30  10
32 273

Questions with Solution P. K. Nag

Q2.1 The limiting value of the ratio of the pressure of gas at the steam point and at
the triple point of water when the gas is kept at constant volume is found to be
1.36605. What is the ideal gas temperature of the steam point?
(Ans. 100°C)
p
Solution:  1.36605
pt
p
  v  273.16 
p t
 273.16  1.36605
 373.15C

Q2.2 In a constant volume gas thermometer the following pairs of pressure

readings were taken at the boiling point of water and the boiling point
of sulphur, respectively:
Water b.p. 50.0 100 200 300
Sulphur b.p. 96.4 193 387 582
The numbers are the gas pressures, mm Hg, each pair being taken with
the same amount of gas in the thermometer, but the successive pairs
being taken with different amounts of gas in the thermometer. Plot the
 Temperature
By: S K Mondal Chapter 2
ratio of Sb.p.:H2Ob.p. against the reading at the water boiling point, and
extrapolate the plot to zero pressure at the water boiling point. This
 gives the ratio of Sb.p. : H2Ob.p. On a gas thermometer operating at zero
gas pressure, i.e., an ideal gas thermometer. What is the boiling point of
sulphur on the gas scale, from your plot?
(Ans. 445°C)
Solution : Water b.p. 50.0 100 200 300

1.926
Sulphur b.p. 96.4 193 387 582

Extrapolating
Sb.p
Ratio = 1.928 1.93 1.935 1.940
Wb.p
 T1  100C  373K
T2  ? 0 50 100 200 300
p1
 1.926
p2
 T2  373 1.926  718K  445C

Q2.3 The resistance of a platinum wire is found to be 11,000 ohms at the ice point,
15.247 ohms at the steam point, and 28.887 ohms at the sulphur point. Find
the constants A and B in the equation
R  R0(1  At  Bt )
2

And plot R against t in the range 0 to 660°C.

Solution:

(3271, 1668628)
R 36.595

11
y

0 660°C
x
t
R0  11.000 Ω
100 0

R  R 1  A 100  B 100
2

15.247  11.000  1100A  11 10 B
4
or
... i 
3
or 3.861 10  A  100B
28.887  11.00  445  11A  445  11B
2

-3
3.6541×10 = A + 445B ... ii 
equation ii   i gives.
7
B   6  10
3
A  3.921  10

 3
R  11 1  3.921  10 t  6  10 t
7 2

Y  11 1  3.921  10 
3 7 2
or t  6  10 t
or  t  32712 R660
  4  37922  Y  1668628
 36.595
Q2.4 when the reference junction of a thermocouple is kept at the ice point
and the test junction is at the Celsius temperature t, and e.m.f. e of the
thermocouple is given by the equation
  at  bt2
Where a = 0.20 mV/deg, and b = - 5.0 × 10-4 mV/deg2

(a) Compute the e.m.f. when t = - l00°C, 200°C, 400°C, and 500°C, and
draw graph of  against t in this range.
(b) Suppose the e.m.f.  is taken as a thermometric property and that a
temperature scale t* is defined by the linear equation.
t* = a'  + b'
And that t* = 0 at the ice point and t* = 100 at the steam point. Find
the numerical values of a' and b' and draw a graph of  against t*.
(c) Find the values of t* when t = -100°C, 200°C, 400°C, and 500°C, and
draw a graph of t* against t.
(d) Compare the Celsius scale with the t* scale.
Solution: Try please

Q2.5 The temperature t on a thermometric scale is defined in terms of a

property K by the relation
t = a ln K + b
Where a and b are constants.
The values of K are found to be 1.83 and 6.78 at the ice point and the
steam point, the temperatures of which are assigned the numbers 0 and
100 respectively. Determine the temperature corresponding to a
reading of K equal to 2.42 on the thermometer.
(Ans. 21.346°C)
Solution: t = a ln x + b
0 = a x ln 1.83 + b … (i)
100 = a x ln 6.78 + b … (ii)

Equation {(ii) – (i)} gives

⎛ 6.78 ⎞
a  ln ⎜ ⎟  100
⎝ 1.83 ⎠
or a  76.35
 b   a  ln 1.83
  46.143
 t  76.35 ln k  46.143
 t  76.35  ln 2.42  46.143
*

 21.33C

Q2.6 The resistance of the windings in a certain motor is found to be 80

ohms at room temperature (25°C). When operating at full load under
steady state conditions, the motor is switched off and the resistance of
the windings, immediately measured again, is found to be 93 ohms.
The windings are made of copper whose resistance at temperature t°C
is given by
 Rt = R0 [1 + 0.00393 t]
Where R0 is the resistance at 0°C. Find the temperature attained by the
coil during full load.
(Ans. 70.41°C)
Solution: R25 = R0 [1 + 0.00393 × 25]
 R0 80
  72.84 Ω
1 0.00393  25

 93  72.841  0.00393  t
or t  70.425C

Q2.7 A new scale N of temperature is divided in such a way that the

freezing point of ice is 100°N and the boiling point is 400°N. What is
the temperature reading on this new scale when the temperature is
150°C? At what temperature both the Celsius and the new
temperature scale reading would be the same?
(Ans. 550°N, – 50°C.)
Solution:
150  N  100
0 = 400 
100
100 
0
o
or N = 550 N
o
let N= C for x
then C  0 N  100
= 400  100
100 
0
x
or = x  100
100
300

x  100
or x =
3
or 3 x = x -100
or 2 x = -100
o
or x = - 50 C

Q2.8 A platinum wire is used as a resistance thermometer. The wire resistance was
found to be 10 ohm and 16 ohm at ice point and steam point respectively, and
30 ohm at sulphur boiling point of 444.6°C. Find the resistance of the wire at
500°C, if the resistance varies with temperature by the relation.
R  R (1 tt )
2
0
16  R (1  100     100 )
2

0
Solution: 0 30  R (1    444.6   
10  R 0(1  0      0 )
2 2
444.6 )
(Ans. 31.3 ohm)
Solve R , &  then
0

R  R 0(1  500      500 )

2
 Work and Heat
By: S K Mondal Transfer Chapter 3

3. Work and Heat Transfer

Some Important Notes
-ive W +ive W +ive Q -ive Q

Our aim is to give heat to the system and gain work output from it.
So heat input  +ive (positive)
Work output  +ive (positive)

f vf

Wif
  pdV   pdv
i vi

d Q = du + dW
f f

 dQ  u  u   dW
i
f i
i
vf

Qif  uf ui  pdV

 vi

Questions with Solution P. K. Nag

Q3.1 (a)A pump forces 1 m3/min of water horizontally from an open well to a
closed tank where the pressure is 0.9 MPa. Compute the work the pump
must do upon the water in an hour just to force the water into the tank
against the pressure. Sketch the system upon which the work is done
before and after the process.
(Ans. 5400
kJ/h) (b)If the work done as above upon the water had been used solely to
raise the same amount of water vertically against gravity without change
of
pressure, how many meters would the water have been elevated?
(Ans. 91.74 m)
(c)If the work done in (a) upon the water had been used solely to accelerate
the water from zero velocity without change of pressure or elevation,
what velocity would the water have reached? If the work had been used
to accelerate the water from an initial velocity of 10 m/s, what would the
final velocity have been?
(Ans. 42.4 m/s; 43.6 m/s)
Solution: (a) Flow rate 1m3/hr.
Pressure of inlet water = 1 atm = 0.101325 MPa
Pressure of outlet water = 0.9 MPa
  Power  Δpv˙
1m
 0.9  0.101325 10 kPa 
3
3
60 s
 13.31 kJ
s

(b) So that pressure will be 0.9 MPa

 hg  0.9 MPa
0.9 10
6

or h= m  91.743 m
1000 
9.81
(c) 1
m˙ V  V 2 2
 where
m˙
 v˙ 
Δpv˙
2 1
2
1
or
2

 V  V  Δp
2

2 1
2
V V
2 2
or Δp
2 
2 1

Δp
V V 2
2 2
or
2 1

2  0.9  0.101325  10
6

 10 
2

1000
V2  41.2 m / s.

Q3.2 The piston of an oil engine, of area 0.0045 m 2, moves downwards 75 mm,
drawing in 0.00028 m3 of fresh air from the atmosphere. The pressure in
the cylinder is uniform during the process at 80 kPa, while the atmospheric
pressure is 101.325 kPa, the difference being due to the flow resistance in
the induction pipe and the inlet valve. Estimate the displacement work done
by the air finally in the cylinder.
(Ans. 27 J)
Solution : Volume of piston stroke
= 0.0045 × 0.075m3 Final volume = 3.375×10-4 m3
= 0.0003375m3
 ΔV = 0.0003375 m3
as pressure is constant
= 80 kPa
So work done = pΔV
= 80  0.0003375 kJ
= 0.027 kJ = 27 J Initial volume = 0

Q3.3 An engine cylinder has a piston of area 0.12 m 3 and contains gas at a
pressure of 1.5 MPa. The gas expands according to a process which is
represented by a straight line on a pressure-volume diagram. The final
pressure is 0.15 MPa. Calculate the work done by the gas on the piston if
the stroke is 0.30 m.
(Ans. 29.7 kJ)
Solution: Initial pressure ( p1 ) = 1.5 MPa
Final volume (V1) = 0.12m2  0.3m
 = 0.036 m3
Final pressure ( p2 ) = 0.15 MPa
As initial pressure too high so the volume is neglected.

Work done = Area of pV diagram

1
 p  p   V
1 2
2
1
 1.5  0.15  0.036  10 kJ
3

2
 29.7 kJ
p
1.5 MPa

0.15 MPa

neg. V

0.36 m3

Q3.4 A mass of 1.5 kg of air is compressed in a quasi-static process from 0.1

MPa to 0.7 MPa for which pv = constant. The initial density of air is
1.16 kg/m3. Find the work done by the piston to compress the air.
(Ans. 251.62 kJ)
Solution: For quasi-static process
Work done   pdV [ given pV  C
v2 dV
 p1V1   p1V1  pV  p2V2  C
V
⎛ V2 ⎞
v1
p1V1
pVln  p
1 1 ⎜ ⎟
V V
⎝⎛ p 1 ⎞⎠
 p V ln 1 p1 V2
 
1 1 ⎜ ⎟
p p V
⎝ 2 ⎠ 2 1

 0.1 1.2931  ln0.1 MJ given

p1  0.1 MPa
0.7

 251.63 kJ 1.5 3
1
m 1.16 m
1
V1
p2  0.7 MPa
Q3.5 A mass of gas is compressed in a quasi-static process from 80 kPa, 0.1
m3 to 0.4 MPa, 0.03 m3. Assuming that the pressure and volume are
related by pvn = constant, find the work done by the gas system.

Solution: Given initial pressure  p1  Initial volume

 V1  (Ans. –11.83 kJ)
= 80kPa
= 0.1 m3
 Final pressure  p2  = 0.4 MPa = 400 kPa
Final volume  V2  = 0.03 m3
n
As p-V relation pV = C
 pV p V
n n

1 1 2 2

taking loge both side

ln p1  n ln V1  ln p2  n ln V2
or n  ln V1  ln V2   ln p2  ln p1
⎛ V1 ⎞ ⎛p ⎞
or n ln  ln 2
⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
V p
⎝ 2⎠ ⎝ 1⎠
⎛ 400 ⎞
ln ⎛ ⎜p
p2 ⎞
⎟
ln
⎜ ⎟ 1.60944
⎝1 ⎠ 80
or n 
⎛lnV1 ⎞ ⎛⎝ ⎠   1.3367  1.34
⎜V ⎟ ln 0.1 ⎞ 1.20397
⎝2 ⎠
⎜ ⎟
⎝ 0.03 ⎠
pV p V
 Work done  W   1 1 2 2
n1
80 × 0.1  400 × 0.03
 1.34  1   11.764 kJ

Q3.6 A single-cylinder, double-acting, reciprocating water pump has an

indicator diagram which is a rectangle 0.075 m long and 0.05 m high.
The indicator spring constant is 147 MPa per m. The pump runs at 50
rpm. The pump cylinder diameter is 0.15 m and the piston stroke is
0.20 m. Find the rate in kW at which the piston does work on the
water.
(Ans. 43.3 kW)
Solution: Area of indicated diagram  ad  = 0.075 × 0.05 m = 3.75 × 10 m
2 3 2

Spring constant (k) = 147 MPa/m

Q3.7 A single-cylinder, single-acting, 4 stroke engine of 0.15 m bore develops
an indicated power of 4 kW when running at 216 rpm. Calculate the area
of the indicator diagram that would be obtained with an indicator
having a spring constant of 25 × 10 6 N/m3. The length of the indicator
diagram is 0.1 times the length of the stroke of the engine.
(Ans. 505 mm2)
Solution: Given Diameter of piston (D) = 0.15 m
I.P = 4 kW = 4 × 1000 W
Speed (N) = 216 rpm
Spring constant (k) = 25 × 106 N/m
Length of indicator diagram  l d  = 0.1 × Stoke (L)
Let Area of indicator diagram =  ad 

 Mean effective pressure ( pm ) = ad

k
l
d
pm LAN
and I.P.  as 4 stroke engine
120
ad  k L  A  N
 or I.P.  
ld 120

or ad
I.P  ld 120
 kLA
N
4  0.1 L 120 
I.P ⎡ D ⎤
area A  2
 ⎢ ⎥
4
kLD N
2
⎢ ⎥
⎢⎣and ld  0.1L ⎥⎦
4  0.1 120  4 1000 2
 25 106    0.152  216 m
4
 5.03 10 m
2

 503mm
2

Q3.8 A six-cylinder, 4-stroke gasoline engine is run at a speed of 2520 RPM.

The area of the indicator card of one cylinder is 2.45 × 10 3 mm2 and its
length is 58.5 mm. The spring constant is 20 × 10 6 N/m3. The bore of the
cylinders is 140 mm and the piston stroke is 150 mm. Determine the
indicated power, assuming that each cylinder contributes an equal
power.
(Ans. 243.57 kW)
ad
Solution: p  k
m
ld 
2.45 10 ⎞
 3  20 10
3
mm
2
N mm  N ⎛ 1 N/m
2

Pa    
⎝ ⎠
58.5 mm m
3 ⎜ ⎟
m 1000
 837.607 kPa m
2

L  0.150 m
 D   0.14
2 2

A 
4 4
N  2520
n6
p
 I.P.  m LAN as four stroke
n 
120
 0.14 2520  6
 837.607  0.15  2 kW
4 120
 243.696 kW

Q3.9 A closed cylinder of 0.25 m diameter is fitted with a light frictionless

piston. The piston is retained in position by a catch in the cylinder wall
and the volume on one side of the piston contains air at a pressure of
750 kN/m2. The volume on the other side of the piston is evacuated. A
helical spring is mounted coaxially with the cylinder in this evacuated
space to give a force of 120 N on the piston in this position. The catch is
released and the piston travels along the cylinder until it comes to rest
after a stroke of 1.2 m. The piston is then held in its position of
maximum travel by a ratchet mechanism. The spring force increases
linearly with the piston displacement to a final value of 5 kN. Calculate
the work done by the compressed air on the piston.
(Ans. 3.07 kJ)
Solution: Work done against spring is work done by the compressed gas

 0.25m

1.2m
120  5000
Mean force 
2
 2560 N
Travel  1.2 m
 Work Done  2560 1.2 N.m
 3.072 kJ
By Integration
At a travel (x) force (Fx) = 120 + kx
At 1.2 m then 5000 = 120 + k × 1.2
 Fx = 120 + 4067 x

 W  1.2
 F dx
0
x

 1.2
 120  4067xdx
0
 ⎡
 ⎢120x  4067  x2 ⎤1.2
⎥
2
⎣ ⎦0
1.2
 120 1.2  4067  2J
2
 144  2928.24 J
 3072.24J  3.072 kJ

Q 3.l0 A steam turbine drives a ship’s propeller through an 8: 1 reduction gear.

The average resisting torque imposed by the water on the propeller is
750 × 103 mN and the shaft power delivered by the turbine to the
reduction gear is 15 MW. The turbine speed is 1450 rpm. Determine (a)
the torque developed by the turbine, (b) the power delivered to the
propeller shaft, and (c) the net rate of working of the reduction gear.
(Ans. (a) T = 98.84 km N, (b) 14.235 MW, (c) 0.765 MW)
Solution: Power of the propeller = Power on turbine shaft

The net rate of working of the reduction gear

= (15 – 14.235) MW
= 0.7647 MW

Q 3.11 A fluid, contained in a horizontal cylinder fitted with a frictionless leak

proof piston, is continuously agitated by means of a stirrer passing
through the cylinder cover. The cylinder diameter is 0.40 m. During
the stirring process lasting 10 minutes, the piston slowly moves out a
distance of 0.485 m against the atmosphere. The net work done by the
fluid during the process is 2 kJ. The speed of the electric motor
driving the stirrer is 840 rpm. Determine the torque in the shaft and
the power output of the motor.
(Ans. 0.08 mN, 6.92 W)
Solution: Change of volume = A L
d
 2
L4
 0.4 3
 2  0.485 m
4
3
 0.061 m
As piston moves against constant atmospheric pressure then work done  pΔV

 = 0.4m
M

0.485m

 101.325  0.061 kJ
 6.1754 kJ

Net work done by the fluid = 2 kJ

 Net work done by the Motor = 4.1754 kJ
There for power of the motor

4.1754 10
3

 10  60 W
 6.96 W
P
Torque on the shaft 
W
6.96  60
 2 840

 0.0791mN

Q3.12 At the beginning of the compression stroke of a two-cylinder internal

combustion engine the air is at a pressure of 101.325 kPa. Compression
reduces the volume to 1/5 of its original volume, and the law of
compression is given by pv1.2 = constant. If the bore and stroke of each
cylinder is 0.15 m and 0.25 m, respectively, determine the power
absorbed in kW by compression strokes when the engine speed is such
that each cylinder undergoes 500 compression strokes per minute.
(Ans. 17.95 kW)
Solution: d
Initial volume V   2  L
1
4
 0.15 2
  0.25 m
3

4
 0.00442 m
3

Initial p r essure  p1   101.325 kPa.

Final volume  V   V1
5  0.000884 m
3
2

p1V11.2  p 2V21.2

p V1.2
Or p2  1 1  699.41  700 kPa
V21.2

Work done / unit stroke  unit cylinder W

⎞

⎛ 1.2  p V  p V 
⎜ ⎟
⎝ 1.2  1 ⎠
1 1 2 2

⎛ 101.325  0.00442  700  0.000884 ⎞

⎜ ⎟1.2
1.2  1
⎝ ⎠
 -ive work, as work done on the system 
W  500  2 1.2
Power  60 kW
= 17.95 kW

Q3.13 Determine the total work done by a gas system following an expansion
process as shown in Figure.

(Ans. 2.253 MJ)

Solution: Area under AB

5
= (0.4 – 0.2) × 50 × 10 J
6
= 10 W  1 MJ
 A B
50
bar p
pV1.3 = c

0.2 0.4 0.8

V1 m3
⎡
Area under ⎢
Here pB  pB  50 bar  50 105 Pa
BC ⎢
p V  p2 V2 ⎢ VB 0.4m
3
 1 1 ⎢
n1
VC  0.8m
3
⎢
50 10  0.4  20.31 10  0.8
5 5
⎢
 1.3  1 W ⎢ 50 10  0.4
5 1.3
⎢ p V1.3
p
C BB
V1.3 0.81.3
 1.251MJ
⎢ C

⎢⎣  20.3110 Pa
5

Total work = 2.251MJ

Q3.14 A system of volume V contains a mass m of gas at pressure p and

temperature T. The macroscopic properties of the system obey the
following relationship:
⎛ a ⎞
p+ (V  b) = mRT
⎜ ⎟
V2
⎝ ⎠
Where a, b, and R are constants.
Obtain an expression for the displacement work done by the system
during a constant-temperature expansion from volume V1 to volume V2.
Calculate the work done by a system which contains 10 kg of this gas
expanding from 1 m3 to 10 m3 at a temperature of 293 K. Use the values
2
a  15.7  10 Nm , b  1.07  10 m , and R = 0.278 kJ/kg-K.
4 3

(Ans. 1742 kJ)

Solution: As
⎛ it is
a⎞ constant temp-expansion then
p V  b  constant mRT k as T  constant
⎜ ⎟
V2
⎝ ⎛ ⎠ a⎞ ⎛
 p V  b  p  a ⎞  b  k
⎜ 1 2⎟ 1 ⎜ 2 2⎟
V
2
V V
⎝ 1⎠ ⎝ 2⎠
2 ⎛ a ⎞ constantk
W   p dV  ⎜ p  ⎟
1 ⎝ V⎠ Vb
 2⎜⎛ k  a ⎞ dV or p
k
 2
a
 2⎟ 
1⎝
V b V⎠ V b V
⎡⎤2 a 1 1
⎛ V2  b ⎞ ⎛ 1 1⎞
 k ln a 
 ⎢ k ln  V  b   1 ⎥ 

⎣ V ⎦
  2
dv  c
V ⎜V ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
Vb V V
⎡⎛ ⎝ a1 ⎞ ⎠ ⎝ 2 1⎠

 p V  bln ⎛ 1 1 ⎞⎤
2  b V1  
V b a 
⎢⎜ 1 ⎟ 1 ⎜ ⎟⎥
V2 V V
⎛⎣ ⎝ a⎞ 1⎠ ⎝ 2 1 ⎠⎦

p V  b  constant mRT k as T  constant

⎜ 2⎟
V
⎝ ⎠
Given m = 10 kg; T = 293 K; R = 0.278 kJ/kg. K
 Constant k = 10 × 293 × 0.278 kJ = 814.54 kJ
a = 15.7 × 10 Nm4; b = 1.07 × 10-2m3
 V2 = 10m3, V1 = 1m3
⎛ 10 1.07 10 ⎞ ⎛ 1 1⎞
 W  814.54 ln 2  a 
⎜ 2 ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
1 1.07 10 10 1
⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠
 1883.44  a 0.9 kJ
 1883.44  157 0.9 kJ
 1742.14 kJ

Q3.15 If a gas of volume 6000 cm 3 and at pressure of 100 kPa is compressed

quasistatically according to pV2 = constant until the volume becomes
2000 cm3, determine the final pressure and the work transfer.
(Ans. 900 kPa, – 1.2 kJ)
Solution: Initial volume ( v1 ) = 6000 cm 3

= 0.006 m3
Initial pressure  p1  = 100 kPa

Final volume ( v2 ) = 2000 cm3

= 0.002 m3
If final pressure  p2 
p V 100   0.006 2
2

 p2  1 1   900 kPa
V22  0.002 2
work done on the system  1
⎡p V  p V ⎤
⎣ 11⎦
n1 2 2
1
 ⎡900  0.002  100  0.006⎤ kJ
2  1⎣ ⎦
 1.2 kJ

Q3.16 The flow energy of 0.124 m3/min of a fluid crossing a boundary to a

system is 18 kW. Find the pressure at this point.
Volume flow
Solution: If pressure is p1 rate (Q) =
Area is A1 A1V1
Velocity is V1  Power
= force ×
 velocity (Ans. 8709 kPa)
= p1A1 × V1
= p1 × (Q) p1
 18  A1
0.124 V1
p1  60

or p1 18  60
 0.124 kPa
 8.71 MPa

Q3.17 A milk chilling unit can remove heat from the milk at the rate of 41.87
MJ/h. Heat leaks into the milk from the surroundings at an average
rate of 4.187 MJ/h. Find the time required for cooling a batch of 500
kg of milk from 45°C to 5°C. Take the cp of milk to be 4.187 kJ/kg K.
(Ans. 2h 13 min)
Solution: Heat to be removed (H) = mst
= 500 × 4.187 × (45-5) kJ
= 83.740 MJ
Net rate of heat removal
 H˙  Hrej leak

 41.87  4.187 MJ / h
 37.683 MJ / h
83.740
 Time required  hr
37.683
 2 hr. 13 min. 20 sec.
Q3.18 680 kg of fish at 5°C are to be frozen and stored at – 12°C. The specific
heat of fish above freezing point is 3.182, and below freezing point is
1.717 kJ/kg K. The freezing point is – 2°C, and the latent heat of fusion
is
234.5 kJ/kg. How much heat must be removed to cool the fish, and what
per cent of this is latent heat?
(Ans. 186.28 MJ, 85.6%)
Solution: Heat to be removed above freezing point
= 680 × 3.182 × {5 – (-2)} kJ
= 15.146 MJ
Heat to be removed latent heat
= 680 × 234.5 kJ
= 159.460 MJ
Heat to be removed below freezing point
= 680 × 1.717 × {– 2 – (– 12)} kJ
= 11.676 MJ
 Total Heat = 186.2816 MJ
159.460
% of Latent heat = 100 = 85.6 %
186.2816
Page 28 of 265
 First Law of Thermodynamics
By: S K Mondal Chapter 4

4. First Law of Thermodynamics

Some Important Notes
 dQ is an inexact differential, and we write

2
1
dQ  Q12 or 1Q  Q2  Q1
2

 dW is an inexact differential, and we write

2 2
W12   dW   pdV  W2  W1
1 1

 (ΣQ)cycle = (ΣW)cycle or
○  Q ○  W

The summations being over the entire cycle.

 δQ – δW = dE

 An isolated system which does not interact with the surroundings Q = 0 and W = 0.
Therefore, E remains constant for such a system.
 The Zeroth Law deals with thermal equilibrium and provides a means for measuring
temperatures.
 The First Law deals with the conservation of energy and introduces the concept of
internal energy.
 The Second Law of thermodynamics provides with the guidelines on the conversion heat
energy of matter into work. It also introduces the concept of entropy.
 The Third Law of thermodynamics defines the absolute zero of entropy. The entropy of a
pure crystalline substance at absolute zero temperature is zero.

Summation of 3 Laws
 Firstly, there isn’t a meaningful temperature of the source from which we can get the full
conversion of heat to work. Only at infinite temperature one can dream of getting the full 1
kW work output.
 First Law of Thermodynamics
By: S K Mondal Chapter 4
 Secondly, more interestingly, there isn’t enough work available to produce 0K. In other
words, 0 K is unattainable. This is precisely the Third law.
 Because, we don’t know what 0 K looks like, we haven’t got a starting point for the
temperature scale!! That is why all temperature scales are at best empirical.

You can’t get something for nothing:

To get work output you must give some thermal energy.
You can’t get something for very little:
To get some work output there is a minimum amount of thermal energy that
needs to be given.
You can’t get every thing:
However much work you are willing to give 0 K can’t be reached.
Violation of all 3 laws:
Try to get everything for nothing.
 Questions with Solution P. K. Nag
Q4.1 An engine is tested by means of a water brake at 1000 rpm. The
measured torque of the engine is 10000 mN and the water consumption
of the brake is 0.5 m3/s, its inlet temperature being 20°C. Calculate the
water temperature at exit, assuming that the whole of the engine power
is ultimately transformed into heat which is absorbed by the cooling
water.
(Ans. 20.5°C)
Solution: Power T.

⎛ 2 1000 ⎞
 10000  ⎜ ⎟
60
⎝ ⎠
 1.0472 10 W
6

 1.0472MW
Let final temperature  tC
 Heat absorb by cooling water / unit = m˙ s Δt
= v˙s Δt
= 0.5 1000  4.2  t  20
 0.5 1000  4.2  t  20  1.0472 10
6

 t  20  0.4986  0.5
 t  20.5C

Q4.2 In a cyclic process, heat transfers are + 14.7 kJ, – 25.2 kJ, – 3.56 kJ and +
31.5 kJ. What is the net work for this cyclic process?

(Ans. 17.34 kJ)

Solution : Q  14.7  31.5  25.2  3.56 kJ -25.2kJ
 17.44 kJ
From first law of thermodynamics +14.7kJ -3.56kJ
(for a cyclic process)
Q  W
 W  17.44 kJ
31.5 k
J

Q4.3 A slow chemical reaction takes place in a fluid at the constant pressure
of 0.1 MPa. The fluid is surrounded by a perfect heat insulator during
the reaction which begins at state 1 and ends at state 2. The insulation
is then removed and 105 kJ of heat flow to the surroundings as the
fluid goes to state 3. The following data are observed for the fluid at
states 1, 2 and 3.
State v (m3) t (°C)
1 0.003 20
2 0.3 370
3 0.06 20
For the fluid system, calculate E2 and E3, if E1 = 0
(Ans. E2 = – 29.7 kJ, E3 = – 110.7 kJ)
Solution: From first law of thermodynamics
dQ  ΔE  pdV

 Q  ΔE   pdV
2

 Q12   E2  E1    pdV
1
or  E  E   0.1 103(0.3  0.003) as insulated Q  0
2 1 23

or E2   29.7 kJ
3

Q23   E3  E2    pdV
2

or 105   E 3 E 2  0.1 103 0.06  0.3

105  E 3 29.7  0.1 10 0.06  0.3

3
or
or 105  E3  29.7  24
or E3   105  29.7  24
  110.7 kJ
Q4.4 During one cycle the working fluid in an engine engages in two work
interactions: 15 kJ to the fluid and 44 kJ from the fluid, and three heat
interactions, two of which are known: 75 kJ to the fluid and 40 kJ from
the fluid. Evaluate the magnitude and direction of the third heat
transfer.
(Ans. – 6 kJ)
Solution: From first law of thermodynamics
W1 = -15kJ
 dQ  dW
 Q1  Q2  Q3  W1  W2
or 75  40  Q3   15  Q1 = 75kJ W2 = 44kJ
44
Q3   6kJ
i.e. 6kJ from the system
Q3
Q = -40kJ

Q4.5 A domestic refrigerator is loaded with food and the door closed. During
a certain period the machine consumes 1 kWh of energy and the internal
energy of the system drops by 5000 kJ. Find the net heat transfer for the
system.
(Ans. – 8.6 MJ)
Solution: Q  ΔE  W
-W
Q21   E2  E1   W21
1000  3600
  5000kJ  kJ
1000
  8.6MJ
Q4.6 1.5 kg of liquid having a constant specific heat of 2.5 kJ/kg K is stirred in
a well-insulated chamber causing the temperature to rise by 15°C. Find Δ
E and W for the process.
(Ans. Δ E = 56.25 kJ, W = – 56.25 kJ)
Solution: Heat added to the system = 1.5 × 2.5 × 15kJ
= 56.25 kJ
 ΔE rise = 56.25kJ
As it is insulated then dQ  0
 ΔQ = ΔE + W
or 0 = 56.25 + W
or W = – 56.25 kJ

Q4.7 The same liquid as in Problem 4.6 is stirred in a conducting chamber.

During the process 1.7 kJ of heat are transferred from the liquid to the
surroundings, while the temperature of the liquid is rising to 15°C. Find Δ
E and W for the process.
(Ans. Δ E = 54.55 kJ, W = 56.25 kJ)
Solution: As temperature rise is same so internal energy is same
ΔE = 56.25 kJ
As heat is transferred form the system so we have to give more work = 1.7 kJ to
the system
So W = – 56.25 – 1.7 kJ
= –57.95 kJ

Q4.8 The properties of a certain fluid are related as follows:

u  196  0.718t
pv  0.287 (t  273)
Where u is the specific internal energy (kJ/kg), t is in °C, p is pressure
(kN/m2), and v is specific volume (m 3/kg). For this fluid, find cv and cp.
(Ans. 0.718, 1.005 kJ/kg K)
Solution: ⎛ h ⎞
Cp  ⎜
⎝  ⎠p
⎡ u  pV⎤
⎢ ⎥
T
⎣ ⎦p
⎡ 196  0.718t  0.287 t  273⎤
 ⎢ ⎥
⎢⎣ T ⎥⎦ p
⎡ 0  0.718 t  0.287 t  0 ⎤

⎢ T ⎥p
⎣ ⎦
⎡ t ⎤ ⎡T  t  273⎤
 1.005
⎢ ⎥
⎢
⎣ T ⎥⎦ T  t
p ⎣ ⎦
 1.005 kJ / kg  K
 ⎛ u ⎞
cv  ⎜ ⎟
⎝ T ⎠v
⎡  196  0.718t  ⎤
⎢ ⎥
T
⎣ ⎦v
⎡ t ⎤
 0  0.718
⎢ T ⎥⎦ v
⎣
 0.718 kJ / kg  K

Q4.9 A system composed of 2 kg of the above fluid expands in a frictionless

piston and cylinder machine from an initial state of 1 MPa, 100°C to a
final temperature of 30°C. If there is no heat transfer, find the net
work for the process.
(Ans. 100.52 kJ)
Solution: Heat transfer is not there so
Q  ΔE  W
W   ΔE
  ΔU
2

   CvdT
1

  0.718  T2  T1 
  0.718 100  30
  50.26 kJ / kg
 Total work (W) = 2 × (-50.26) = -100.52 kJ

Q 4.10 If all the work in the expansion of Problem 4.9 is done on the moving
piston, show that the equation representing the path of the expansion
in the pv-plane is given by pvl.4 = constant.

Solution: Let the process is

n = constant.
pV
Then
p1V1  p2V2
Work done   pV  mRT
n1
⎡R   c p  c v  ⎤
mRT1  mRT2 ⎢  1.005  0.718 ⎥
 n1
⎢ ⎥
 0.287 kJ / kg  K
mR ⎣⎢ ⎥⎦
 T  T 
1 2
n1
2  0.287  100  30
or  n1  100.52
or n  1  0.39972
or n  1.39972  1.4

Q4.11 A stationary system consisting of 2 kg of the fluid of Problem 4.8

expands in an adiabatic process according to pvl.2 = constant. The
initial
 conditions are 1 MPa and 200°C, and the final pressure is 0.1 MPa. Find
W and Δ E for the process. Why is the work transfer not equal to  pdV ?
(Ans. W= 217.35, Δ E = – 217.35 kJ, = 434.4 kJ)
n1 1.21

pdV
Solution:
T2 ⎛ p2 ⎞ n ⎛ 0.1 ⎞ 1.2
 
⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
T p 1
1⎝ 1⎠ ⎝ ⎠
0.2

  T1   0.10 1.2

T2
 322.251
 49.25C

From first law of thermodynamics

dQ  ΔE  dW

 0   Cv dT dW

 dW    Cv dT
2

  0.718  dT   0.718  200  49.25kJ / kg

1

W2W
  2 108.2356kJ
  216.5kJ
 ΔE  216.5kJ
p1V1  p2V2
pdV  n1
mRT1  mRT2
 n1
mR  T1  T2 
 n1
2  0.287 200  49.25

1.2  1
 432.65kJ

As this is not quasi-static process so work is not pdV .

Q4.12 A mixture of gases expands at constant pressure from 1 MPa, 0.03 m3 to

0.6 m3 with 84 kJ positive heat transfer. There is no work other than
that done on a piston. Find DE for the gaseous mixture.
(Ans. 54
kJ) The same mixture expands through the same state path while a
stirring device does 21 kJ of work on the system. Find Δ E, W, and Q for
the process.
 (Ans. 54 kJ, – 21 kJ, 33 kJ)
Solution: Work done by the gas W   pdV
 p  V2  V1 
 1 10 0.06  0.03 kJ
3

 30kJ
Heat added  89kJ
 Q  ΔE  W
or ΔE  Q  W  89  30  54kJ

Q4.13 A mass of 8 kg gas expands within a flexible container so that the p–v
relationship is of the from pvl.2 = constant. The initial pressure is 1000
kPa and the initial volume is 1 m3. The final pressure is 5 kPa. If
specific internal energy of the gas decreases by 40 kJ/kg, find the heat
transfer in magnitude and direction.
(Ans. + 2615 kJ)
n 1
T ⎛p⎞ n
n1
Solution: ⎛V ⎞
2
 2
 ⎜ 1⎟
T1 ⎝⎜p1 ⎠⎟ ⎝ V2 ⎠
p ⎛ V ⎞n
 2
⎜1⎟
p1 ⎝ V2 ⎠
1
or ⎛ p1 ⎞ n
V2 
⎜ ⎟
V p
1 ⎝ 2⎠
1
or V
⎛ p ⎞n
 V  1
2 1⎜ ⎟
p
⎝ 2⎠
1
⎛ 1000 ⎞1.2  82.7 m3
1 ⎜ ⎟
5
⎝ ⎠
p1V1  p2V2
 W n1
1000 1  5  82.7
 1.2  1  2932.5kJ
ΔE   8  40   320 kJ
 Q  ΔE  W   320  2932.5  2612.5kJ

Q4.14 A gas of mass 1.5 kg undergoes a quasi-static expansion which follows

a relationship p = a + bV, where a and b are constants. The initial and
final pressures are 1000 kPa and 200 kPa respectively and the
corresponding volumes are 0.20 m3 and 1.20 m3. The specific internal
energy of the gas is given by the relation
u = l.5 pv – 85 kJ/kg
Where p is the kPa and v is in m3/kg. Calculate the net heat transfer
and the maximum internal energy of the gas attained during expansion.
(Ans. 660 kJ, 503.3 kJ)
 First Law of Thermodynamics
By: S K Mondal Chapter 4
Solution:
1000  a  b  0.2 ....  i
200  a  b 1.2 ... ii
 ii    i  gives
800  b
 a  1000  2  800  1160
 p  1160  800V
v2

W
 pdV
v1
1.2


 1160  800V dV
0.2

 ⎡1160V  400V ⎤1.2

2

⎣ ⎦ 0.2

 1160  1.2  0.2   400 1.2  .2  kJ

2 2

 1160  560kJ  600kJ

0.2
u  1.5 1000   85  215kJ / kg
1
1.5
1.2
u 2 1.5  200   85  155kJ / kg
1.5
 Δu  u2  u1  275  215  40kJ / kg
 ΔU  mΔu  40 1.5  60kJ
 Q  ΔU  W  60  600  660kJ
 u  1.5pv  85kJ / kg
⎛ 1160  800v ⎞
 1.5 ⎜ ⎟ v  85kJ / kg
1.5
⎝ ⎠
 1160v  800v  85kJ / kg
2

u
 1160  1600v
v
for max u 1160
imum u,  v  0.725
0
v 1600
umax  1160  0.725  800   0.725 2  85kJ / kg
.
 335.5kJ / kg
Umax   503.25kJ
1.5umax

Q4.15 The heat capacity at constant pressure of a certain

system is a function of temperature only and may be
expressed as

Cp  2.093  41.8 100

7
t
 First Law of Thermodynamics
By: S K Mondal Chapter 4
J/°C e increases from 2000 cm3 to 2400 cm3 and its
W temperature increases from 0°C to 100°C.
her (a) Find the magnitude of t h e h e a t i n t eraction.
P a g e 3 7 o f 2 6 5
e
is
the
te
mp
era
tur
e
of
the
sys
te
m
in
°C
Th
e
sys
te
m
is
he
ate
d
wh
ile
it
is
ma
int
ain
ed
at
a
pre
ssu
re
of
1
at
mo
sp
her
e
unt
il
its
vol
um
 (b) How much does the internal energy of the system increase?
(Ans. (a) 238.32 J (b) 197.79 J)

Solution: 373

Q  C dT
273
p t  T  273
 t  100  T  173
373 41.87 ⎞
⎛
  ⎜⎝2.093  ⎟⎠dT
273 T  173
 ⎡2.093T  41.87 ln T  173 ⎤373
⎣ ⎦ 273
⎛ 200 ⎞
 2.093 373  273  41.87 ln ⎜ ⎟
⎝ 100 ⎠
 209.3  41.87 ln 2
 238.32J

Q  ΔE   pdV

ΔE  Q   pdV
 Q  p  V2  V1 
 238.32  101.325 0.0024  0.0020  1000J
 238.32  40.53 J
 197.79J

Q4.16 An imaginary engine receives heat and does work on a slowly moving
piston at such rates that the cycle of operation of 1 kg of working fluid
can be represented as a circle 10 cm in diameter on a p–v diagram on
which 1 cm = 300 kPa and 1 cm = 0.1 m3/kg.
(a) How much work is done by each kg of working fluid for each cycle of
operation?
(b) The thermal efficiency of an engine is defined as the ratio of work
done and heat input in a cycle. If the heat rejected by the engine in
a cycle is 1000 kJ per kg of working fluid, what would be its
thermal efficiency?
(Ans. (a) 2356.19 kJ/kg, (b) 0.702)
Solution: Given Diameter = 10 cm
 10
 Area  2 cm  78.54 cm
2 2
Work
4
1 cm  300kPa  0.1m / kg
2 3
p
 30kJ 30 cm
dia
 Total work done  78.54  30kJ / kg
 2356.2 kJ / kg
Heat rejected  1000kJ V
Therefore,
2356.2 100%
  2356.2 
1000
Page 38 of 265
 70.204%

Page 39 of 265
Q4.17 A gas undergoes a thermodynamic cycle consisting of three processes
beginning at an initial state p1 = 1 bar, V1 = 1.5 m3 and U1 = 512 kJ.
where
The processes are as follows:
(i) Process 1–2: Compression with pV = constant to p2 = 2
bar, U2 = 690 kJ
(ii) Process 2–3: W23 = 0, Q23 = –150 kJ, and
(iii) Process 3–1: W31 = +50 kJ. Neglecting KE and PE changes,
determine the heat interactions Q12 and Q31.
(Ans. 74 kJ, 22 kJ)
Solution:
Q12  ΔE   pdV
v2 dV
Q12   u2  u1   p1 V1 
V
⎛p ⎞
v1

 690  512  100 1.5  ln 1

⎜ ⎟
p
⎝ 2⎠
 178  103.972
 74.03kJ
As W2-3 is ZERO so it is constant volume process. As W31 is +ive (positive) so
expansion is done.
 u3  u2  150  540kJ
Q31  u  u  W
1 3

 ΔE  W   540  512  50
  28  50  22kJ

Q4.18 A gas undergoes a thermodynamic cycle consisting of the following

processes:
(i) Process 1–2: Constant pressure p = 1.4 bar, V1 = 0.028 m3, W12 = 10.5
kJ
(ii) Process 2–3: Compression with pV = constant, U 3 = U2
(iii) Process 3–1: Constant volume, U1 – U3 = – 26.4 kJ. There are no
significant changes in KE and PE.
(a) Sketch the cycle on a p–V diagram
(b) Calculate the net work for the cycle in kJ
(c) Calculate the heat transfer for process 1–2
(d) Show that  Q   W .
cycle cycle

(Ans. (b) – 8.28 kJ, (c) 36.9 kJ)

Solution: b W12  10.5 kJ

W23 3 (a)
 pdV 3
2 u3
3
dV pV = C

 p2 V2  p
2
V
⎛ V3 ⎞ 1.4 bar 1 2 u2
  p2 V2 ln ⎜ ⎟ u1 W12= 10.5kJ
V⎝ 2 ⎠ 3
0.028m
⎛ V ⎞ V
 p2 V2 ln ⎜ 1 ⎟
⎝ V2 ⎠
⎛ 0.028 ⎞
 1.4 100  0.103  ln ⎜ ⎟
⎝ 0.103 ⎠
⎡as W 12  p  V2  V1  ⎤
⎢ ⎥
  18.783kJ
⎢ 10.5  1.4 100  0.028 
⎥⎥
⎢ 2
V
3
⎢⎣ V2  0.103 m ⎥⎦
W31  0 as constant volume
 Net work output   8.283 kJ ans.(b)
c Q12  U2  U1  W12
 26.4  10.5kJ  36.9kJ

(d) Q23  U3  U2  W23

 0  18.783kJ   18.783 kJ
Q31  U2  U3  0   26.4kJ
 Q  Q12  Q23  Q31  36.9kJ  18.783  26.4
  8.283kJ
  W   Q Pr oved.
 First Law Applied to Flow Process
By: S K Mondal Chapter 5

5. First Law Applied to Flow Process

Some Important Notes
 S.F.E.E. per unit mass basis
2 2
V dQ V dW
h 1 1
 gZ1 h2 2  gZ2
2 2
dm
[h, W, Q should be in J/kg and C in m/s and g in m/s2]
dm
2 2
V1 1
gZ dQ V gZ dW
h1     h2 2 2 
2000 1000 dm 2000 1000 dm
[h, W, Q should be in kJ/kg and C in m/s and g in m/s2]

 S.F.E.E. per unit time basis

⎛ V2 ⎞ dQ
w1 ⎜ h1   Z1g ⎟ 
1

⎛⎝ 2
V ⎠ ⎞ d
w h  2 g dWx
Z 
2⎜ 2 2 2 ⎟⎠
⎝ 2 d
Where, w = mass flow rate (kg/s)

 Steady Flow Process Involving Two Fluid Streams at the Inlet

and Exit of the Control Volume
Mass balance
w 1 w 2  w  w
3 4

A 1V 1 A 3V 3 A 4V 4
 A 2V 2
v1 v2 v3  v4
Where, v = specific volume (m 3/kg)
Energy balance
⎛ V 2
⎞ ⎛ 2 V2 ⎞ dQ
w1 ⎜ h1   Z1g ⎟  w2 ⎜ h2   Z2 g ⎟ 
1

⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎝ 2 ⎠ d
⎛ V 2
⎞ ⎛ V2 ⎞ dW
 w3 ⎜ h3  3  Z3 g ⎟  w4 ⎜ h4  4  Z4 g ⎟ x
⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎝ 2 ⎠ d
 First Law Applied to Flow Process
By: S K Mondal Chapter 5

Questions with Solution P. K. Nag

Q5.1 A blower handles 1 kg/s of air at 20°C and consumes a power of 15 kW.
The inlet and outlet velocities of air are 100 m/s and 150 m/s respectively.
Find the exit air temperature, assuming adiabatic conditions. Take cp of
air is 1.005 kJ/kg-K.
(Ans. 28.38°C)
Solution:
1 2

t1 = 20°C V2 = 150 m/s

t2 = ?
V1 = 100 m/s 2
1
dW
= – 15 kN
dt
From S.F.E.E.
2
⎛ V gZ ⎞ ⎛dQ
2
V 2 gZ ⎞ dW
w1 ⎜ h1  1 1 ⎟ 
  w2 ⎜ h 2  2

 ⎟
⎝ 2000 1000 ⎠dt ⎝ 2000 1000 ⎠ dt
dQ
Here w  w  1 kg / s ; Z  Z ;  0.
1 2 1 2
dt

 h1 2 2
100 150
 2000  0  h2  2000  15
 hh 2 2
⎛ 100 150 ⎞
2 1 ⎜ 15   ⎟
2000 2000
⎝ ⎠
or Cp  t2  t1   8.75

or t2 8.75
 20   28.7C
1.005

Q5.2 A turbine operates under steady flow conditions, receiving steam at the
following state: Pressure 1.2 MPa, temperature 188°C, enthalpy 2785
kJ/kg, velocity 33.3 m/s and elevation 3 m. The steam leaves the
turbine at the following state: Pressure 20 kPa, enthalpy 2512 kJ/kg,
velocity 100 m/s, and elevation 0 m. Heat is lost to the surroundings at
the rate of 0.29 kJ/s. If the rate of steam flow through the turbine is
0.42 kg/s, what is the power output of the turbine in kW?
(Ans. 112.51 kW)
Solution: w1  w2  0.42 kg / s

p1 = 1.2 MPa 1
dQ
t1 = 188°C
dt = – 0.29 kJ/s
h1 = 2785 kJ/kg
dW
 First Law Applied to Flow Process
By: S K Mondal Chapter 5
V1 = 33.3 m/s 1 =?
3m dt
Z1 = 3 m
2 2
p2 = 20 kPa
h2 = 2512 kJ/kg
V2 = 100 m/s
Z2 = 0
By S.F.E.E.
2
⎛ V g Z ⎞ dQ ⎛ V 2g Z ⎞
2
dW
w1 ⎜ h1    
⎟  w2 ⎜ h2   ⎟
1 1 2


⎝ 2000 1000 ⎠ dt ⎝ 2000 1000 ⎠ dt

or 33.3
2
9.81  3 ⎫ 100
2
⎫ dW
⎧
⎧

0.42 ⎨2785   1000 ⎬  0.29  0.42 ⎨2512   0⎬ 

2000 2000 ⎭ dt
⎩ ⎭ ⎩
dW
or 1169.655  1057.14 
dt
dW
or  112.515 kW
dt

Q5.3 A nozzle is a device for increasing the velocity of a steadily flowing

stream. At the inlet to a certain nozzle, the enthalpy of the fluid passing
is 3000 kJ/kg and the velocity is 60 m/s. At the discharge end, the
enthalpy is 2762 kJ/kg. The nozzle is horizontal and there is negligible
heat loss from it.
(a) Find the velocity at exists from the nozzle.
(b) If the inlet area is 0.1 m2 and the specific volume at inlet is 0.187
m3/kg, find the mass flow rate.
(c) If the specific volume at the nozzle exit is 0.498 m 3/kg, find the exit
area of the nozzle.

Solution: a (Ans. (a) 692.5 m/s, (b) 32.08 kg/s (c) 0.023
m2)
Find V2 i.e. Velocityat exit from S.F.E.E.
V dQ V
h  12  g Z 1   h  2 2  gZ 2  dW
1 2
2000 1000 dm 2000 1000 dm
Data for a 1 2
h1 = 3000 kJ/kg h2 = 2762 kJ/kg
V1 = 60 m/s

Data for b For data for c

3
A1= 0.1 m2 1 2 v2 = 0.498 m /kg
v1 = 0.187 m 3/kg
Here Z dQ
 Z and  0 and dW
1 2 0
dm dm
h1 V 2 V
2 2
 1
h 2
2000 2000
 First Law Applied to Flow Process
By: S K Mondal Chapter 5
V V
2 2

or  1h  h
2
2000 1

or V  V  2000  h  h
2 2

2 1 1 2

or V2 
V  2000 h 1 h
1
2
2 
 602  2000 3000  2762m / s

 692.532 m / s

b  Mass flow rate w 

A1V1
v1
0.1  60
 kg / s  32.1kg / s
0.187
 c Mass flow rate is same so

32.0855613  A  692.532
2

0.498
A2 8.023073 m
2
or

Q5.4 In oil cooler, oil flows steadily through a bundle of metal tubes
submerged in a steady stream of cooling water. Under steady flow
conditions, the oil enters at 90°C and leaves at 30°C, while the water
enters at 25°C and leaves at 70°C. The enthalpy of oil at t°C is given by
h = 1.68 t + 10.5 × 10-4 t2 kJ/kg
What is the cooling water flow required for cooling 2.78 kg/s of oil?
(Ans. 1.47 kg/s)
Solution: wo (hoi  0  0)  wH O (hH O  0  0)  0 wo (ho,o  0  0)  wH O (hH O  0  0)  0
2 2 i 2 2 o

1 2
90°C 30°C
Oil
Water
25°C 70°C
1 2
 wo (hoi  ho,o ) = wH 0(hH O  hH O )
2 2 o2 i

hoi = 1.68 × 90 + 10.5 × 10–4 × 902 kJ/kg = 159.705 kJ/kg

ho,o = 1.68 × 30 + 10.5 × 10–4 × 362 kJ/kg = 51.395 kJ/kg

 WH o 2.78  108.36
2
= 4.187 (70  25)
kg/s
= 1.598815 kg/s = 1.6 kg/s

Q5.5 A thermoelectric generator consists of a series of semiconductor

elements (Figure) heated on one side and cooled on the other. Electric
current flow is produced as a result of energy transfer as heat. In a
 particular experiment the current was measured to be 0.5 amp and the
electrostatic potential at
(1) Was 0.8 volt above that at
(2) Energy transfer as heat to the hot side of the generator was taking
place at a rate of 5.5 watts. Determine the rate of energy transfer as
heat from the cold side and the energy conversion efficiency.

(Ans. Q2 = 5.1 watts,  = 0.073)

  
Solution: Q1 = E  Q2


or 5.5 = 0.5  0.8  Q2


or Q2 = 5.1 watt
5.5  5.1
=  100% = 7.273%
5.5

Q5.6 A turbo compressor delivers 2.33 m 3/s at 0.276 MPa, 43°C which is heated
at this pressure to 430°C and finally expanded in a turbine which
delivers 1860 kW. During the expansion, there is a heat transfer of 0.09
MJ/s to the surroundings. Calculate the turbine exhaust temperature if
changes in kinetic and potential energy are negligible.
(Ans. 157°C)
Solution:
t = 93°C V1 = 2.33 m3/s ; p1 = 0.276 MPa ; t = 930°C
C.C.
1 1
dW
= 1860 kW
dt

2 2
dQ
= – 0.09 × 1000 kJ/s = – 90 kW
dt
dQ dW
wh =wh
1 1 2 2
dt dt
 w1 (h1 – h2) = dW
 dt
dQ dt
or = 1860 – (–90) = 1950 kW
 p1 V1 = m1R T1
p1V1 3
 m1 = RT = 276 kPa × 2.33 m / s = 7.091 kg/s


1 0.287 kJ/ kg 
316K
Or h1 – h2 = 275
 Cp (t1 – t2) = 275
275
or t1 – t2 = 273.60
1.005
 t2 = 430 – 273.60
= 156.36º C

Q5.7 A reciprocating air compressor takes in 2 m 3/min at 0.11 MPa, 20°C

which it delivers at 1.5 MPa, 111°C to an aftercooler where the air is
cooled at constant pressure to 25°C. The power absorbed by the
compressor is 4.15 kW. Determine the heat transfer in
(a) The compressor
(b) The cooler
State your assumptions.
(Ans. – 0.17 kJ/s, – 3.76 kJ/s)
Solution:
dQ dW
(a)  w (h  0  0)  =wh
1 1 1 2
dt dt
⎛ dQ ⎞
 0.0436 (111.555 – 20.1) – 4.15 = ⎜ ⎟
⎝ dt ⎠
dQ
= –0.1622 kW i.e. 1622 kW loss by
compressor dt
dW
= – 4.15 kW
dt

 3
1 2 3
V1 = 2 m /min
p1 = 0.11 MPa
t1 = 20°C Cooles
t2 = 111°C
p2 = 1.5MPa
1 2 3

n n
Compressor work = (p V - p V ) = (mRT  mRT )
n-1 2 2 1 1
2 1
n1

dQ 1.4
 =  0.0436  0.287(111  20) kW
dt
0.4
= 3.9854 kW = 3.9854 – 4.15 = –0.165 kW
dQ
(b)
dt For cooler
 
= m cP(t2  t1 )
= 0.0436 × 1.005 × (111 – 25) kJ/s
= 3.768348 kW to surroundings

Q5.8 In water cooling tower air enters at a height of 1 m above the ground
level and leaves at a height of 7 m. The inlet and outlet velocities are 20
m/s and 30 m/s respectively. Water enters at a height of 8 m and leaves
at a height of 0.8 m. The velocity of water at entry and exit are 3 m/s
and 1 m/s respectively. Water temperatures are 80°C and 50°C at the
entry and exit respectively. Air temperatures are 30°C and 70°C at the
entry and exit respectively. The cooling tower is well insulated and a
fan of 2.25 kW drives the air through the cooler. Find the amount of
air per second required for 1 kg/s of water flow. The values of cp of air
and water are
1.005 and 4.187 kJ/kg K respectively.
(Ans. 3.16 kg/s)
Solution: Let air required is 1 kg/s
a
w
⎛ Va2 a
gZ ⎞ ⎛ dQ gZ ⎞
w

w2
 w ⎜h   V
⎟  w ⎜h   ⎟
a a 1 1 w
1 w 1

1 1 2000 1000 ⎠ 1 1 2000 1000 ⎠ dt

⎝ ⎝
⎛ V a2
gZ ⎞
a
⎛ g Z ⎞ dW
w

w2
= wa ⎜ h a  2  V2 
⎟  w ⎜h  ⎟
2 w w 2

2 2 2000 1000 ⎠ 2 2 2000 1000 ⎠ dt

⎝ ⎝
dQ
 w = w = w (say) and
a a w w
= 0 w = w = 1 kg/s
1 2 1 2
dt

a w w
V2 = 30 m/s V1 = 3 m/s, t 1= 80°C
ta2 = 70°C

7m 8m

a w w
V1 = 20 m/s V2 = 1 m/s, t 2= 50°C
a
t 1 = 30°C 1m
w w
0.8 m w1 = w2 = 1 kg/s
cap = 1.005 kJ/kg – K cwp = 4.187 kJ/kg – K
dW
= – 2.25 kW
dt

⎧ a V 2  V2 2
a a
g ⎫
 ⎨(h  h )  1
a
 (Z  Z )⎬
a a
 ⎩
1 2 2000 1000 1 2
⎭
⎧ w V 2 2  V1 2
w w
g ⎫ dW
= ⎨(h  h )   (Z  Z )⎬ 
w w w


⎩
2 1 2000 1000 1 2
⎭ dt
⎧
Or 20  30
2 2
9.81 ⎫
w ⎨1.005  (30  70) 2000  (1  7)⎬
 1000
⎩ ⎭
 1 3 9.81
= 4.187 (50  80)  2 2  (0.8  8)  2.25
2000 1000
or – w × 40.509 = –127.9346
127.9346
 w = 40.509 = 3.1582 kg/s  3.16 kg/s

Q5.9 Air at 101.325 kPa, 20°C is taken into a gas turbine power plant at a
velocity of 140 m/s through an opening of 0.15 m 2 cross-sectional area.
The air is compressed heated, expanded through a turbine, and
exhausted at 0.18 MPa, 150°C through an opening of 0.10 m 2 cross-
sectional area. The power output is 375 kW. Calculate the net amount
of heat added to the air in kJ/kg. Assume that air obeys the law
pv = 0.287 (t + 273)
Where p is the pressure in kPa, v is the specific volume in m3/kg, and t
is the temperature in °C. Take cp = 1.005 kJ/kg K.
(Ans. 150.23 kJ/kg)

Solution: Volume flow rate at inlet (V)1 = V1A1 m3/s = 21
m3/s


Inlet mass flow rate ( w1 ) = p1 V1 101.325  = 25.304 kg/s

R T1 =21

0.287  293
w2 RT2
Volume flow rate at outlet = (V2 ) =
p2

25.304  0.287  = 17 m3/s

=
423
180

1 dW
dt = 375 kW
CC

p1 = 101.325 kPa
1 2 2 p2 = 0.18MPa = 180 kPa
t1 = 20°C t2 = 150°C
V1 = 140 m/s A2 = 0.1 m2
A1 = 0.15 m2
V2 = 171 m/s

V2
Velocity at outlet = 17
= 0.1 = 170.66 m/s
A2
 Using 2S.F.E.E.
⎛ V ⎞ dQ ⎛ V
2
⎞ dW
w1 ⎜ h1   1
0⎟ 
= w2 ⎜ h 2   0 ⎟ 
2


⎝ 2000 ⎠ dt ⎝ 2000 ⎠ dt
w1  w2  w = 25.304 kg/s
V  V1 ⎫ dW
2 2
dQ ⎧
 = w ⎨(h2  h1 )  2

⎬
dt ⎩ 2000 ⎭ dt
 V2  V 1 ⎫ dW
2 2
⎧
= w ⎨Cp(t2  t1 )  ⎬
⎩ 2000 ⎭ dt
 171  140 ⎫
2 2
⎧
=
25.304 ⎨1.005 (150  20) ⎬  375 kW

⎩ ⎭
= 3802.76 kW
dQ
dQ d t w  3802.76  150.28 kJ kg
dm 25.304

Q5.10 A gas flows steadily through a rotary compressor. The gas enters the
compressor at a temperature of 16°C, a pressure of 100 kPa, and an
enthalpy of 391.2 kJ/kg. The gas leaves the compressor at a temperature
of 245°C, a pressure of 0.6 MPa, and an enthalpy of 534.5 kJ/kg. There is
no heat transfer to or from the gas as it flows through the compressor.
(a) Evaluate the external work done per unit mass of gas assuming the
gas velocities at entry and exit to be negligible.
(b) Evaluate the external work done per unit mass of gas when the gas
velocity at entry is 80 m/s and that at exit is 160 m/s.
(Ans. 143.3 kJ/kg, 152.9 kJ/kg)
2 2
V gZ dQ V gZ dW
Solution: (a) h1 1 1  = h2 2 2 


2000 1000 dm 2000 1000 dm

For V1 and V2 negligible Z1  Z2 so
and
dW
= h1 – h2 = (391.2 – 5345) kJ/kg
dm
= –143.3 kJ/kg i.e. work have to give

t1 = 16°C 1 2 t2 = 245°C
p1 = 100 kPa
h1 = 391.2 kJ/kg p2 = 0.6 mPa = 600 kPa
h2 = 534.5 kJ/kg
1
2
dQ
 =0
dt

(b) V1 = 80 m/s; V2 = 160 m/s

V V
2 2
dW
So = (h1  h2 )  1 2

dm 2000
80  160
= –143.3 + 2 2 kJ/kg = (–143.3 – 9.6) kJ/kg
2000
= –152.9 kJ/kg i.e. work have to give

Q5.11 The steam supply to an engine comprises two streams which mix
before entering the engine. One stream is supplied at the rate of 0.01
kg/s with an enthalpy of 2952 kJ/kg and a velocity of 20 m/s. The other
stream is supplied at the rate of 0.1 kg/s with an enthalpy of 2569 kJ/kg
and a velocity of 120 m/s. At the exit from the engine the fluid leaves
as two
 streams, one of water at the rate of 0.001 kg/s with an enthalpy of 420
kJ/kg and the other of steam; the fluid velocities at the exit are
negligible. The engine develops a shaft power of 25 kW. The heat
transfer is negligible. Evaluate the enthalpy of the second exit stream.
(Ans. 2402 kJ/kg)
Solution: dQ
 0
dt
By mass balance

dW
= 25 kW
dt
w11 = 0.01 kg/s
h11 = 2952 kJ/kg
V11 = 20 m/s h22 = ?
w22 = ?
V22 = 0

w12 = 0.1 kg/s w21 = 0.001 kg/s

h12 = 2569 kJ/kg h21 = 420 kJ/kg
V12 = 120 m/s V21 = 0

W11 + W12 = W21 + W22

 W22 =⎛ 0.01 +V0.1⎞– 0.001⎛ kg/s = 0.109 kg/s
W h  2  W h  V ⎞ dQ
2

 
11 ⎜ 11 11 12 ⎜ 12
⎟ 12
⎟
⎝ 2000 ⎠ ⎝ 2000 ⎠ dt
= W (h ) + W  h  dW
21 21 22 22
2
dt
⎛ 20 ⎞ ⎛ 2
120 ⎞

0.01⎜⎝ 2952  ⎟⎠ 0.1 ⎜⎝2569  ⎟ ⎠ 0
2000 2000
= 0.001 × 420 + 0.109 × h22 + 25
or 29.522 + 257.62 = 0.42 + 0.109 × h22 + 25
or 286.722 = 0.109 × h22 + 25
or h22 = 2401.2 kJ/kg

Q5.12 The stream of air and gasoline vapour, in the ratio of 14: 1 by mass,
enters a gasoline engine at a temperature of 30°C and leaves as
combustion products at a temperature of 790°C. The engine has a
specific fuel consumption of 0.3 kg/kWh. The net heat transfer rate
from the fuel-air stream to the jacket cooling water and to the
surroundings is 35 kW. The shaft power delivered by the engine is 26
kW. Compute the increase in the specific enthalpy of the fuel air
stream, assuming the changes in kinetic energy and in elevation to be
negligible.
(Ans. – 1877 kJ/kg mixture)
Solution: In 1 hr. this m/c will produce 26 kWh for that we need fuel
 = 0.3 × 26 = 7.8 kg fuel/hr.
 Mass flow rate of fuel vapor and air mixture
 First Law Applied to Flow Process
By: S K Mondal Chapter 5
dW
= 26 kW
dt

wg=x kg/s

t1=30 C
o
w1=15 x kg/s
t2=790oC
wa=14 x kg/s

dQ
= – 35 kW
dt
15  7.8
w1= kg/s = 0.0325 kg/s
3600

Applying S.F.E.E.
dQ dW
wh =wh
1 1 1 2
dt dt
or w1 (h2 – h1) dQ
= dWdt
dt
dQ dW

 h 2 – h1 = dt dt
w1
35  26
= 0.0325 = –1877 kJ/kg of mixture.
Q5.13 An air turbine forms part of an aircraft refrigerating plant. Air at a
pressure of 295 kPa and a temperature of 58°C flows steadily into the
turbine with a velocity of 45 m/s. The air leaves the turbine at a
pressure of 115 kPa, a temperature of 2°C, and a velocity of 150 m/s.
The shaft work delivered by the turbine is 54 kJ/kg of air. Neglecting
changes in elevation, determine the magnitude and sign of the heat
transfer per unit mass of air flowing. For air, take cp = 1.005 kJ/kg K
and the enthalpy h = cp t.
(Ans. + 7.96 kJ/kg)
Solution:
2 2
V dQ 2V dW dW
h1 1  = h2  = 54 kJ/kg
2000 dm 2000 dm dm

dQ
V2  V1 p1 = 295 kPa
2 2
or dW t1 = 58°C 1
= (h2  h1 )   2 p = 115 kPa
dm 2000 dm V1 = 45 m/s 2
150  45 t2 = 2°C z 1 = z2
=(2.01  58.29)  2 2  54 kJ/kg
2000 h1 = CPt V2 = 150 m/s
1 2 h2 = 2.01
= –56.28 + 10.2375 + 54 kJ/kg = 1.005 × 58
= 7.9575 kJ/kg (have to give to the kJ/kg
= 58.29 kJ/kg
system)

Q5.14 In a turbo machine handling an incompressible fluid with a density of

1000 kg/m3 the conditions of the fluid at the rotor entry and exit are as
given below:
Inlet Exit
 First Law Applied to Flow Process
By: S K Mondal Chapter 5
Pressure 1.15 MPa 0.05 MPa
Velocity 30 mPa/sge 51 of 15.5 m/s

265
 Height above datum 10 m 2m
If the volume flow rate of the fluid is 40 m 3/s, estimate the net energy
transfer from the fluid as work.
(Ans. 60.3 MW)
Solution:
By S.F.E.E.
⎛p V
2
⎞ dQ ⎛ p2 2 V2 ⎞ dW
w ⎜ 1  1  g Z1 ⎟  = w ⎜   g Z2 ⎟ 


⎝ 2 ⎠ dt ⎝ 2 ⎠ dt
1
p1 = 1.15 MPa
= 1150 kPa
V1 = 30 m/s
1 z1 = 10 m

p2 = 0.05MPa
= 50 kPa 2 2
V2 = 15.5 m/s
datum
z2 = 2 m
Flow rate = 40 m3/s  40 × 1000 kg/s = w (say)
⎛ 1150
 40000 
9.81  10 ⎞
2
30
⎜  ⎟ 0
1000 2000 1000
⎝ ⎠

dW ⎧ p1  p2 V1 2  V 22 ⎫
Or = 40000 ⎨   g(Z1  Z2 )⎬
dt ⎩  2 ⎭
⎧1150  50 302  15.52 9.81  (10  2) ⎫
= 40000 ⎨   ⎬kW
1000 2000 1000
⎩ ⎭

= 60.3342 MW

Q5.15 A room for four persons has two fans, each consuming 0.18 kW power,
and three 100 W lamps. Ventilation air at the rate of 80 kg/h enters with
an enthalpy of 84 kJ/kg and leaves with an enthalpy of 59 kJ/kg. If each
person puts out heat at the rate of 630 kJ/h determine the rate at which
heat is to be removed by a room cooler, so that a steady state is
maintained in the room.
(Ans. 1.92 kW)
dQperson =  4  630 kJ/s = 0.7 kW
Solution:
dt 3600

dQelectic =  0.18  2  3 100
= 0.66 kW
dt kW
dQ 1000
 dt
= 1.36 kW
Page 52 of 265
 Electric Man
w1 = 80 kg/hr
1 s
= kg/ w2 1 kg/s
45 = 45
h1 = 84 kJ/kg
h2 = 59 kJ/kg

For steady state

dQ dW
wh =wh
1 1 2 2
dt dt
dW = w h  w h  dQ 1  (84  59)  1.36 kW
 1 1 2 2 =
dt dt 45
= 1.9156 kW

Q5.16 Air flows steadily at the rate of 0.4 kg/s through an air compressor,
entering at 6 m/s with a pressure of 1 bar and a specific volume of 0.85
m3/kg, and leaving at 4.5 m/s with a pressure of 6.9 bar and a specific
volume of 0.16 m3/kg. The internal energy of the air leaving is 88 kJ/kg
greater than that of the air entering. Cooling water in a jacket
surrounding the cylinder absorbs heat from the air at the rate of 59 W.
Calculate the power required to drive the compressor and the inlet and
outlet cross-sectional areas.
(Ans. 45.4 kW, 0.057 m2, 0.0142 m2)

Solution: By S.F.E.E.
⎛ V
2
2
 ⎞ dQ ⎛  V ⎞ dW
w1 ⎜ u 1  p 1 v 1  1
0⎟ = w2 ⎜ u 2  p 2 v 2   0 ⎟ 

2

⎝ 2000 ⎠ dt ⎝ 2000 ⎠ dt
dW ⎡ V
2
 V
2
⎤ dQ
Or = ⎢(u1  u2 )  (p1v1 - p2v2 )  1

2
⎥
dt ⎣ 2000 ⎦ dt
= 0.4 [– 88 + 85 – 110.4 + 0.0076] – 0.059
= – 45.357 – 0.059
= – 45.416 kW [have to give to compressor]
dQ
= – 59 W
dt

w1 = 0.4 kg/s 1 2
V1 = 6 m/s w2 = 0.4 kg/s = W1
p1 = 1 bar =3100 kPa V2 = 4.5 m/s
v1 = 0.85 m /kg p2 = 6.9 bar3= 690 kPa
u1 = ? 12 v2 = 0.16 m /kg
u2 = u1 + 88 kJ/kg

w1 = A V w1 v1 0.4  0.85
1
 A1 = = 0.0567 m2
1
V1 = 6
v1

Page 53 of 265
w2 = A2V2 w2 v2 0.4  0.16 = 0.01422 m2
 A2 =
v2 V2 = 4.5

Page 54 of 265
Page 54 of 265
 Second Law of Thermodynamics
By: S K Mondal Chapter 6

6. Second Law of Thermodynamics

Some Important Notes
Regarding Heat Transfer and Work Transfer
 Heat transfer and work transfer are the energy interactions.
 Both heat transfer and work transfer are boundary phenomena.
 It is wrong to say 'total heat' or 'heat content' of a closed system, because heat or
work is not a property of the system.
 Both heat and work are path functions and inexact differentials.
 Work is said to be a high grade energy and heat is low grade energy.
 HEAT and WORK are NOT properties because they depend on the path and end states.
 HEAT and WORK are not properties because their net change in a cycle is not zero.
 Clausius' Theorem: The cyclic integral of d Q/T for a reversible cycle is equal to zero.

or ○ R
dQ
0
T
 The more effective way to increase the cycle efficiency is to decrease T2.
 Comparison of heat engine, heat pump and refrigerating machine

QC T
 C
QH TH
hence,  Q T
 1  C 1  C
Carnot,HE
QH TH
 Second Law of Thermodynamics
By: S K Mondal Chapter 6
COP QH QH TH
  
Carnot,HP W Q Q TT
cycle H C H C

COP
QC QC T
Carnot,R 
W Q  Q T  T C
cycle H C H C

Questions with Solution P. K.

Nag
Q6.1 An inventor claims to have developed
an engine that takes in 105 MJ at a
temperature of 400 K, rejects 42 MJ at
a temperature of 200 K, and delivers 15
kWh of mechanical work. Would you
advise investing money to put this
engine in the market?
(Ans. No)
Solution: Maximum thermal efficiency of his engine possible
max
= 1  = 50%
200
4
0
0
 That engine and deliver output =  × input

= 0.5 × 105 MJ
= 52.5 MJ = 14.58
kWh
As he claims that his engine can
deliver more work than ideally
possible so I would not advise to
investing money.

Q6.2 If a refrigerator is used for heating

purposes in winter so that the
atmosphere becomes the cold body
and the room to be heated becomes
the hot body, how much heat would
be available for heating for each kW
input to the driving motor? The COP
of the refrigerator is 5, and the
electromechanical efficiency of the
motor is 90%. How does this compare
with resistance heating?
ut
desired
Solution:
eff
ect
inp
 Second Law of Thermodynamics
By: S K Mondal Chapter 6
(Ans. 5  (COP) H.P. = 6
(C ciency 90% so
O = 0.1852 H
P) Electrical = 18.52% of Heat (direct heating)
ref. energy require
= H=
100 = 5.3995 kW
(E) =
(C 18.
0 52
O.
P) kW
9 H 0.9  6 of
H.P
wor
– k
1
o Q6.3 Using an engine of 30% thermal
r efficiency to drive a refrigerator having
a COP of 5, what is the heat input into
6 the engine for each MJ removed from
the cold body by the refrigerator?
Page 56 of 265 (Ans. 666.67
= kJ)

H
W
S
o

i
n
p
u
t
(
W
)
=

H
6
B
u
t
m
o
t
o
r
e
f
f
i
 If this system is used as a heat pump, how many MJ of heat would be
available for heating for each MJ of heat input to the engine?
(Ans. 1.8 MJ)
Solution: COP of the Ref. is 5
So for each MJ removed from the cold body we need work

1MJ
= 5 = 200 kJ
For 200 kJ work output of heat engine hair  = 30%
200 kJ
We have to supply heat = = 666.67 kJ
0.3
Now
COP of H.P. = COP of Ref. + 1
=5+1=6
Heat input to the H.E. = 1 MJ
 Work output (W) = 1 × 0.3 MJ = 300
kJ That will be the input to H.P.
 COP Q
= W1
H.P

 Q1 = (COP) H.P. × W = 6 × 300 kJ = 1.8 MJ

Q6.4 An electric storage battery which can exchange heat only with a
constant temperature atmosphere goes through a complete cycle of two
processes. In process 1–2, 2.8 kWh of electrical work flow into the battery
while 732 kJ of heat flow out to the atmosphere. During process 2–1, 2.4
kWh of work flow out of the battery.
(a) Find the heat transfer in process 2–1.
(b) If the process 1–2 has occurred as above, does the first law or the
second law limit the maximum possible work of process 2–1? What
is the maximum possible work?
(c) If the maximum possible work were obtained in process 2–1, what
will be the heat transfer in the process?
(Ans. (a) – 708 kJ (b) Second law, W2–1 = 9348 kJ (c) Q2–1 = 0)

Solution: From the first Law of thermodynamics

(a) For process 1–2
Q1–2 = E2 – E1 + W1–2 –W –Q
–732 = (E2 – E1) – 10080
2.8 kWh  2.8  3600 kJ 
 E2 – E1 = 9348 kJ

For process 2–1

Q21  E – E  W +W
1 2 21
= –9348 + 8640
= –708 kJ i.e. Heat flow out to the atmosphere.

(b) Yes Second Law limits the maximum possible work. As Electric energy
stored in a battery is High grade energy so it can be completely converted to
the work. Then,
W = 9348 kJ
Page 57 of 265
 (c) Q21 = –9348 + 9348 = 0 kJ

Q6.5 A household refrigerator is maintained at a temperature of 2°C. Every

time the door is opened, warm material is placed inside, introducing an
average of 420 kJ, but making only a small change in the temperature of
the refrigerator. The door is opened 20 times a day, and the refrigerator
operates at 15% of the ideal COP. The cost of work is Rs. 2.50 per kWh.
What is the monthly bill for this refrigerator? The atmosphere is at 30°C.
(Ans. Rs. 118.80)
275
Solution: Ideal COP of Ref. = 275 = 9.82143
30  2 = 28
Actual COP = 0.15 × COP ideal = 1.4732 303 K
Heat to be removed in a day
(Q2) = 420 × 20 kJ Q1 = Q2 + W
= 8400 kJ W
R
 Work required = 5701.873 kJ/day Q2
= 1.58385 kWh/day 275 K

Electric bill per month = 1.58385 × 0.32 × 30 Rupees

= Rs. 15.20

Q6.6 A heat pump working on the Carnot cycle takes in heat from a
reservoir at 5°C and delivers heat to a reservoir at 60°C. The heat
pump is driven by a reversible heat engine which takes in heat from a
reservoir at 840°C and rejects heat to a reservoir at 60°C. The
reversible heat engine also drives a machine that absorbs 30 kW. If the
heat pump extracts 17 kJ/s from the 5°C reservoir, determine
(a) The rate of heat supply from the 840°C source
(b) The rate of heat rejection to the 60°C sink.
(Ans. (a) 47.61 kW; (b) 34.61 kW)
Solution:
COP of H.P. 278 K 1113 K
333 = 6.05454 17 kW H.P. Q1 H.E.
= 333 
Q3
278 WHP
W
Q3 = WH.P. + 17
 Q2
WH.P.  17 30 kW
= 6.05454
WH.P. 333 K
17
 WH.P. = 5.05454

17
 WH.P. =
5.05454 = 3.36 kW
 Work output of the Heat engine
WH.E. = 30 + 3.36 = 33.36 kW
 of the H.E. = 1  333
1113 0.7
=
(a) W
= 0.7
Q1
W
 Q1 =
0.7 = 47.61 kW

(b) Rate of heat rejection to the 333 K

(i) From H.E. = Q1 – W = 47.61 – 33.36 = 14.25
kW
(ii) For H.P. = 17 + 3.36 = 20.36 kW
 Total = 34.61 kW

Q6.7 A refrigeration plant for a food store operates as a reversed Carnot

heat engine cycle. The store is to be maintained at a temperature of –
5°C and the heat transfer from the store to the cycle is at the rate of 5
kW. If heat is transferred from the cycle to the atmosphere at a
temperature of 25°C, calculate the power required to drive the plant.

Solution: COP (Ans. 0.56 kW)

268
R = 298 – 268 = 8.933

298 K
5 kW Q2 = (5 +W)kW
=
W
W
R
5
 W= kW = 0.56 kW Q1 = 5 kW
8.933
268 K

Q6.8 A heat engine is used to drive a heat pump. The heat transfers from the
heat engine and from the heat pump are used to heat the water
circulating through the radiators of a building. The efficiency of the
heat engine is 27% and the COP of the heat pump is 4. Evaluate the ratio
of the heat transfer to the circulating water to the heat transfer to the
heat engine.
(Ans. 1.81)
Solution: For H.E.

Q2
1
Q1 = 0.27
 Second Law of Thermodynamics
By: S K Mondal Chapter 6
Q2
= 0.73 T1
Q1
Q1
Q2 = 0.73 Q1
H.E.W
Q2
W = Q1 – Q2 = 0.27 Q1

For H.P. T2
Q4
=4 Q4
W
H.P.W Q3
 Q4 = 4W = 1.08 Q1
T3
 Q2 + Q4 = (0.73 + 1.08) Q1 = 1.81 Q1
Heat transfer to the circulating water

Heat for to the Heat Engine

1.81 Q1
= = 1.81
Q1
Q6.9 If 20 kJ are added to a Carnot cycle at a temperature of 100°C and 14.6
kJ are rejected at 0°C, determine the location of absolute zero on the
Celsius scale.
(Ans. – 270.37°C)
Q1 (t )
Solution: =
1
Let  (t) = at + b
Q2 (t2 )
Q1 at1 + b
 Q2 = at2 + b

20
or a
a  100  b
14.6 = a  0  b = b 100  1
a
 = 3.6986 × 10–3
b

For absolute zero, Q2 = 0

Q1
 0 a ×100 + b
=
a× t + b
or a×t+b=0
or t b 1
= –270.37º C
= a =
3.6986 
3
10
Q6.10 Two reversible heat engines A and B are arranged in series, A rejecting
heat directly to B. Engine A receives 200 kJ at a temperature of 421°C
from a hot source, while engine B is in communication with a cold sink
at a temperature of 4.4°C. If the work output of A is twice that of B, find
(a) The intermediate temperature between A and B
Page 60 of 265
(b) The efficiency of each engine
(c) The heat rejected to the cold sink
(Ans. 143.4°C, 40% and 33.5%, 80 kJ)

Page 61 of 265
 Second Law of Thermodynamics
By: S K Mondal Chapter 6
Q1 Q2 Q1  Q2 Q3 Q2  Q3 T
Solution: = 694
694 = T  = 277.4 =  277.4
T Hence Q1 –694
Q2 = K 2 W2
Q2 –QQ1 3HE
= W2
1 Q2
= T  277.4Q2 HE
2 Q3
694  T 277.4 K

or 2T – 277.4 × 2 = 694 – T
or T = 416.27 K = 143.27º C
W2
(b) 1 = 40%
277.4
2 = 1 416.27 = 33.36%
(c) = 119.96 kJ ;
=
416.27

 200
kJ
694
277.4
Q1 =416.27  119.96 = 79.94 kJ

Q6.11 A heat engine operates

between the maximum and
minimum temperatures of
671°C and 60°C
respectively, with an
efficiency of 50% of the
appropriate Carnot
efficiency. It drives a heat
pump which uses river
water at 4.4°C to heat a
block of flats in which the
temperature is to be
maintained at 21.1°C.
Assuming that a
temperature difference of
11.1°C exists between the
working fluid and the river
water, on the one hand, and
the required room
temperature on the other,
and assuming the heat
pump to operate on the
reversed Carnot cycle, but
with a COP of 50% of the
 Second Law of Thermodynamics
By: S K Mondal Chapter 6
i i a 0.6 4)
( 9input) i ic pressure and at 0°C
d t t ns.
kJ/kJ
47 = n from water. The mean
0.7=
heat
e i 25 0.787 p temperature of the cooling
a h n 7 u water circulating through
Actual
l e g (kJ/kJ t the condenser of the
a heat
0.323623 t refrigerating machine is
C t t = 1 o 18°C. Evaluate the
O h Q minimum electrical work
P o e 1 in kWh required to
, u r Q produce 1 tonne of ice (The
i
 t 1 m enthalpy of fusion of ice at
Ideal COP c
f p o e atmospheric pressure is
i u d = - 333.5 kJ/kg).
n t y = m (Ans. 6.11 kWh)
305.2
d n305 7.866 a Solution: = 15.2
f a.2 – k
t r m 266 i Maximum (COP) =
h o i .4 n 291  273
e m c Actual COP g 18°C
a = 3.923 =  = 15.2 291 K
h t l W p
e h l if Ql Q Q 2
Wmin WR
a e y 1 kJa
t Q1 273 K
 n W 0°C
h m = 1 t =
min

o 3 3.9 Q 1000  333.5

3
i e = kJ
W 23 15.2
n a r p 15.2
.
p t e r
9
u o
2
t p w d = 21.989 MJ = 6.108 kWh
u a 3 u
t m s c
= 0.2549 Q6.13 A reversible engine works
o p t e heat
kJ/kJ between three thermal
. e inputs to
t f reservoirs, A, B and C. The
block engine absorbs an equal
h W u W = Q1 i
e h l – amount of heat from the
0.676 c
y ? 4 Q 1 thermal reservoirs A and B
= e
e  1 kept at temperatures TA and
n i 2 TB respectively, and rejects
Sol= 1 a
g 76
s utio heat to the thermal
1 0.2549
t
3 reservoir C kept at
i n:7
n d 1 Q1 temperature T C . The
a
e i 3 3
= efficiency of the engine is 
Car
Q
 t
r not 3 bl times the efficiency of the
0.2 m
p 6 944
e effi oc 549 reversible engine, which
0 o
e c cien k. (1 works between the two
 s
r t 2
cy reservoirs A and C. prove
7 0. p that
( 6 h
u 3
h =1 7 e T
n e  6 r A
 Second Law of Thermodynamics
By: S K Mondal Chapter 6
Solution:  of H.E. ⎛between
T ⎞ A and C
η = 1 C A TA B TB
A ⎜ ⎟ Q1 Q1
T
⎝ A⎠
⎛ T ⎞ H.E. H.E.
 of our engine =  1  C
⎜ ⎟
T
⎝ A⎠
Q1 Q
Here Q =  T = Q = 1 T
2 C 3 C
TA TB
Q2 Q3
 Total Heat rejection
⎛ 1 1⎞
(Q2 + Q3) = Q T  TC
1 C⎜
T⎟
C
T
⎝ A B⎠

Total Heat input = 2Q1

⎡ QT ⎜⎛ 1  1 ⎟⎞ ⎥⎤
⎢ 1 c
T T
 of engine =
⎢1 ⎝ A B⎠ ⎥

⎢⎣ 2Q1 ⎥⎦
 TC T T
  =1 C C

2 2
TA TB
TA
Multiply both side by TA and divide by TC
T TA 1 1 TA
or  A   
TC = TC 2 2 TB
TA T
or = (2  1)  2(1  ) A Proved
TB TC

Q6.14 A reversible engine operates between temperatures T 1 and T (T1 > T).
The energy rejected from this engine is received by a second reversible
engine at the same temperature T. The second engine rejects energy at
temperature T2 (T2 < T).
Show that:
(a) Temperature T is the arithmetic mean of temperatures T 1 and T2 if
the engines produce the same amount of work output
(b) Temperature T is the geometric mean of temperatures T 1 and T2 if
the engines have the same cycle efficiencies.

Solution: (a) If they produce same Amount and work

Then W1 = W2
or 1Q1  2Q2
⎛ T ⎞ ⎛ T1 ⎞ ⎛ T2 ⎞
or 1  Q = ⎜1  ⎟Q
⎜ ⎜ 2
⎝ T1 ⎠ ⎝ T ⎠ ⎝ T⎠ 2
⎟⎟ Q
We know that 1 Q2
T1 = T

or Q1 = T
1
Q
T 2
 Second Law of Thermodynamics
By: S K Mondal Chapter 6
T1 T2
or 1=1 T1
T T
T1  T2 Q1
or =2
H.E.
T W1
Q2
or T T1  T2
= 2
i.e., Arithmetic mean and T1, T2 T
Q2 H.E.
(b) If their efficiency is same then Q3
T T W2
1 =1 2 T2
T1 T
or T T1T2
=
(as T is + ve so –ve sign neglected)
 T is Geometric mean of T1 and T2.

Q6.15 Two Carnot engines A and B are connected in series between two
thermal reservoirs maintained at 1000 K and 100 K respectively. Engine
A receives 1680 kJ of heat from the high-temperature reservoir and
rejects heat to the Carnot engine B. Engine B takes in heat rejected by
engine A and rejects heat to the low-temperature reservoir. If engines A
and B have equal thermal efficiencies, determine
(a) The heat rejected by engine B
(b) The temperature at which heat is rejected by engine, A
(c) The work done during the process by engines, A and B respectively.
If engines A and B deliver equal work, determine
(d) The amount of heat taken in by engine B
(e) The efficiencies of engines A and B
(Ans. (a) 168 kJ, (b) 316.2 K, (c) 1148.7, 363.3 kJ,
(d) 924 kJ, (e) 45%, 81.8%)
Solution: As their efficiency is same so
A  B

or 1  T 100
1000 = 1  T

(b) T =
1000  100 = 316.3K

Q2 = Q1  1680  316.3
1000 = 1000
T
= 531.26 kJ

Q2 531.26  100
(a) Q3 =
316.3  100 = 316.3
= 168 kJ as (a)
(c) WA = Q1 – Q2 = (1880 – 531.26) kJ
= 1148.74 kJ
WB = (531.26 – 168) kJ
Page 64 of 265
= 363.26 kJ

Page 65 of 265
 Second Law of Thermodynamics
By: S K Mondal Chapter 6
100 
(d) If the equal work then T = = 550 K
1000
 Q2 = Q
1
2 = 924 kJ
10 =
1680

00 550
T 1
0
0
0
(e) 5
 5
= 0.45
A
0
=
1 1
 0
0
0
= 0.8182
=1
100
B
550

Q6.16 A heat pump is to

be used to heat a
house in winter
and then reversed
to cool the house
in summer. The
interior
temperature is to
be maintained at
20°C. Heat
transfer through
the walls and roof
is estimated to be
0.525 kJ/s per
degree
temperature
difference
between the
inside and
outside.
(a) If the outside
temperature
in winter is
5°C, what is
the minimum
power
required to
drive the heat
 Second Law of Thermodynamics
By: S K Mondal Chapter 6
pump? = 0.525 (T – = 525(T – 293) W
(b) If the power output is 293) kW
the same as in part
(a), what is the
maximum outer = 293
(T  293)
temperature for
C
which the inside can
be maintained at O
20°C? P
( =
W, (b) 5
35.4°C) 2
5
Solution : (a) (
Estimated Heat rate 293 K T
= 20°C
 
0.5 2
25 9
× 3
(20 )
403
–
5) or
kJ/ = 15
(T
s=
7.8 –
75
29
kJ/
s 3)
29 =
3 40
COP = =  Q=
293 19. 7875 3
kJ/s
 53 W 
Wmin = 278 H.P.

29
Q 3
(CO 5°C
P)ma 525
x
or T = 308 K = 35º C
 Maximum outside
7.875 2
= 19.53 = 0.403 Temperature = 35ºC
7
 kW = 403 8
W Q6.17 Consider an
K engine in outer
W space which
i operates on the
n Carnot cycle. The
t only way in which
e heat can be
r transferred from
(b) Given W = 403 W the engine is by
 radiation.
T The rate
He rate (Q1 ) at which heat is
at radiated is
R

 Second Law of Thermodynamics
By: S K Mondal Chapter 6
proportional to the
fourth power of the
absolute temperature and
to the area of the
radiating surface. Show
that for a given power
output and a given T 1, the
area of the radiator will be
a minimum when
T2 3

T1 4
Solution: Heat have to radiate = Q2
 Q2 =  AT 2
4
T1
Q1
From engine side H.E.
Q1 Q2 T 2
Q2 W
T1 = T2 = T  T W
1 2

 Q2 = WT2
T1  T 2
WT2 =  AT4
 2
T T
1 2
W ⎧
or A = T2 ⎫ W⎧ 1 ⎫
=
2 ⎩ 1
4⎨ ⎬
2
 T⎭ T  T ⎨ 3 4⎬
 ⎩T T
1 2 T 2 ⎭

For minimum Area

A 
{T1 T2  T 2} = 0
3 4
=0 or
 T2 
T2
T1  3 T2  4 T2 = 0
2 3
or
or 3T1 = 4T2
T2 3
or = proved
T1 4

Q6.18 It takes 10 kW to keep the interior of a certain house at 20°C when the
outside temperature is 0°C. This heat flow is usually obtained directly
by burning gas or oil. Calculate the power required if the 10 kW heat
flow were supplied by operating a reversible engine with the house as
the upper reservoir and the outside surroundings as the lower
reservoir, so that the power were used only to perform work needed to
operate the engine.
(Ans. 0.683 kW)
Solution: COP of the H.P.

10 293 20°C
W = 293  273 203 K
10 kW
10  20 WH.P.
or W=
kW 293

= 683 W only.
273 K

Q6.19 Prove that the COP of a reversible refrigerator operating between two
given temperatures is the maximum.
Solution: Suppose A is any refrigerator and B is reversible refrigerator and also assume

(COP)A > (COP) B

and Q1A = Q1B = Q
 Second Law of Thermodynamics
By: S K Mondal Chapter 6
or Q1A Q1B T1

WA WB
Q Q Q2A Q2B
or
 WA WB
WA WB R1 R2
or WA < W B Q1A Q1B

T2
Then we reversed the
reversible refrigerator ‘B’ and
then work output of T1 > T2 and T1 and T2 fixed
refrigerator ‘B’ is WB and heat
rejection is Q1B = Q (same)

So we can directly use Q to

feed for refrigerator and T1
Reservoir ‘T2’ is eliminated
then also a net work output
(WB – WA) will be available. WA WB
But it violates the Kelvin- R H.E.
Plank statement i.e. violates
Second Law of thermodynamic Q1A Q1B
so our assumption is wrong.
So (COP) R  (COP) A T2

Q6.20 A house is to be maintained at a temperature of 20°C by means of a heat

pump pumping heat from the atmosphere. Heat losses through the walls
of the house are estimated at 0.65 kW per unit of temperature difference
between the inside of the house and the atmosphere.
(a) If the atmospheric temperature is – 10°C, what is the minimum
power required driving the pump?
(b) It is proposed to use the same heat pump to cool the house in
summer. For the same room temperature, the same heat loss rate,
and the same power input to the pump, what is the maximum
permissible atmospheric temperature?
(Ans. 2 kW, 50°C)
Solution: Same as 6.16

Q6.21 A solar-powered heat pump receives heat from a solar collector at Th,
rejects heat to the atmosphere at Ta, and pumps heat from a cold space
at Tc. The three heat transfer rates are Qh, Qa, and Qc respectively.
Derive an expression for the minimum ratio Qh/Qc, in terms of the three
temperatures.
If Th = 400 K, Ta = 300 K, Tc = 200 K, Qc = 12 kW, what is the minimum
Qh? If the collector captures 0.2 kW 1 m 2, what is the minimum collector
area required?
(Ans. 26.25 kW, 131.25 m2)
Qh
Solution: Woutput = (T  T )
h a
Th

Page 67 of 265
 Second Law of Thermodynamics
By: S K Mondal Chapter 6
Qc
Winput = (T  T )
a c
Tc
As they same

Q T (T - T ) Th
h h a c Qh H.E.
So = × W
Qc Tc(Th - Ta )
400 ⎧300  200 ⎫
Qh = 12   kW
⎨ ⎬
200 ⎩ 400  300
Ta Qa atm.

= 24 kW R
2.4 Qc
Required Area (A) = = 120 m2
0.2
Tc

Q6.22 A heat engine operating between two reservoirs at 1000 K and 300 K is
used to drive a heat pump which extracts heat from the reservoir at 300
K at a rate twice that at which the engine rejects heat to it. If the
efficiency of the engine is 40% of the maximum possible and the COP of
the heat pump is 50% of the maximum possible, what is the temperature
of the reservoir to which the heat pump rejects heat? What is the rate of
heat rejection from the heat pump if the rate of heat supply to the
engine is 50 kW?
(Ans. 326.5 K, 86 kW)
⎛ 300 ⎞
Solution: η = 0.4 1  = 0.28
actual ⎜ ⎟
1000
⎝ ⎠
 W = 0.28 Q1 1000 K TK
Q2 = Q1 – W = 0.72 Q1 Q3 H.P.
Q3 = 2 Q2 + W = 1.72 Q1 Q1 = 2Q2 +W
H.E.W
1.72 Q1
 (COP)actual =
0.28 Q1
T Q2 2Q2
=  (0.5)
T  300 300 K
or 6.143 T – 300 × 6.143 = T × 0.5
or T = 326.58 K
Q3 = 1.72 × 50 kW = 86 kW

Q6.23 A reversible power cycle is used to drive a reversible heat pump cycle.
The power cycle takes in Q1 heat units at T1 and rejects Q2 at T2. The
heat pump abstracts Q4 from the sink at T4 and discharges Q3 at T3.
Develop an expression for the ratio Q4/Q1 in terms of the four
temperatures.
⎛ Q4 T4 (T1  T2 ) ⎞
⎜Ans. = ⎟
Q T (T  T )
Page 68 of 265
 ⎝ 1 1 3 4 ⎠
Solution: For H.E.

Page 69 of 265
 Second Law of Thermodynamics
By: S K Mondal Chapter 6
Q1
Work output (W) = (T  T ) T1 T3
1 2
T1
For H.P. Q1 Q3

Work input (W) = Q4

(T  T )
3 4 H.E. W H.P.
T4
Q1 Q4 Q2 Q4
 (T  T ) = (T  T ) T3 T4
1 2 3 4
T1 T4

Q4  T4 ⎧  T2 ⎫
or
T1 ⎬
Q1 T ⎨ T  T
This is the expression.

Q6.24 Prove that the following propositions are logically equivalent:

(a) A PMM2 is Impossible
(b) A weight sliding at constant velocity down a frictional inclined
plane executes an irreversible process.

Solution: Applying First Law of

Thermodynamics Q12 = E2 – E1 + W1.2

or 0 = E2 – E1 – mgh
H
or E1 – E2 = mgh

Page 69 of 265
 Entropy
By: S K Mondal Chapter 7

7. Entropy
Some Important Notes
1. Clausius theorem: ⎛ dQ ⎞
=0
° ⎜ T ⎟
⎝ ⎠rev.
f
dQ
2. Sf – Si =  = (ΔS) irrev. Path
T
rev.

Integration can be performed only on a reversible path.

3. Clausius Inequality: dQ
° T 0

4. At the equilibrium state, the system is at the peak of the entropy hill. (Isolated)

5. TdS = dU + pdV

6. TdS = dH – Vdp

7. Famous relation S = K ln W

Where K = Boltzmann constant

W = thermodynamic probability.

8. General case of change of entropy of a Gas

⎧ p2
S –S = V2 ⎫
2 1m⎨cv ln  cp ln ⎬
⎩ p 1 V 1⎭

Initial condition of gas p1 , V1, T1, S1 and

Final condition of gas p2 , V2, T2, S2
 Questions with Solution P. K. Nag
Q7.1. On the basis of the first law fill in the blank spaces in the following
table of imaginary heat engine cycles. On the basis of the second law
classify each cycle as reversible, irreversible, or impossible.
Cycle Temperature Rate of Heat Flow Rate of Efficiency
work
Source Sink Supply Rejection Output
(a) 327°C 27°C 420 kJ/s 230 kJ/s …kW
(b) 1000°C 100°C …kJ/min 4.2 MJ/min … kW 65%
(c) 750 K 300 K …kJ/s …kJ/s 26 kW 65%
(d) 700 K 300 K 2500 …kcal/h 1 kW —
kcal/h
(Ans. (a) Irreversible, (b) Irreversible, (c) Reversible, (d) Impossible)

Solution:
Cycle Temperature Rate of Heat Flow Rate of Effici- Remark
work ency
Source Sink Supply Rejection max = 50%,
(a) 327ºC 27ºC 420 kJ/s 230 kJ/s 190kW 0.4523 irrev.possible

max=70.7%
(b) 1000ºC 100ºC 12000 4.2 kJ/m 7800 kW 65%
kJ/km
irrev.possible

(c) 750 K 300 K 43.33 kJ/s 17.33 kJ/s 26 kW 60% max= 60% rev.
possible

2500 1640 max=57%

(d) 700 K 300 K kcal/h kcal/h 1 kW 4.4% irrev.possible

Q7.2 The latent heat of fusion of water at 0°C is 335 kJ/kg. How much does
the entropy of 1 kg of ice change as it melts into water in each of the
following ways:
(a) Heat is supplied reversibly to a mixture of ice and water at 0°C.
(b) A mixture of ice and water at 0°C is stirred by a paddle wheel.
(Ans. 1.2271 kJ/K)
1  335
Solution : (a) (ΔS) system =  kJ/ K Ice + Water
273 Q
273 K
= 1.227 kJ/K

(b) (ΔS) system

 273

=  mc P
dT
T
=0
273

Q7.3 Two kg of water at 80°C are mixed adiabatically with 3 kg of water at

30°C in a constant pressure process of 1 atmosphere. Find the increase
in the entropy of the total mass of water due to the mixing process (cp of
water = 4.187 kJ/kg K).
(Ans. 0.0576 kJ/K)
Solution: If final temperature of mixing is Tf then
2 × cP (353 – Tf )
2 kg 80°C = 353 K 3 kg 30°C = 303 K
= 3 × cP ( Tf – 303) I II

or Tf
= 323 K

(ΔS) system = (ΔS) I + (ΔS) II

323

=  m1 cP dT 323 m c dT
T   1 PT
353 ⎛ 303
323 ⎞ 323
= 2  4.187 ln  3  4.187  ln
⎝⎜ 353 ⎟⎠ 303
= 0.05915 kJ/K

Q7.4 In a Carnot cycle, heat is supplied at 350°C and rejected at 27°C. The
working fluid is water which, while receiving heat, evaporates from
liquid at 350°C to steam at 350°C. The associated entropy change is
1.44 kJ/kg K.
(a) If the cycle operates on a stationary mass of 1 kg of water, how
much is the work done per cycle, and how much is the heat
supplied?
(b) If the cycle operates in steady flow with a power output of 20 kW,
what is the steam flow rate?
(Ans. (a) 465.12, 897.12 kJ/kg, (b) 0.043 kg/s)

Solution: If heat required for evaporation is Q kJ/kg then

Q
(a) = 1.44
(350  273)
or Q = 897.12 kJ/kg
It is a Carnot cycle so  = 1 (273  27)
 (350  273)

 W = .Q = 465.12 kJ
(b) P= W
or m =
m W P
 20 465.12
= kg/s = 0.043 kg/s

Q7.5 A heat engine receives reversibly 420 kJ/cycle of heat from a source at
327°C, and rejects heat reversibly to a sink at 27°C. There are no other
heat transfers. For each of the three hypothetical amounts of heat
rejected, in (a), (b), and (c) below, compute the cyclic integral of d Q / T
.
 from these results show which case is irreversible, which reversible, and
which impossible:
(a) 210 kJ/cycle rejected
(b) 105 kJ/cycle rejected
(c) 315 kJ/cycle rejected
(Ans. (a) Reversible, (b) Impossible, (c) Irreversible)

Solution: (a) 420 210

= (327  273)  (27  273) = 0
°
dQT
 Cycle is Reversible, Possible

(b) 420 = 0.35

=  
° T 105
600 300
dQ
 Cycle is Impossible

(c) 420 = – 0.35

° T 315
= 
600 300
dQ
 Cycle is irreversible but possible.

Q7.6 In Figure, abed represents a Carnot cycle bounded by two reversible

adiabatic and two reversible isotherms at temperatures T1 and T2 (T1 >
T2).

The oval figure is a reversible cycle, where heat is absorbed at

temperature less than, or equal to, T1, and rejected at temperatures
greater than, or equal to, T2. Prove that the efficiency of the oval cycle
is less than that of the Carnot cycle.
Solution:

b
P T1

c T2

Q7.7 Water is heated at a constant pressure of 0.7 MPa. The boiling point is
164.97°C. The initial temperature of water is 0°C. The latent heat of
evaporation is 2066.3 kJ/kg. Find the increase of entropy of water, if
the final state is steam
(Ans. 6.6967 kJ/kg K)
Solution: (ΔS)Water
437.97
1  4187 
= 
273 dT
T p
⎛ 437.97 ⎞
= 4.187 ln ⎜ ⎟kJ/ K
273 T = 700 kPa
⎝ ⎠ = 437.97 K

= 1.979 kJ/K T 273

K

(ΔS)Eva pour

1  2066.3
= 437.97 kJ/ K
= 4.7179 kJ/K S

(Δs) system

= 6.697 kJ/kg – K

Q7.8 One kg of air initially at 0.7 MPa, 20°C changes to 0.35 MPa, 60°C by the
three reversible non-flow processes, as shown in Figure. Process 1: a-2
consists of a constant pressure expansion followed by a constant volume
cooling, process 1: b-2 an isothermal expansion followed by a constant
pressure expansion, and process 1: c-2 an adiabatic
 Expansion followed by a constant volume heating. Determine the
change of internal energy, enthalpy, and entropy for each process, and
find the
work transfer and heat transfer for each process. Take cp = 1.005 and cv
= 0.718 kJ/kg K and assume the specific heats to be constant. Also
assume for air pv = 0.287 T, where p is the pressure in kPa, v the
specific volume in m3/kg, and T the temperature in K.

Solution: p1 = 0.7 MPa = 700 kPa T1 = 293 K

 v1 = 0.12013 m3/kg pa = 700 kPa
 Ta = 666 K va = 0.27306 m3/kg
p2 = 350 kPa T2 = 333 K
 v2 = 0.27306 m3/kg

For process 1–a–2

va

Q1 – a = ua - u1   p dV
v1

= u a – u1 + 700(0.27306 – 0.12013)
= u a – u1 + 107

Qa – 2 = u2 – ua + 0
 ua – u1 = 267.86 kJ/kg
 u2 – ua = –239 kJ/kg
Ta

Q1 – a =
c
T1
P dT

= 1.005 × (666 – 293)

= 374.865 kJ/kg
T2

Qa – 2 =
 c dT
Ta
v

= 0.718 (333 – 666)

= –239 kJ/kg

(i) Δu = u2 - u1 = 28.766 kJ/kg

(ii) Δh = h2 – h1 = u 2 - u1 + p 2v2 – p1v1

= 28.766 + 350 × 0.27306 – 700 × 0.12013 = 40.246 kJ/kg

(iii) Q = Q2 + Q1 = 135.865 kJ/kg

(iv) W = W1 + W2 = 107 kJ/kg

Δs  s2
s – sa   s – s1 
(v)
– s1  a

⎛ T2 ⎞ 2
⎛ Ta ⎞
= C ln  C ln
v ⎜ ⎟ P ⎜ ⎟
T T
⎝ a⎠ ⎝ 1⎠

= 0.3275 kJ/kg – K

Q7.9 Ten grammes of water at 20°C is converted into ice at –10°C at

constant atmospheric pressure. Assuming the specific heat of liquid
water to remain constant at 4.2 J/gK and that of ice to be half of this
value, and taking the latent heat of fusion of ice at 0°C to be 335 J/g,
calculate the total entropy change of the system.
(Ans. 16.02 J/K)
Solution:

m c
273
dT

P
S2 – S1 =
1
293
T
273 293 K
= 0.01  4.2  ln kJ/ K
293 3 2
= –0.00297 kJ/K
T 273 K
= –2.9694 J/K
S3 – S2 =  mL 4
T 268 K
= 0.01  335  1000
273
S
 = –12.271 J/K
268
m c dT ⎛ 4.2 ⎞ 268
 = 0.01  ⎜ ⎟  ln
P
S4 – S3 = kJ/ K
273
T ⎝2⎠ 273
= –0.3882 J/K

 S4 – S1 = – 15.63 J/K
 Net Entropy change = 15.63 J/K

Q7.10 Calculate the entropy change of the universe as a result of the following
processes:
(a) A copper block of 600 g mass and with Cp of 150 J/K at 100°C is
placed in a lake at 8°C.
(b) The same block, at 8°C, is dropped from a height of 100 m into the
lake.
(c) Two such blocks, at 100 and 0°C, are joined together.
(Ans. (a) 6.69 J/K, (b) 2.095 J/K, (c) 3.64 J/K)
Solution:
281
dT
(a) (ΔS) copper =  m cP
373 T
281 100 m
= 150 ln J/ K
373
= –42.48 J/K
As unit of CP is J/K there for
 It is heat capacity
i.e. Cp = m c p

Cp(100  8)
(ΔS) lake = J/ K
281
150(100  8)
= J/ K = 49.11 J/K
281
(ΔS) univ = (ΔS) COP + (ΔS) lake = 6.63 J/K

(b) Work when it touch water = 0.600 × 9.81 × 100 J =

588.6 J As work dissipated from the copper

(ΔS) copper = 0
As the work is converted to heat and absorbed by water then
(ΔS) lake = W  = 588.6 J/ K = 2.09466 J/K
Q 281
281
 (ΔS) univ = 0 + 2.09466 J/k = 2.09466 J/K
 100  0
(c) Final temperature (Tf) = = 50º C = 323 K
2
 Tf dT Tf dT
(ΔS)I = C p  (ΔS)II = C p 
;
T T
T1
⎛ Tf ⎞⎛ Tf ⎞T2
 (ΔS) system = 150 ln  150 ln
⎜T ⎟ ⎜T⎟
⎝ 1⎠ ⎝ 2⎠
= 150 ln
323
373

 ln
323
273

J/ K = 3.638 J/K

Q7.11 A system maintained at constant volume is initially at temperature T1,

and a heat reservoir at the lower temperature T0 is available. Show that
the maximum work recoverable as the system is cooled to T0 is
⎡
W 
T1 ⎤

⎣ 0 ⎦
Solution:
For maximum work obtainable the process should be reversible
T0 dT ⎛T⎞ T1 Cv = mcv
(ΔS)body = C 0

T1 v T = Cv ln ⎜ ⎝ T⎟1 ⎠
QW Q1
(ΔS)resoir =
T0 H.E. W
(ΔS)cycle = 0 ⎛ T ⎞ Q  W
 (ΔS)univ. = C ln 0
 0 (Q1 – W)
v ⎜ ⎟
T T
⎛ T0 ⎞ Q  W 1 ⎠
⎝ 0
T0
 C ln  0
v ⎜ ⎟
T T
⎝ 1⎠ 0

⎛ T0 ⎞
or C T ln QW
0  Q = Cv(T1 – T0)
v0 ⎜
⎟
T
⎝ 1⎠ ⎛ T0 ⎞
or W  Q  C T ln
v 0 ⎜ ⎟
T
⎝ 1⎠ ⎛ T0 ⎞
or W  Cv (T1 – T0) + Cv T0 ln
⎜ ⎟
T
⎝ 1⎠

or W ⎧⎪ ⎛ T ⎞ ⎫⎪
 T )  T ln 0
Cv ⎨(T1 0 0⎜ ⎟⎬
T
⎪⎩ ⎝ 1⎧ ⎠⎪⎭ ⎛ T ⎞ ⎫⎪
⎪
 max
W Maximum work  T )  T ln 0
= Cv ⎨(T1 0 0⎜ ⎟⎬
T
⎪⎩ ⎝ 1 ⎠ ⎭⎪

Q7.12 If the temperature of the atmosphere is 5°C on a winter day and if 1 kg of

 water at 90°C is available, how much work can be obtained. Take cv, of
water as 4.186 kJ/kg K.

Solution: TRY PLEASE

Q7.13 A body with the equation of state U = CT, where C is its heat capacity,
is heated from temperature T1 to T2 by a series of reservoirs ranging
from
 T1 to T2. The body is then brought back to its initial state by contact
with a single reservoir at temperature T1. Calculate the changes of
entropy of the body and of the reservoirs. What is the total change in
entropy of the whole system?
If the initial heating were accomplished merely by bringing the body
into contact with a single reservoir at T2, what would the various
entropy changes be?

Solution: TRY PLEASE

Q7.14 A body of finite mass is originally at temperature T1, which is higher

than that of a reservoir at temperature T2. Suppose an engine operates
in a cycle between the body and the reservoir until it lowers the
temperature of the body from T1 to T2, thus extracting heat Q from the
body. If the engine does work W, then it will reject heat Q–W to the
reservoir at T2. Applying the entropy principle, prove that the
maximum work obtainable from the engine is
W (max) = Q – T2 (S1 – S2)
Where S1 – S2 is the entropy decrease of the body.
If the body is maintained at constant volume having constant volume
heat capacity Cv = 8.4 kJ/K which is independent of temperature, and if
T1 = 373 K and T2 = 303 K, determine the maximum work obtainable.
(Ans. 58.96 kJ)
Solution: Final temperature of the body will be T2

T2 dT
⎛T⎞
 S2 – S1 =  m cv = m cv ln ⎜ 2 ⎟
T1
T ⎝ T1 ⎠
[ cv = heat energy CV]

(ΔS) reservoir = Q  W
 (ΔS) H.E. = 0
T2
 (ΔS) univ. = (S  S )  Q  W  0
2 1
T2
or T2 (S2 – S1) + Q – W  0

or W  Q + T2 (S2 – S1)

or W  [Q – T2 (S1 – S2)]

 Wmax = [Q – T2 (S1 – S2)]

Wmax = Q – T2 (S1 – S2)

⎛ T2 ⎞
= Q + T2Cv ln
⎜T ⎟
⎝ 1⎠
⎛ T2 ⎞
= Cv (T1 – T2) + T2 CV ln
⎜T ⎟
 ⎝ 1⎠
⎡ ⎛ 303 ⎞⎤
= 8.4 ⎢373  303  303 ln ⎜ ⎟⎥
⎣ 373
⎝ ⎠⎦
 = 58.99 kJ

Q7.15 Each of three identical bodies satisfies the equation U = CT, where C is
the heat capacity of each of the bodies. Their initial temperatures are
200 K, 250 K, and 540 K. If C = 8.4 kJ/K, what is the maximum amount of
work that can be extracted in a process in which these bodies are
brought sto a final common temperature?
(Ans. 756 kJ)
Solution:
U = CT
Therefore heat capacity of the body is C = 8.4 540 K
kJ/K Let find temperature will be (Tf) Q H.E.
 W = W1 + Q1 – W1
W2 Q = Q1 + 250 K W
Q2
Q2
(ΔS) 540K body = C ln Tf
kJ/ K
⎛540
Tf ⎞ – W1
(ΔS) 250 K = C ln 200 K
⎝⎜ ⎟⎠
⎛ Tf ⎞ 250
(ΔS) 200 K = C ln
⎝⎜ 200 ⎟⎠
(ΔS) surrounds = 0 (ΔS)H.E. = 0
3
⎛ T ⎞
 
⎟0
f
(ΔS)univ. = C ln ⎜
⎝ 540  250  200 ⎠

For minimum Tf
3
Tf = 540 × 250 × 200
 Tf = 300 K

 Q = 8.4(540 – 300) = 2016 kJ

Q1 – W1 = 8.4(300 – 250) = 420 kJ
Q2 – W2 = 8.4(300 – 200) = 840 kJ
 Q1 + Q2 – (W1 + W2) = 1260
or (W1 + W2) = 2016 – 1260 kJ = 756 kJ
 Wmax = 756 kJ

Q7.16 In the temperature range between 0°C and 100°C a particular system
maintained at constant volume has a heat capacity.
Cv = A + 2BT
With A = 0.014 J/K and B = 4.2 × 10-4 J/K2
A heat reservoir at 0°C and a reversible work source are available.
What is the maximum amount of work that can be transferred to the
reversible work source as the system is cooled from 100°C to the
temperature of the reservoir?
 (Ans. 4.508 J)
Solution:
 Find temperature of body is 273 K
273
373 K
 Q=
 C dT =
v AT  BT ]
2 273
373
Q H.F.
373
Q–W
2 2 273 K
= –A(100) + B( 273 – 373 ) J W

= –28.532 J (flow from the system)

273
(ΔS) body =
 dT
C
373
T
v
273
⎛ A  2 BT ⎞
= ⎜ ⎟ dT
⎝ T ⎠
373
273
= A ln  2 B (273  373) J/ K
373
= –0.08837 J/K
QW
(ΔS)res. =
(ΔS)H.E. = 0 (ΔS)surrounds = 0
;
273
QW
 (ΔS)univ = 0.08837  0
273
or –24.125 + Q – W 
0 or W  Q – 24.125
or W  (28.532 – 24.125)
J or W  4.407 J
Wmax = 4.407 J

Q7.17 Each of the two bodies has a heat capacity at constant volume
Cv = A + 2BT
Where A = 8.4 J/K and B = 2.1 × 10-2
J/K2
If the bodies are initially at temperatures 200 K and 400 K and if a
reversible work source is available, what are the maximum and
minimum final common temperatures to which the two bodies can be
brought? What is the maximum amount of work that can be
transferred to the reversible work source?
(Ans. Tmin = 292 K)
Solution: TRY PLEASE

Q7.18 A reversible engine, as shown in Figure during a cycle of operations

draws 5 MJ from the 400 K reservoir and does 840 kJ of work. Find
the amount and direction of heat interaction with other reservoirs.
200 K 300 K 400 K
= 5 MJ
Q3 Q2 Q1
E

W = 840 kJ
 (Ans. Q2 = + 4.98 MJ and Q3 = – 0.82 MJ)
Solution: Let Q2 and Q3 both incoming i.e. out from the system
 Q2  +ve, Q3  +ve
(ΔS) univ = 5000
Q3 Q2   (Δ S)  (Δ S) =0
 H.E. surrounds
200 300 400

200 K 300 K 400 K

Q3 Q Q1 = 5 MJ
2
E

W = 840 kJ
Q3 Q2 5000
Or   00=0
2 3 4
or 6 Q3 + 4 Q2 + 3 × 5000 = 0 … (i)
Q3 + Q2 + 5000 – 840 = 0 … (ii)

Heat balance
or 4 Q3 + 4 Q2 + 16640 = 0 … (iii)
 (i) – (iii) gives

2 Q3 = +1640
 Q3 = +820 kJ
(Here –ve sign means heat flow opposite to our assumption)
 Q2 = –4980 kJ

Q7.19 For a fluid for which pv/T is a constant quantity equal to R, show that
the change in specific entropy between two states A and B is given by
T ⎛ C p⎞ p
T ⎜ B ⎟dT  R ln B
s B  sA 
A
⎝T ⎠ pA

A fluid for which R is a constant and equal to 0.287 kJ/kg K, flows

steadily through an adiabatic machine, entering and leaving through
two adiabatic pipes. In one of these pipes the pressure and temperature
are 5 bar and 450 K and in the other pipe the pressure and
temperature are 1 bar and 300 K respectively. Determine which
pressure and temperature refer to the inlet pipe.
(Ans. A is the inlet pipe)

For the given temperature range, cp is given by

Cp = a ln T + b
Where T is the numerical value of the absolute temperature and a = 0.026
kJ/kg K, b = 0.86 kJ/kg K.
(Ans. s – s = 0.0509 kJ/kg K. A is the inlet pipe.)
B A
Solution:

V
dS = Cv dT  R dV
T V
pV
T =R
V R
 =
T p
dQ  dH – Vdp
or TdS = dH – Vdp
or ds CPdT Vdp
= 
T T
or ds CPdT R
= T  p dp

Intrigation both side with respect A to B

SB TB P⎛ C ⎞ PB dp
 d s =  ⎜⎝ T⎟⎠dT  R  p
S T P
A A A
⎡ TB ⎛ C ⎞ ⎛ p ⎞⎤

or sB – sA = ⎢ ⎜ P ⎟ dT  R ln ⎜ B ⎟⎥ proved
⎢⎣ TA ⎝ T ⎠ p
⎝ A ⎠⎥⎦
300
⎛ a lnT  b ⎞ ⎛1⎞
sB – s A =
 ⎜
T
⎟ dT 

0.287  ln ⎜
5
⎟
450 ⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠
⎡ 2 ⎛1⎞
(ln T) 300
⎤  0.287  ln ⎜ ⎟
=⎢ a
⎣ 2 + b ln T ⎥⎦ 450 ⎝ 5⎠
a 300 ⎛1⎞
{(ln 300)  (ln 450) } + b ln  0.287 ln
2 2
s – s =
⎜⎝ 5
⎠⎟
B A 2 450
or sB – sA = 0.05094 kJ/kg – K
 A is the inlet of the pipe

Q7.20 Two vessels, A and B, each of volume 3 m3 may be connected by a tube of

negligible volume. Vessel a contains air at 0.7 MPa, 95 ° C, while vessel B
contains air at 0.35 MPa, 205°C. Find the change of entropy when A is
connected to B by working from the first principles and assuming the
 mixing to be complete and adiabatic. For air take the relations as given
in Example 7.8.
(Ans. 0.959 kJ/K)
Solution: Let the find temperature be (Tf)

Mass of ( mA ) = pAVA
RTA
700  3
= 0.287  368 kg
= 19.88335 kg
A B

0.7 MPa 700 kPa 368 K Cp= 1.005 kJ/kg-K

350 kPa cv = 0.718 kJ/kg-K
478 K R = 0.287 kJ/kg-K

pBVB 350  3
Mass of gas ( mB ) = = 0.287  = 7.653842 kg
R TB
478

For adiabatic mixing of gas Internal Energy must be same

 uA  mA cv TA
= 19.88335 × 0.718 × 368 kJ = 5253.66 kJ
u B  m B c v TB
= 7.653842 × 0.718 × 478 kJ = 2626.83 kJ
Umixture   m A c v  mBcv  Tf

Or Tf
= 398.6 K

If final pressure (pf)

 pf  V  mf RTf
f

27.5372  0.287  398.6

 p= kPa = 525 kPa
f
6
⎡
(Δ Tf ⎛ pf ⎞⎤
S)A = mA ⎢cPln  R ln ⎜ ⎟⎥ = 3.3277
T A p ⎝ A ⎠⎦
⎡⎣
(Δ Tf ⎛ pf ⎞⎤
S)B = mB ⎢cPln  R ln ⎜ ⎟⎥ = –2.28795 kJ/K
⎣ T B p ⎝ B ⎠⎦
 (ΔS)univ = (ΔS)A + (ΔS)B + 0 = 0.9498 kJ/K

Q7.21 (a) An aluminium block (cp = 400 J/kg K) with a mass of 5 kg is initially
at 40°C in room air at 20°C. It is cooled reversibly by transferring
heat to a completely reversible cyclic heat engine until the block
reaches 20°C. The 20°C room air serves as a constant temperature
sink for the engine. Compute (i) the change in entropy for the
block,
 (ii) the change in entropy for the room air, (iii) the work done by the
engine.
(b) If the aluminium block is allowed to cool by natural convection to
room air, compute (i) the change in entropy for the block, (ii) the
change in entropy for the room air (iii) the net the change in
entropy for the universe.
(Ans. (a) – 134 J/K, + 134 J/K, 740 J;
(b) – 134 J/K, + 136.5 J/K, 2.5 J/K)
Solution: 293
m c dT

P
(a) (ΔS) A1 =
313
T

293
5  400  ln J/ K = –132.06 J/K
313 313 K5 kg
QW
(ΔS) air =
293 Q
And Q = m cP (313 – 293) = 40000 J
H.E. W
As heat is reversibly flow then
(ΔS)Al + (ΔS) air = 0 Q–
W
or –132.06 + 136.52 – W = 0
293 K
293
or W = 1.306 kJ

(b) (ΔS)Δf = Same for reversible or irreversible = –132.06 J/K

4000
(ΔS) air = = 136.52 J/K
293
(ΔS) air = +4.4587 J/K

Q7.22 Two bodies of equal heat capacities C and temperatures T1 and T2 form
an adiabatically closed system. What will the final temperature be if
one lets this system come to equilibrium (a) freely? (b) Reversibly? (c)
What is the maximum work which can be obtained from this system?
Solution:
T1  T2
(a) Freely Tf =
2

(b) Reversible T1C

Let find temperature be Tf
Tf dT
the (ΔS)hot =  C
T1
T H.E. W
T
= C ln f Q–W
T1
Tf dT ⎛T ⎞
f T2
(ΔS)cold =  C = C ln ⎜ T⎟
T2
T ⎝ 2⎠
 (ΔS)univ. = (ΔS)hot = (ΔS)cold = (ΔS)surroundings
 Tf Tf
= C ln  C ln =0
T1 T2
 or Tf = T1 T2
 Q  C(T1  Tf )
Q  W  C(Tf  T2
)
  
W  C(T1  Tf  Tf  T2 )

= C {T1 + T2 – 2 Tf }
= C[T1  T2  2 T1T2 ]

Q7.23 A resistor of 30 ohms is maintained at a constant temperature of 27°C

while a current of 10 amperes is allowed to flow for 1 sec. Determine the
entropy change of the resistor and the universe.
(Ans. ( Δ S) resistor = 0, ( Δ S) univ = 10 J/K)

If the resistor initially at 27°C is now insulated and the same current is
passed for the same time, determine the entropy change of the resistor
and the universe. The specific heat of the resistor is 0.9 kJ/kg K and the
mass of the resistor is 10 g.
(Ans. ( Δ S) univ = 6.72 J/K)
Solution: As resistor is in steady state therefore no change in entropy. But the work = heat
is dissipated to the atmosphere.
2
So (ΔS) i Rt
atm =
Tatm

10  30 
2

=
1 = 10 kJ/kg
300
If the resistor is insulated then no heat flow to
surroundings
So (ΔS) surroundings = 0
W=Q
And, Temperature of resistance (Δt)
10  30  1
2

= 900  0.01 = 333.33º C

 Final temperature (Tf) = 633.33 K

Initial temperature (To) = 300 K

633.33
dT
 (ΔS) =  m c T
300 ⎛ 633.33 ⎞
= 0.01  0.9  ln
⎜ ⎟ = 6.725 J/K
300
⎝ ⎠
(ΔS)univ = (ΔS)rev. = 6.725 J/K

Q7.24 An adiabatic vessel contains 2 kg of water at 25°C. By paddle-wheel

 work transfer, the temperature of water is increased to 30°C. If the
specific heat of water is assumed constant at 4.187 kJ/kg K, find the
entropy change of the universe.
(Ans. 0.139 kJ/K)
Solution:
(ΔS)surr. = 0

303
dT
(ΔS)sys = m c
298 T
2 kg
303 298 K
= 2  4.187  ln 303 K
298 = 0.13934 kJ/K
 (ΔS)univ = (ΔS)sys +(ΔS)surr = 0.13934 + 0 = 0.13934 kJ/K

Q7.25 A copper rod is of length 1 m and diameter 0.01 m. One end of the rod
is at 100°C, and the other at 0°C. The rod is perfectly insulated along
its length and the thermal conductivity of copper is 380 W/mK.
Calculate the rate of heat transfer along the rod and the rate of entropy
production due to irreversibility of this heat transfer.
(Ans. 2.985 W, 0.00293 W/K)
Solution:

0.01 m A = 7.854 × 10–5 m2

1m
373 K K = 380 W/m – K 273 K
ΔT
 = kA
Q
Δx
5 100
= 380  7.854  10  W = 2.9845 W
1

At the 373 K end from surrounding Q amount heat is go to the system. So at this
end

 Q
(Δ S)charge = 
373


And at the 273 K and from system Q amount of heat is rejected to the
surroundings.
 
 (Δ S)charge Q
= 273
 (Δ  
Q Q

= 0.00293 W/K
= 
S)univ.
273 373
Q7.26 A body of constant heat capacity Cp and at a temperature Ti is put in
contact with a reservoir at a higher temperature Tf. The pressure
remains constant while the body comes to equilibrium with the
reservoir. Show that the entropy change of the universe is equal to
⎡ Ti  Tf ⎛ Ti  Tf ⎞ ⎤
C
p⎢
 ln 1  ⎥
⎜ ⎟
⎢⎣ Tf ⎝ Tf ⎠⎦ ⎥

Prove that entropy change is positive.

x x x
Given ln (1 + x) = x – 2 + 3 - 4 ..... {where x < 1}
–
Solution: 2 3 4

Final temperature of the body will be

Tf
Tf dT ⎛T⎞
 (ΔS) body = C p  = C p ln ⎜ f ⎟
Ti
T ⎝ Ti ⎠

(ΔS) resoier = Cp(Tf  T1 )

Tf
 Total entropy charge
(ΔS) univ = C T⎤
⎡Tf  Ti  ln f
p⎢ ⎥
⎣ Tf Ti ⎦
T CP
⎡T  Ti  ln i ⎤
=C f Tf
p⎢
T T ⎥ T
⎣ f f ⎦ i

⎡Tf  Ti ⎛ T  Tf ⎞⎤
=C  ln 1  i ⎟⎥
p⎢ ⎜
T Tf ⎠⎦
⎣ f ⎝

Let Tf  Ti
=x as Tf > Ti
Tf
 Tf  Ti
<1
Tf
 (ΔS) in = CP {x – ln (1 + x)}

=
⎡ x  x3  4
2 ⎤
x  .......... ........
Cp ⎢ x  x  3 4 ⎥
2 = ⎦
⎣
⎡x x x x ⎤
C 2  3  4  5  ............ 
p ⎢ ⎥
⎣ 2 3 4 5 ⎦
=
⎡ x2(3  2 x) x (5  4 x)
4
⎤
C   ....... 
 p ⎢ ⎥
⎣ 6 20 ⎦
 (ΔS) univ is +ve
Q7.27 An insulated 0.75 kg copper calorimeter can containing 0.2 kg water is
in equilibrium at a temperature of 20°C. An experimenter now places
0.05 kg of ice at 0°C in the calorimeter and encloses the latter with a
heat insulating shield.
(a) When all the ice has melted and equilibrium has been reached,
what will be the temperature of water and the can? The specific
heat of copper is 0.418 kJ/kg K and the latent heat of fusion of ice
is 333 kJ/kg.
 (b) Compute the entropy increase of the universe resulting from the
process.
(c) What will be the minimum work needed by a stirrer to bring back
the temperature of water to 20°C?
(Ans. (a) 4.68°C, (b) 0.00276 kJ/K, (c) 20.84 kJ)

Solution:
Mass of ice = 0.05 kg
(a) Let final temperature be ( Tf )
 0.75 × 0.418 × (293 – Tf )
+ 0.2 × 4.187 × (293 – Tf )
= 333 × 0.05 + 0.05 × 4.187
× ( Tf – 273)
or 1.1509(293 – Tf ) Wab = 0.2 kg
= 16.65 – 57.15255 + 0.20935 Tf cv = 0.75 kJ/kg-K
T1 = 293 K
or 337.2137 – 1.1509 Tf
or Tf = 277.68 K = 4.68º C

(b) (ΔS)system ⎛ Tf ⎞ ⎛T ⎞
= 0.75  0.418  ln  0.2  4.187  ln f
⎜⎝ ⎠⎟ ⎝⎜ ⎟⎠
333  293
0.05 ⎛ Tf293
⎞
  0.05  4.187 ln
273 ⎜⎝ ⎠⎟
273
= 0.00275 kJ/K = 2.75 J/K
(c) Work fully converted to heat so no
Rejection.
 W = C × (20 – 4.68) = 20.84 kJ

 C = (Heat capacity) = 1.36025

Q7.28 Show that if two bodies of thermal capacities C1 and C2 at temperatures

T1 and T2 are brought to the same temperature T by means of a
reversible heat engine, then
C1lnT1 + C2lnT2
ln T =
C1 + C2
Solution:
T
dT ⎛T⎞
(ΔS) 1 = = C ln T
 1T
C 1 ⎜ ⎟
T1 ⎝ 1⎠
T dT ⎛T⎞
(ΔS) 2 =  C2 = C2 ln ⎜ ⎟
T
T T⎝ 2 ⎠
2

(ΔS)univ = (ΔS)1 + (ΔS)2

For reversible process for an isolated system (ΔS) since.

 ⎛T⎞ ⎛T⎞
0 = C ln  C ln
1 ⎜T ⎟ 2⎜
T⎟
⎝ 1⎠ ⎝2⎠
 ⎛ T ⎞C1 ⎛ T ⎞C2 T1C1 Q
or ⎜T⎟ ⎜T⎟ =1 H.E.
⎝ 1⎠ ⎝ 2⎠
or
C C
TC1  C2 = T1 1 T2 2 Q– W

T2C2 W
or (C1 + C2) ln T = C1 ln T1 + C2 ln T2

C1ln T1 + C2ln
or ln T Proved
= T2 C1 + C2

Q7.29 Two blocks of metal, each having a mass of 10 kg and a specific heat of
0.4 kJ/kg K, are at a temperature of 40°C. A reversible refrigerator
receives heat from one block and rejects heat to the other. Calculate the
work required to cause a temperature difference of 100°C between the
two blocks.
Solution: Mass = 10 kg
C = 0.4 kJ/kg – K
T = 40º C⎛ =T313
⎞ K
 (ΔS) hot = mc ln f

⎝⎜ ⎟⎠
313⎞
⎛ Tf  100
(ΔS) cold = m c ln
⎜ ⎟
313
⎝ ⎠
For minimum work requirement process must be reversible Tf T1
so (ΔS)univ = 0 Q + W = 313 K

T (T  100)
 ln f f = 0 = ln 1 W
2
R
(313)
Q
T  100 T  3132 = 0
2
or
f f T1
Tf = 313 K
or Tf = 100  1002  4  3132
– 100
2

= 367 K or (–267)

 Q + W = 10 × 10.4 × (367 – 313) = 215.87 kJ

Q = 10 × 0.4 × (313 – 267) = 184 kJ
 Wmin = 31.87 kJ

Q7.30 A body of finite mass is originally at a temperature T1, which is higher

than that of a heat reservoir at a temperature T2. An engine operates in
infinitesimal cycles between the body and the reservoir until it lowers
the temperature of the body from T1 to T2. In this process there is a
heat flow Q out of the body. Prove that the maximum work obtainable
from the engine is Q + T2 (S1 – S2), where S1 – S2 is the decrease in
entropy of the body.
Solution: Try please.

Q7.31 A block of iron weighing 100 kg and having a temperature of 100°C is

immersed in 50 kg of water at a temperature of 20°C. What will be the
change of entropy of the combined system of iron and water? Specific
heats of iron and water are 0.45 and 4.18 kJ/kg K respectively.
(Ans. 1.1328 kJ/K)
Solution: Let final temperature is tf ºC
 100 × 0.45 × (100 – tf) = 50 × 4.18 × (tf – 20)
100 – tf = 4.644 tf – 20 × 4.699
or 5.644 tf = 192.88
or tf = 34.1732º C
 tf = 307.1732 K

ENTROPY = (ΔS) iron + (ΔS) ⎛ 307.1732

water ⎞ ⎛ 307.1732 ⎞
= 100  0.45 ln  50  4.180  ln
⎟
⎜ ⎟ ⎜ 293
373
⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠
= 1.1355 kJ/K
Q7.32 36 g of water at 30°C are converted into steam at 250°C at constant
atmospheric pressure. The specific heat of water is assumed constant at
4.2 J/g K and the latent heat of vaporization at 100°C is 2260 J/g. For
water vapour, assume pV = mRT where R = 0.4619 kJ/kg K, and
Cp
= a + bT + cT2, where a = 3.634,
R
b = 1.195 × 10-3 K-1 and c = 0.135 × 10-6 K-2
Calculate the entropy change of the
system. (Ans. 277.8 J/K)
Solution:

m = 36 g = 0.036 kg

T1 = 30ºC = 303 K
T2 = 373 K
T3 = 523 K
(ΔS) Water

= m cP ln ⎛ 373 ⎞ kJ/ K
⎜ ⎟
⎝ 303 ⎠ T3
= 0.03143 kJ/K
mL
(ΔS) Vaporization =
T2
0.036  2260 T2
= 373 T
= 0.21812 kJ/K T1

(ΔS) Vapor 523

dT
=  mc
373
p
T
523
a S
T
= mR  b  CT) dT
(
373
 2
⎡ CT ⎤523
= mR ⎢ a ln T  bT ⎥
⎣ 2 ⎦ 373

⎡ 523 C 2 ⎤
 b  (523  373)  (523  373 )
2
= mR a ln
⎢ ⎥
⎣ 373 2 ⎦

= 0.023556 kJ/kg
(ΔS) System = (ΔS) water + (ΔS) vaporization + (ΔS) vapor = 273.1 J/K

Q7.33 A 50 ohm resistor carrying a constant current of 1 A is kept at a

constant temperature of 27°C by a stream of cooling water. In a time
interval of 1s
(a) What is the change in entropy of the resistor?
(b) What is the change in entropy of the universe?
(Ans. (a) 0, (b) 0.167 J/K)
Solution: Try please.

Q7.34 A lump of ice with a mass of 1.5 kg at an initial temperature of 260 K

melts at the pressure of 1 bar as a result of heat transfer from the
environment. After some time has elapsed the resulting water attains
the temperature of the environment, 293 K. Calculate the entropy
production associated with this process. The latent heat of fusion of ice
is 333.4 kJ/kg, the specific heat of ice and water are 2.07 and 4.2 kJ/kg
K respectively, and ice melts at 273.15 K.
(Ans. 0.1514 kJ/K)
Solution: Try please.

Q7.35 An ideal gas is compressed reversibly and adiabatically from state a to

state b. It is then heated reversibly at constant volume to state c. After
expanding reversibly and adiabatically to state d such that Tb = Td, the
gas is again reversibly heated at constant pressure to state e such that
Te
= Tc. Heat is then rejected reversibly from the gas at constant volume
till it returns to state a. Express Ta in terms of Tb and Tc. If Tb = 555 K
and Tc
= 835 K, estimate Ta. Take  = 1.4.
⎛  ⎞
⎜ Ans. Ta  Tb1 , 313.29 K ⎟
⎝ Tc ⎠
Solution: ⎛ Tc ⎞
(ΔS) bc = C ln
v⎜ ⎟
T
⎝ b⎠
⎛T ⎞
(ΔS) de = C ln e
p⎜
T⎟
⎝ b⎠
⎛ Ta ⎞
(ΔS) ea = C ln
 v ⎜ ⎟
T
⎝ c⎠

(ΔS) Cycles = 0
 Tb  1 S
 Ta =
Tc
Given Tb = 555 K, Tc = 835 K,  = 1.4 + Gas

Ta =
(555)1.4  1 = 313.286 K
8351.4

Q7.36 Liquid water of mass 10 kg and temperature 20°C is mixed with 2 kg of

ice at – 5°C till equilibrium is reached at 1 atm pressure. Find the
entropy change of the system. Given: cp of water = 4.18 kJ/kg K, cp of ice =
2.9 kJ/kg K and latent heat of fusion of ice = 334 kJ/kg.
(Ans.190 J/K)
Solution: Try please.

Q7.37 A thermally insulated 50-ohm resistor carries a current of 1 A for 1 s. The

initial temperature of the resistor is 10°C. Its mass is 5 g and its specific
heat is 0.85 J g K.
(a) What is the change in entropy of the resistor?
(b) What is the change in entropy of the universe?
(Ans. (a) 0.173 J/K (b) 0.173 J/K)
Solution: Try please.

Q7.38 The value of cp for a certain substance can be represented by cp = a + bT.

(a) Determine the heat absorbed and the increase in entropy of a mass
m of the substance when its temperature is increased at constant
pressure from T1 to T2.
(b) Find the increase in the molal specific entropy of copper, when the
temperature is increased at constant pressure from 500 to 1200 K.
Given for copper: when T = 500 K, cp = 25.2 × 103 and when T = 1200
K, cp = 30.1 × 103 J/k⎛ mol K.
⎡ b 2 2 ⎡ T2 ⎤⎤ ⎞

⎜ (a) m ⎢a(T2  T1 )  T2  T1  , m ⎢a ln  b(T2  T2 )⎥⎥ ;⎟

Ans. 2
T ⎜⎜ ⎢⎣ ⎣ 1 ⎦ ⎥⎦ ⎟⎟
(b) 24.7 kJ/k mol K
⎝ ⎠
Solution: dQ = Cp dT
T2

 Q = m  cP dT
 T1
⎛ Tc ⎞ ⎛ Ta ⎞
 (C +pvC )Tln
2
⎜ T ⎟ C vln ⎜ ⎡T ⎟ = 0bT2 ⎤T2
⎝ b⎠ ⎝ c⎠ c e
Tc = T e
= m ⎢ aT 
= m  (a  bT) dT
(  1) Tln1 ⎛ Tc ⎞  ln⎛ Ta ⎞ = ln⎣ 1
⎥
2 ⎦ 1T
or ⎜ T ⎟⎜ T ⎟ V=C
⎝ b ⎠⎝ c ⎠ Tb = T d
b
d
⎛ T ⎞  1 ⎛ T ⎞ T
V=C
or ⎜ c ⎟⎜ a ⎟ = 1
⎝ Tb ⎠⎝ Tc ⎠
Ta
 c T.T

 a
Or a
. = Tb 1
 ⎡ b 2 2 ⎤
= m a(T  T )  (T  T )
⎢⎣ 2 1
2
2 1⎥
⎦
TdS = Cp dT
dT
or dS
2
= m c p
S2 dT T T2 (a  bT)
dT
or  = m c p T = m 
1 T1
T
dS
S1

(S2 – S1) = [a ln T  bT]

T2
⎡ T ⎤
= m a ln 2 + b(T  T )
T1
⎢ 2 1 ⎥
⎦
 For a and b find ⎣
T1
25.2 = a + b × 500
30.1 = a + b × 1200
 b × 700 = 4.9  b = 0.007 kJ/kg K  a = 21.7 kJ/kg – K
⎡ ⎛ 1200 ⎞ ⎤

S2 – S1 = ⎢21.7 ln ⎜ ⎟  0.007 (1200  500)⎥ kJ/ K = 23.9 kJ/K
⎣ ⎝500 ⎠ ⎦
 Availability & Irreversibility
By: S K Mondal Chapter 8

8. Availability & Irreversibility

Some Important Notes
1. Available Energy (A.E.)T
⎛ T ⎞ ⎛ T⎞
Wmax = Q1 ⎜1  0 ⎟ = m cP  ⎜1  0 ⎟ dT
⎝ T1 ⎠ T0
⎝ T⎠
= (T1 – T0) ΔS
= u1 – u 2 – T 0  s 1  s 2 
(For closed system), it is not (1 – 2) because change of volume is present there.
= h1  h 2 – T0  s1  s2 
(For steady flow system), it is (A1 – A2) as in steady state no change in volume is
CONSTANT VOLUME (i.e. change in availability in steady flow)

2. Decrease in Available Energy

= T0 [ΔS – ΔS] S
4
Take ΔS & ΔS both +Ve Quantity

T
Q1 S

S
3. Availability function:
V
A = h – T s + 2 + gZ
0
2
Availability = maximum useful work

For steady flow

Availability = A1 – A0 = (h1 – h0) – T0 s
– s  V2 gZ (V0 = 0, Z0 = 0)
+ 1

  u – T0s 1 0
2
 p0V

For closed system

Availability = 1 – 0 T0  s1 – s0  + p0 V1 – V0 
 u1 – u 0 –
Available energy is maximum work obtainable not USEFULWORK.

4. Unavailable Energy (U.E.)

= T0 (S1 – S2)
 Availability & Irreversibility
By: S K Mondal Chapter 8
5. Increase in unavailable Energy = Loss in availability
= T0 (ΔS) univ.
6. Irreversibility
I = Wmax – Wactual
= T0(ΔS) univ.


7. Irreversibility rate = I rate of energy degradation
2

Sgen =
 m
1
dS


= rate of energy loss (Wlost )



= T0  Sgen for all processes

8. Wactual
dQ du  d this for closed system

 Wact
2 2
V1 dQ V2 dW
h1   g Z1  = h2   g Z2 act this for steady flow
2 dm 2 dm

9. Helmholtz function, F = U – TS

10. Gibb’s function, G = H – TS



11. Entropy Generation number (N S) Sgen

= m c
P

12. Second law efficiency

ηII = Minimum exergy intake to perform the given task (Xmin
=  1 /Carnot
) Actual exergy intake to perform the given task (X)
Xmin = W, if work is involved
= Q ⎜⎛1  T0 ⎞
⎝ ⎟ if Heat is involved.
T ⎠
13. To Calculate dS ⎡ p V ⎤
i) Use S2 – S1 = m c ln 2  c l n 2
⎢v p P
V ⎥
⎣ 1 1⎦

For closed system

TdS = dU + pdV
dT p
or dS = m c + dV
v
T T
dT dV
= mc + mR
v
T V2
2 2
dT dV
 dS
1
= m cv 
1 T
+ mR 
1 V

For steady flow system

 TdS = dH – Vdp
or dS = m cp dT V
pV = mRT
T  T dp
2 2 2
dT dp V mR
 dS
1
= m cp
1 T
- mR 
1 p
T= p
But Note that
 TdS = dU + pdV
And TdS = dH – Vdp

Both valid for closed system only

14. In Pipe Flow Entropy generation rate

1 2

p, T1 m kg/s p, T2

Due to lack of insulation it may be

T1 > T2 for hot fluid T1 < T2 for cold
fluid

  Q
Sgen = Ssys 
T0
m• c (T - T )
= m (S p 2 1
2  S1 ) 
T0
 

 Rate of Irreversibility (I) = T0 Sgen

15. Flow with friction

Decrease in availability = Δp
RT ×
m
0
p1
 Availability & Irreversibility
By: S K Mondal Chapter 8

Questions with Solution P. K. Nag

Q8.1 What is the maximum useful work which can be obtained when 100 kJ
are abstracted from a heat reservoir at 675 K in an environment at 288
K? What is the loss of useful work if
(a) A temperature drop of 50°C is introduced between the heat source
and the heat engine, on the one hand, and the heat engine and the
heat sink, on the other
(b) The source temperature drops by 50°C and the sink temperature
rises by 50°C during the heat transfer process according to the
linear
dQ
law = ± constant?
dT
(Ans. (a) 11.2 kJ, (b) 5.25 kJ)
Solution:
Entropy change for this process
100
ΔS = kJ/ K
675

= 0.14815 kJ/K
Wmax = (T – T0) ΔS
= (675 – 288) ΔS = 57.333 kJ
675 K
(a) Now maximum work obtainable T = 50 K
 ⎛ 338 ⎞ Q = 100 kJ T = 625 K
Wmax = 100 ⎜1  ⎟ 1
⎝ 625 ⎠
= 45.92 kJ H.E. W
 Loss of available work = 57.333 – T2 = 338 K
45.92
= 11.413 kJ
dQ
(b) Given = ± constant T = 50 K
dT 288 K
Let dQ = ± mcP dT
 When source temperature is (675 – T) and
since temperature (288 + T) at that time if dQ
heat is flow then maximum. Available work
from that dQ is dW .

 dW =
⎛ 288  T ⎞
dQ ⎜1  ⎟
max . 675  T
⎛ ⎝ 288  T ⎞ ⎠
= 1 m c dT
⎜ ⎟ P
675  T
⎝ 50 ⎠
⎛ 288  T ⎞
 Availability & Irreversibility
By: S K Mondal Chapter 8
 Wmax = m cP  ⎜1  ⎟ dT
⎝ 675  T ⎠0
⎧288  963  675  T⎫
T =
⎩
⎨ ⎬
675  675  ⎭
T T Page 98 of 265
50 963 ⎫
⎧ = m cp (6
0 ⎩ 75
 ⎨1 Q1 H.E.
–
1 T)
675 
⎬
T
dT
⎧ ⎛ 675  50 ⎞ ⎫
= ⎬
m cp 675  0 ⎟
⎨2(
50 
0) 
963
ln ⎜
⎩ ⎝ ⎠⎭
= W

2
5
.
8
8
7

m
c
P

k
J
m cp × 50 = 100 kJ
= 51.773 kJ
= (
2 2
8
mkJ 8
c/
K +
p

T
)
 Loss of availability = (57.333 – 51.773) kJ
= 5.5603 kJ

Q 8.2 In a steam generator, water is

evaporated at 260°C, while the
combustion gas (cp = 1.08 kJ/kg K) is
cooled from 1300°C to 320°C. The
surroundings are at 30°C. Determine
the loss in available energy due to the
Page 99 of 265
 above b
heat i
transfer l
per kg of i
water t
evaporat y
ed
(Latent i
heat of n
vaporiza c
tion of r
water at e
260°C = a
1662.5 s
kJ/kg). e
(
Solu o
ns.
tion: f
44
3.6
Avai w
kJ)
labili a
ty t
decr e
ease r
of
gas A
Agas = h1 – h2 – w
= (T
T0  s 1 – s 2  1

= mc ⎛ T1 ⎞ –
–T – T0 mc ln
T
 T
0
p 1 2 ⎜T⎟
p
)
⎝ 2⎠
⎡
Δ
= m cP ⎢(T1  T2 )  T0 S
mL
= (T  T ) 
⎣ 1 0
T
T1 = 1

 
1573 303
= 1  1662.5 1 
K; T2 533
= 593 = 717.4 kJ
K; T0 For mass flow rate of gas (m)
= 303
K
= m × g739.16 kJ mg cP (T2  T1 ) = mw × L
 mg × 1.08 × (1300 – 320) = 1 × 1662.5
A

v m g = 1.5708 kg/ of water of evaporator
a
A = 1161.1 kJ
i g
l a Loss of availability =
s
a
Page 100 of 265
 
Agas  Aw
= (1161.1 – 717.4) kJ
= 443.7 kJ

Page 101 of 265

Q 8.3 Exhaust gases leave an internal combustion engine at 800°C and 1 atm,
after having done 1050 kJ of work per kg of gas in the engine (cp of gas
=
1.1 kJ/kg K). The temperature of the surroundings is 30°C.
(a) How much available energy per kg of gas is lost by throwing away
the exhaust gases?
(b) What is the ratio of the lost available energy to the engine work?
(Ans. (a) 425.58 kJ, (b) 0.405)
Solution: Loss of availability
1073
⎛ T⎞
(a) =
 p ⎜ ⎟  0
m c dT 1
303
⎝ T⎠
⎧ ⎛ 1073 ⎞⎫
=1
⎩ (1073  303)  303 ln ⎜⎝
1.1 ⎨ ⎟⎬⎠
= 425.55 kJ 303 ⎭
425.55
(b) r = 1050 = 0.40528

Q 8.4 A hot spring produces water at a temperature of 56°C. The water flows
into a large lake, with a mean temperature of 14°C, at a rate of 0.1 m 3 of
water per min. What is the rate of working of an ideal heat engine which
uses all the available energy?
(Ans. 19.5 kW)
Solution: Maximum work obtainable
329 287 ⎞
Wmax = m cp ⎜⎛1  ⎟ dT


287
⎝ T ⎠


= V  cp (329  287)  287 ln 

329

287
=
0.1
60

 1000  4.187 (329  287)  287 ln

329
287
kW

= 19.559 kW
Q8.5 0.2 kg of air at 300°C is heated reversibly at constant pressure to 2066 K.
Find the available and unavailable energies of the heat added. Take T0 =
30°C and cp = 1.0047 kJ/kg K.
(Ans. 211.9 and 78.1 kJ)
Solution: Entropy increase
2066 2066
dT
ΔS = S2 – S1 =  m cp = 0.2  1.0047  ln = 0.2577 kJ/K
573 T 573
Availability increases
A increase = h2 – h1 – T0  s2 – s1 
= mc p  T2 – T1  – T0 × 0.2577
= 1250.24 – 78.084
= 1172.2 kJ
Heat input = m cp (T2 – T1) = 1250.24 kJ
Unavailable entropy = 78.086 kJ
Q8.6 Eighty kg of water at 100°C are mixed with 50 kg of water at 60°C,
while the temperature of the surroundings is 15°C. Determine the
decrease in available energy due to mixing.
(Ans. 236 kJ)
Solution: m1  80 kg m2  50 kg
T1  100º  373 K  60º C  333 K

T2
T0 = 288 K
m1T1 +
Let final temperature ( Tf ) = 357.62 K
m2T2
=
m1 + m2
Availability decrease of 80 kg
373 ⎛ T⎞
Adec =  m cp dT ⎜1  0 ⎟
357.62 ⎡
⎝ T⎠
=mc ⎛ 373 ⎞⎤
P ⎢(373  357.62)  288 ln ⎜ ⎟⎥
⎣ ⎝357.62 ⎠⎦
= 1088.4 kJ
Availability increase of 50 kg
water
357.62 ⎛ T ⎞
Ain =
 p ⎜ ⎟ dT  0
m c 1
333 ⎡
⎝ T⎠
⎛ 357.62 ⎞⎤
= m c (357.62  333)  288 ln ⎜
p⎢ 333 ⎟ ⎥
⎣
⎝ ⎠⎦
= 853.6 kJ
 Availability loss due to mixing
= (1088.4 – 853.6) kJ
= 234.8 kJ

Q8.7 A lead storage battery used in an automobile is able to deliver 5.2 MJ

of electrical energy. This energy is available for starting the car.
Let compressed air be considered for doing an equivalent amount of
work in starting the car. The compressed air is to be stored at 7 MPa,
25°C. What is the volume of the tank that would be required to let the
compressed air have an availability of 5.2 MJ? For air, pv = 0.287 T,
where T is in K, p in kPa, and v in m3/kg.
(Ans. 0.228 m3)
Solution: Electrical Energy is high Grade Energy so full energy is available
 A electric = 5.2 MJ = 5200
kJ Availability of compressed air
A air = u1 – u0 – T0  s1 – s0 
= m cv (T1 – T0) – T0  s1 – s0 
p1 v T p
s – s  = c ln  c ln 1 = c pln 1  R ln 1
1 0 v
p0
p
v0 T p
0 0
p1
OW = T R ln
0
 p⎛0 7000 ⎞
= 298  0.287  ln Here T1 = T0 = 25º C = 298 K
⎜ ⎟
100
⎝ ⎠
= 363.36 kJ/kg Let atm pr = 1 bar = 100 kPa
Given p1 = 7 MPa = 7000 kPa
 5200
 Required mass of air = kg = 14.311 kg
363.36
Specific volume of air at 7 MPa, 25ºC then
RT 0.287  298 3
m /kg = 0.012218 m /kg
3
v= p =
7000
 Required storage volume (V) = 0.17485 m3

Q8.8 Ice is to be made from water supplied at 15°C by the process shown in
Figure. The final temperature of the ice is – 10°C, and the final
temperature of the water that is used as cooling water in the condenser
is 30°C. Determine the minimum work required to produce 1000 kg of
ice.

Take cp for water = 4.187 kJ/kg K, cp for ice = 2.093 kJ/kg K, and latent
heat of fusion of ice = 334 kJ/kg.
(Ans. 33.37 MJ)
Solution: Let us assume that heat rejection temperature is (T0)
(i) Then for 15ºC water to 0º C water if we need WR work minimum.
Q
Then (COP) = 2 T2
=
WR T 0  T2

or WR = Q2 (T0  T2 )
T
⎛ T0 2 ⎞
=Q 1
2⎜ ⎟
T
⎝ 2 ⎠
When temperature of water is
T if change is dT
Then dQ2  – mcP dT
(heat rejection so ⎛ T–ve)⎞
 dW = m c dT 0  1
R P ⎜ ⎟
⎝T ⎠
273
T
 = m cP  ⎜ ⎛0  1⎟ dT⎞
WR
I ⎝T
288
⎠
⎡ 288 ⎤
= m c T ln  (288  273)
P⎢ 0 ⎥
⎣ 273 ⎦
⎡ 288 ⎤
= 4187 T ln  15 kJ
 ⎣⎢ ⎥⎦
0
273

(ii) WR required for 0º C water to 0 º C ice

W = Q
⎛ T0 ⎞
1
RII
2⎜ ⎟
T
⎝⎛ T2 ⎠⎞
= mL 0
1
⎜ ⎟
T
⎝ 2 ⎛⎠ T ⎞
= 1000  335 0
1
⎜ ⎟
273
⎛ T0 ⎝ ⎞ ⎠
= 335000 
⎜
273 1⎟ kJ
⎝ ⎠

(iii) WR required for 0º C ice to –10 º C ice.

When temperature is T if dT temperature decreases
 dQ2 = – mcp ice dT ⎛ T ⎞
 dW =  m c dT 0  1
R p ice ⎜ ⎟
T
⎝ ⎠
273 ⎡ 273 ⎤
 T
= m cp ice ⎛⎜ 0  1 ⎟ ⎞dT = m c
 p ice ⎢ T 0 ln  (273  263) ⎥
WR
II 263
⎝T ⎠ ⎣ 263 ⎦

1 4.187
Let c = c = kJ/kg
p,ice
p,water
2 4.187 ⎡ 2 273 ⎤
= 1000  T ln  10
⎢⎣ 0 263 ⎥⎦
⎡ 2 273 ⎤
= 2093.5 T ln  10 kJ

⎣⎢ ⎥⎦
0
263
 Total work required
WR = (i) + (ii) + (iii)
= [1529.2 T0 – 418740] kJ
 WR and T0 has linear relationship
15  30
 T0 = ºC = 22.5ºC = 295.5 K
2
 WR = 33138.6 kJ = 33.139 MJ

Q8.9 A pressure vessel has a volume of 1 m3 and contains air at 1.4 MPa,
175°C. The air is cooled to 25°C by heat transfer to the surroundings at
25°C. Calculate the availability in the initial and final states and the
irreversibility of this process. Take p0 = 100 kPa.
(Ans. 135 kJ/kg, 114.6 kJ/kg, 222 kJ)
Solution: Given Ti = 175ºC = 448 K Tf = 25ºC = 298 K
 Vi = 1 m3 Vf = 1 m3
pi = 1.4 MPa = 1400 kPa p f = 931.25 kPa
Calculated Data:
p0 = 101.325 kPa, T0 = 298 K
c p = 1.005 kJ/kg – K, cV = 0.718 kJ/kg – K; R = 0.287 kJ/kg – K
 Mass of air (m) = piVi 1400  1
= 0.287  = 10.8885 kg
RTi
448
 Final volume (V0) = mRT0 10.8885  0.287 
= = 9.1907 m3
p0 298
 Initial availability 101.325
Ai = 1 – 0
= u1 – u0 – T0  s1 – s0  + p0 (V1 – V0)
⎧ V1 p1 ⎫

= mcv (T1 - T0 ) - T0 ⎨mc p ln + mcv ln ⎬ + p0(V1 - V0 )

⎩ V0 p 0⎭
=
⎡
m ⎢ 0.718(448  298)  298 1.005 ln
⎣
1

9.1907

 0.718 ln
1400
 101.325 (1 
101.325
 ⎤
9.1907) ⎥ kJ
⎦
= 1458.58 kJ = 133.96 kJ/kg

Final Availability
Af =  f – 0
= m c (T  T )  ⎧ Vf pf ⎫
c ln  m c ln  p (V V )
T0 ⎨m P v ⎬
v f 0
V p 0 f 0
⎩ 0 0 ⎭
mRTf  931.25 kPa and T  T ⎤
⎡
p
⎢ f f 0⎥
⎧ Vf pf ⎫ ⎣ Vf ⎦
=0Tm ln  c ln  p (V  V )
0 ⎨cP v
⎬ V p 0 f 0

⎩ 0 0⎭

= (2065.7 – 829.92) kJ
= 1235.8 kJ = 113.5 kJ/kg
 Irreversibility = Loss of availability
= (1458.5 – 1235.8) kJ = 222.7 kJ

Q8.10 Air flows through an adiabatic compressor at 2 kg/s. The inlet conditions
are 1 bar and 310 K and the exit conditions are 7 bar and 560 K. Compute
the net rate of availability transfer and the irreversibility. Take T0 = 298
K.
Solution: Mass flow rate (m ) = 2
kg/s
(Ans. 481.1 kW and 21.2 kW)
pi = 1 bar = 100 kPa p f = 7 bar = 700 kPa T0 = 298 K
Ti = 310 K Tf = 560 K
Calculated data:
 m RT 
m RT
V =i i
= 1.7794 m /s V f =
3
f
= 0.4592 m3/s
pi pf
Availability increase rate of air= B 2 – B1

= h2 – h1 – T 0  s 2 – s 1 
⎧ v p ⎫
= m c (T  T )  T c ln 2  m c ln 2
P 2 1 0⎨
m P v ⎬
v p
⎡ ⎩ ⎧ 1 1⎭
= m c (T  T )  T v2 p2 ⎫⎤
ln  c ln
⎢P 2 1
c
0⎨ P v ⎬⎥
v p
⎣ ⎩ 1 1 ⎭⎦
= 2[251.25 – 10.682] kW
= 481.14 kW
i

Actual work required= m(h2 – h1 )

W = 2 × 251.25 kW = 502.5 kW
 Irreversibility = Wact. – Wmin.
= (502.5 – 481.14) kW
= 21.36 kW

Q8.11 An adiabatic turbine receives a gas (cp = 1.09 and cv = 0.838 kJ/kg K) at 7
bar and 1000°C and discharges at 1.5 bar and 665°C. Determine the
second law and isentropic efficiencies of the turbine. Take T0 = 298 K.
(Ans. 0.956, 0.879)
Solution:
T1 = 1273 K
R  cP – cv = 0.252
p1 = 7 bar = 700 kPa T1
1

 v1 = RT (cp  cv ) T1 2
T2
1 = p1 2
T2 
p1
0.252  1273 3
= 700 m /kg
S
= 0.45828 m /kg
3

T2 = 938 K T0 = 298 K

p2 = 1.5 bar = 150 kPa

v2 = RT
2
= 1.57584 m3/kg
p2
Wactual = h1 – h2 = mc P  T1 – T2 
=1× ⎡ 1.09 p× (1273 –V 938)
⎤ kW = 365.15 kW
S2 – S1 = m c ln 2  c ln 2
⎢v p
p
V⎥
⎣ 1 1⎦

 
150 1.57584
= 1  0.838 ln  1.09  ln kW/ K
700 0.43828
= 0.055326 kW/K
S2 T2
 S2 = m ln = S2 – S1 = 0.055326
cp T2
T2
 1  1.09 ln = 0.055326
T2
T2
 = 1.05207
T2

 T= T2 938 = 891.6 K
2
1.05207 = (1.05207 )
  
Isentropic work = h  h = m c (T  T )
1 2 p 1 2

= 3 × 1.09(1273 – 891.6) kW = 415.75 kW

365.15
 Isentropic efficiency = = 87.83%
415.75
Change of availability
ΔA = A1 – A2
= h1 – h2 – T0(S1 – S2 )
= mc P  T1 – T2   T0  S2 – S1 
= 1 × 1.09 (1273 – 938) + 298(0.055326) kW= 381.64 kW

Minimum exergy required to perform the task

 ηII =
Actual availability loss
365.15
= 381.64 = 95.7%

Q8.12 Air enters an adiabatic compressor at atmospheric conditions of 1 bar,

15°C and leaves at 5.5 bar. The mass flow rate is 0.01 kg/s and the
efficiency of the compressor is 75%. After leaving the compressor, the air
is cooled to 40°C in an after-cooler. Calculate
(a) The power required to drive the compressor
(b) The rate of irreversibility for the overall process (compressor and
cooler).
(Ans. (a) 2.42 kW, (b) 1 kW)
Solution:
p1 = 1 bar = 100 kPa 2
T1 = 288 K
m = 0.01 kg/s 2S

v1 = RT 313 K
40°C
1
= 0.82656 m3/kg
T
p1
p2 = 5.5 bar = 550 kPa 288 K 1

S
For minimum work required
to compressor is isentropic
( p2 V2  p1 V1 )
Wisentropic =
1
1
⎡ ⎤
 ⎛p ⎞
= RT ⎢ 2   1⎥
1 1 ⎜ ⎟
⎢ p ⎥
⎣⎝ 1 ⎠ ⎦
1.4 ⎡⎛ 550 ⎞ 0.4
=  0.287  288 ⎢ 1.4  1⎤⎥ = 181.55 kW/kg
kJ/kg
 ⎜ ⎟
0.4 ⎢⎝⎣ 100⎠ ⎥⎦
 Actual work required
 Availability & Irreversibility
By: S K Mondal Chapter 8
181.55 = 242 kJ/kg
Wact = 0.75
(a)  Power required driving the compressor
= m
W = 2.42 kW
act

Extra work addede in 2 to 2 is (242 – 181.55) =

60.85 kJ/kg
 = 60.85
C
(T 
T)
p 2 2

or = 529.25 K
60.85
2
1.005
 Availability loss due to cooling
529.25
⎛ 288 ⎞
=  1  1.005 ⎜1  ⎟ dT
⎝ ⎠ T
313 ⎧
  ⎛ 529.25 ⎞⎫
⎟⎬ kJ/kg
= 1.005 313
⎨(529.21
288 ln ⎜
⎩ ⎝ ⎠⎭
=

6
5
.
3
0
2

k
J
/
k
g
 Total available energy loss
= (60.85 + 65.302) kJ/kg =
126.15 kJ/kg
 Power loss due to irreversibility =
1.2615 kW

Q8.13 In a rotary compressor, air enters at

1.1 bar, 21 ° C where it is compressed
adiabatically to 6.6 bar, 250°C.
Calculate the irreversibility and the
entropy production for unit mass flow
rate. The atmosphere is at
1.03 bar, 20°C. Neglect the K.E. changes.
n:
Sol
utio p2 p1 = 1.1 bar = 110 kPa
 p1
2
2S
Availability & Irreversibility p0

By: S K Mondal 1 Chapter 8

T (Ans K × 0 . 0 6 4 647= 211.2 kJ/kg
7 of 2 6 5
1 . 19 )
= kJ/kg
2 ,
9 0.06
4 4
K kJ/kg
p2 = 6.6 bar =
660 kPa
T2 = 523 K
p0 = 103 kPa
T 2
K ⎛ dh dp⎞


Δs== s ⎜
T
v
T

⎟
1 ⎝

=
T p2 ⎤

⎢CP ln T  R ln
⎣ 1
⎡ 523
⎛ 660
⎞ ⎤
⎣ ⎝ ⎠⎦
= ⎢1.005 ln
294

= 0.064647 kJ/kg
– K = 64.647 J/kg
–K

Minimum
work required
Wmin =
Availability
increase
= h2 – h1 –
T0 ( s2 – s 1 )
 mc P
 T2 – T1
 –
T0Δs
=1×
1.005
(523 –
294 ) –
P
2 93
ag e 10
 Actual work required (Wact ) = 230.145 kJ/kg
 Irreversibility = T0 Δs
= 293 × 0.064647 = 18.942 kJ/kg

Q8.14 In a steam boiler, the hot gases from a fire transfer heat to water which
vaporizes at a constant temperature of 242.6°C (3.5 MPa). The gases
are cooled from 1100 to 430°C and have an average specific heat, cp =
1.046 kJ/kg K over this temperature range. The latent heat of
vaporization of steam at 3.5 MPa is 1753.7 kJ/kg. If the steam
generation rate is 12.6 kg/s and there is negligible heat loss from the
boiler, calculate:
(a) The rate of heat transfer
(b) The rate of loss of exergy of the gas
(c) The rate of gain of exergy of the steam
(d) The rate of entropy generation. Take T0 = 21°C.
(Ans. (a) 22096 kW, (b) 15605.4 kW
(c) 9501.0 kW, (d) 20.76 kW/K)
Solution: (a) Rate of heat transfer = 12.6 × 1752.7 kW = 22.097

MW If mass flow rate at gas is m g

Then mP g c (1100 – 430) = 22097

g


or m g = 31.53
kg/s 1373 294 ⎞
Loss of exergy of the gas =  mgcP ⎜1  ⎛ ⎟ dT
T
g

703 ⎡ ⎝ ⎠

= m c ⎛ 1373 ⎞⎤
g P ⎢(1373  703)  294 ln ⎜ ⎟⎥
g⎣ 703
⎝ ⎠⎦
= 15606

kJ/s = 15.606 MW
Gain
L of exergy of steam = m ⎛ 294 ⎞
1
w
= 9.497 MW
w ⎜ ⎟
515.4
⎝ ⎠
Irriversibility
Rate of entropy gas
= T0
= 20.779 kW/K
Q8.15 An economizer, a gas-to-water finned tube heat exchanger, receives 67.5
kg/s of gas, cp = 1.0046 kJ/kg K, and 51.1 kg/s of water, cp = 4.186 kJ/kg K.
The water rises in temperature from 402 to 469 K, where the gas falls in
temperature from 682 K to 470 K. There are no changes of kinetic energy
and p0 = 1.03 bar and T0 = 289 K. Determine:
(a) Rate of change of availability of the water
(b) The rate of change of availability of the gas
(c) The rate of entropy generation
(Ans. (a) 4802.2 kW, (b) 7079.8 kW, (c) 7.73 kW/K)
⎛ T ⎞
Solution: (a) Rate of charge of availability of water = Q 1  0
⎜ ⎟
⎝ T⎠
469 289 ⎞
 ⎛ Page 108 of 265
=  mw cp w dT ⎜1  ⎟
402
⎝ T ⎠
⎡ 469 ⎤
= 51.1  4.186  (469  402)  289 ln kW

⎣⎢ 402 ⎥⎦

Page 109 of 265

 = 4.823 MW (gain)

(b) Rate of availability loss of gas

= m  c ⎛
682
289 ⎞
1 dT
 g Pg ⎜ T
⎟
470
⎝ ⎠
⎡ 682 ⎤
= 67.5  1.0046 (682  470)  289 ln
⎢⎣
470 ⎥⎦
= 7.0798 MW

 (c) Rate of irreversibility (I) = 2.27754
MW


 Entropy generation rate S = I

gas = 7.8808 kW/K
T0
Q8.16 The exhaust gases from a gas turbine are used to heat water in an
adiabatic counter flow heat exchanger. The gases are cooled from 260 to
120°C, while water enters at 65°C. The flow rates of the gas and water are
0.38 kg/s and 0.50 kg/s respectively. The constant pressure specific heats
for the gas and water are 1.09 and 4.186 kJ/kg K respectively. Calculate
the rate of exergy loss due to heat transfer. Take T0 = 35°C.
(Ans. 12.5 kW)
Solution: Tgi = 260º C = 533 K Tw i = 65ºC = 338 K
Tgo = 120ºC = 393 K Tw o = 365.7 K (Calculated)

mg = 0.38 kg/s m w = 0.5 kg/s
cpg = 1.09 kJ/kg – K cPw = 4.186 kJ/kg – K
To = 35º C = 308 K

To calculate
from heat balance
Two
m c (T  T )
= m c (T T )
g Pg gi go w Pw wo wi

 Two = 365.7 K
Loss rate of availability of gas⎡
m
⎛=533 ⎞⎤ c (533  393)  308 ln = 19.115 kW

g pg
⎢ ⎜ ⎟
⎣ ⎝ 393 ⎠ ⎥⎦
Rate of gain of availability
⎡ of water
= m c ⎛ 365.7 ⎞⎤
wpw⎢ (365.7  338)  308 ln ⎜ 338 ⎟⎥ = 7.199 kW
⎣ ⎝ ⎠⎦
 Rate of exergy loss = 11.916 kW

Q8.17 The exhaust from a gas turbine at 1.12 bar, 800 K flows steadily into a
heat exchanger which cools the gas to 700 K without significant
pressure drop. The heat transfer from the gas heats an air flow at
constant pressure, which enters the heat exchanger at 470 K. The mass
flow rate of air is twice that of the gas and the surroundings are at 1.03
bar, 20°C. Determine:
(a) The decrease in availability of the exhaust gases.
(b) The total entropy production per kg of gas.
(c) What arrangement would be necessary to make the heat transfer
reversible and how much would this increase the power output of
 the plant per kg of turbine gas? Take cp for exhaust gas as 1.08 and
for air as 1.05 kJ/kg K. Neglect heat transfer to the surroundings
and the changes in kinetic and potential energy.
(Ans. (a) 66 kJ/kg, (b) 0.0731 kJ/kg K, (c) 38.7 kJ/kg)
⎛ T ⎞
Solution: (a) Availability decrease of extra gases = Q 1  0
⎜ ⎟
⎝ T⎠
800 ⎛ 293 ⎞ ⎡ ⎛ 800 ⎞⎤
=  m cp ⎜1  ⎟ dT = 1  1.08 ⎢(800  700)  293 ln ⎜ ⎟⎥
T ⎠


700
⎝ ⎣ ⎝ 700 ⎠⎦
= 65.745 kJ/kg

H.F.
Gas

H.F.
Water

(b) Exit air temperature Texit

2 m c pa  Te – 470   m  c pg  800 – 700 
or Te = 521.5 K
 Availability
⎡ increases 521.5 ⎤
= 2  1.05  (521.5  470)  293 ln = 44.257 kJ/kg

⎣⎢ 470 ⎥⎦

 Sgas = 73.336 J/K of per kg gas flow
For reversible heat transfer
(ΔS) univ = 0
(ΔS) Gas = –(ΔS) water
800
m  1.08 ln
700 ⎛ 470 ⎞
= 2 m  1.05  ln
⎜⎝ To ⎠⎟

or ln T
o
= 0.068673
470
 To = 503.4 K
 Q1 = m × 1.08(800 – 700) = 108 kJ/kg
Q2 = 2m × 1.05 (503.4 – 470) = 70.162 kJ/kg of gas
W = Q1 – Q2 = 37.84 kJ/kg of gas flow [i.e. extra output]

Q8.18 An air preheater is used to heat up the air used for combustion by
cooling the outgoing products of combustion from a furnace. The rate
of flow of the products is 10 kg/s, and the products are cooled from
300°C to
 200°C, and for the products at this temperature cp = 1.09 kJ/kg K. The
rate of air flow is 9 kg/s, the initial air temperature is 40°C, and for the
air cp = 1.005 kJ/kg K.
(a) What is the initial and final availability of the products?
(b) What is the irreversibility for this process?
(c) If the heat transfer from the products were to take place reversibly
through heat engines, what would be the final temperature of the
air?
What power would be developed by the heat engines? Take To = 300 K.
(Ans. (a) 85.97, 39.68 kJ/kg, (b) 256.5 kW,
(c) 394.41 K, 353.65 kW)
Solution: To calculate final air temperature ( Tf )
m g c
(573  473) = pa
 313)
pg
m a c (Tf
10 × 1.09 (573 – 473) = 9 × 1.005 (Tf – 313)
Or Tf = 433.5 K

(a) Initial availability of the product

573 ⎤
⎡
= c (573  300)  300 ln
pg ⎢
⎣ 300 ⎥⎦
= 85.97 kJ/kg of product

Final availability 473⎤

⎡
= c (473  300)  300 ln
= 39.68 kJ/kg of product
pg ⎢
⎥
300 ⎦
⎣
 Loss of availability = 46.287 kJ/kg of product

Availability gain
⎡ by air ⎛ 433.5 ⎞⎤
= c (433.5  313)  300 ln = 22.907 kJ/kg of air
pg ⎢ ⎜ ⎟⎥
313
⎣ ⎝ ⎠⎦

(b)  Rate of irreversibility


I = (10 × 46.287 – 22.907 × 9) kW= 256.7 kW

(c) For reversible heat transfer

(ΔS) Univ = 0 Gas

 (ΔS) gas + (ΔS) air = 0

T1
or (ΔS) gas = –(ΔS) air
T

or m
cpg ⎛T⎞
g
ln ⎜ Tf ⎟ Air
⎝ i⎠ T2
= m a cp ln⎛ TTf ⎞
⎜ ⎟
a
 ⎝ i⎠
S
⎛ 10  1.09 ln
or 73 ⎞
⎜ ⎟
⎝ 10  1.09 ln 73573 ⎠
= 9  1.005  Tf
ln 313
or Tf = 394.4 = 399.4 K

 Q1 = m g c (T  T ) = 1090 kJ
pg i f

Q2 = m a c (394.4  313) = 736.263 kJ

  p
a
 W = Q1  Q2 = 353.74 kW output of engine.

Q8.19 A mass of 2 kg of air in a vessel expands from 3 bar, 70°C to 1 bar,

40°C, while receiving 1.2 kJ of heat from a reservoir at 120°C. The
environment is at 0.98 bar, 27°C. Calculate the maximum work and the
work done on the atmosphere.
(Ans. 177 kJ, 112.5 kJ)
Solution:
Maximum work from gas
= u1 – u2 – T0  s1 – s2 
= m cv (T1  T2 )
⎡ T1 p1 ⎤

⎣ 2 2 ⎦

⎡ ⎡ 343 ⎛ 3 ⎞⎤⎤
=
2 ⎢0.718(343  313)  300 ⎢1.005 ln  0.287 ln ⎜ ⎟⎥⎥
⎣ 313 ⎝ 1 ⎠⎦⎦
⎣
= 177.07 kJ
Work done on the atmosphere p0 (V2 – V1)
T
=
⎡ T0 T1 ⎤ 1
Q = 1.2 kJ/kg

⎣ ⎡T2 1 ⎦
2
= 98 mR T1 ⎤ 2
 2S
⎢p p ⎥
⎣ 2 1⎦ S

= 111.75 kJ

Q8.20 Air enters the compressor of a gas turbine at 1 bar, 30°C and leaves the
compressor at 4 bar. The compressor has an efficiency of 82%. Calculate
per kg of air
(a) The work of compression
(b) The reversible work of compression
T ⎛p
 1/
⎞
 (c) The irreversibility. For air,
use 2s
⎜
2
⎟


T1 ⎝ p1 ⎠

Where T2s is the temperature of air after isentropic compression and  =

1.4. The compressor efficiency is defined as (T2s – T1) / (T2 – T1), where T2
is the actual temperature of air after compression.
(Ans. (a) 180.5 kJ/kg, (b) 159.5 kJ/kg (c) 21 kJ/kg)
Solution:
 Availability & Irreversibility
By: S K Mondal Chapter 8
p1  1 bar  100 kPa 2

T1  30º C  303 K
2S

T
p2  4 bar  400 kPa

T2  ? com  6.82 1

(b) Minimum work required for compression is isentropic work

⎧
 ⎪
mRT ⎨⎜⎛ p ⎟⎞ 
1
⎫
⎪
 WR =   1 p2  1⎬
⎪⎩⎝ 1 ⎠ ⎭⎪
⎧ ⎪
 1  0.287  303 ⎪ 400 ⎞ 0.4
1.4
= ⎨⎛⎜ 1.4
= 147.92 kJ/kg
(1.4  ⎩ ⎝
⎪ 100 ⎠ 
1) ⎭⎪
147.92
(a) Actual work = = 180.4 kJ/kg
0.82

 Extra work 32.47 kJ will heat the gas from T2 to T2

⎛ p ⎞   1
T 2 = ⎜ 2⎟  
T1  T2 = 450.3 K
⎝ p1 ⎠ 
 32.47 = mc (T  T )
P 2 2

 T2 = 482.6 K
(c) Irreversibility (I) = (180.4 – 147.92) kJ/kg = 32.48 kJ/kg

Q8.21 A mass of 6.98 kg of air is in a vessel at 200 kPa, 27°C. Heat is

transferred to the air from a reservoir at 727°C. Until the temperature
of air rises to 327°C. The environment is at 100 kPa, 17°C. Determine
(a) The initial and final availability of air
(b) The maximum useful work associated with the process.
(Ans. (a) 103.5, 621.9 kJ (b) 582 kJ)
Solution: mRT2
p1= 200kPa p2 = 400 kPa
V2
=
po = 100 kPa
T1 = 300 K T2 = 600 K To = 290 K
V1 = mRT
= 3.005 m3 V2 = V1 = 3.005 m3
1 P1
Vo = 5.8095 m3 m = 6.98 kg

(a) Initial availability

Ai = u1 – u0 – T0  s1 – s0  + p (V1 – V0)
⎡ T1 0 p1 ⎤
= m c (T  T )  mT m c ln  R ln  p (V  V )
 Availability & Irreversibility
By: S K Mondal Chapter 8
v 1 0 0⎢ p
T p ⎥
0 1 0

⎣ 0 0⎦

= 6.98 × 0.718 (300 – 290) – 6.98 × 290

 Availability & Irreversibility
By: S K Mondal ⎡
Chapter 8
6.98  300 ⎛ 200 ⎞⎤ + 100(3.005– 5.8095)
 0.287 ln 29


⎜
⎣ ⎝ ⎠ 0 100
= 103.4 kJ ⎟⎥
⎢1 ⎦
.0
05
ln
290

Final
availability
A = ⎡m c (T T 2 – T 0)
– mT
p ⎤ c ln 2  R ln
2
 p (V  V )
f v
T p ⎥
2 0

⎣ 0 0⎦

= 6.98 ×
0.718(600 –
290) – 6.98 ×
290
⎡
6
⎛
×
l
0
⎜

(
5
⎣⎝ ⎠⎦
= 599.5 kJ

(b) Maximum
useful
work
= u2 – u 1 – +(V2 – V1)
T0
 s2 p
– 0

s1 
= m c (T⎡ T
)T T m cp ln⎤
2
 R ln 2
 p (V  V )
v 2
0⎢ p
T 0p ⎥
1

⎣ 1 1 ⎦
= 6.98 ×
0.718(600 –
300) – 300
 Availability & Irreversibility
By: S K Mondal ⎡
Chapter 8
127°C and
6 110 m/s.
0 The
0
environmen
4
0 t is at 100
0 kPa, 7°C.
⎞
⎤ Calculate
× =
6.9 461.35 per kg of
8 kJ air
⎢ (a) The
005
ln actual

300 amount
0.2 of work
87 require
ln
d
200
⎟ (b) The

 minimu
⎣ ⎝ ⎠⎦ m work
 require
d
V (c) The
V irrever
sibility
of the
Heat transfer to the
process
vessel
(
Q= mRT kJ, (c) 17.1 kJ)
p= V Solution: Minimum
c work required
= m cv (T2 – T1) = 6.98 × 0.718 × (600 – T2 = 127ºC =
300) kJ 400 K
= 290 K
1503.402 ⎛ 280 K
2
kJ V
T ⎞ 0 2
 Useful V
of
Q 1  work=loss
⎜reservoir
⎝ ⎠ w = hT2  h1 
2000
290 ⎞⎟
=1000 T0(s2  s1 ) 
2
⎜
1503.402
⎛ ⎡ T 2 p ⎤ V 
2

V
⎝ = m cP(T2 
T1 )  mT 0
⎢ cP ln 22 
⎠ R
2
ln ⎥ 
= 1067.47 kJ T1 p1 2000
⎣
Q8.22 Air enters a ⎦
compressor in
steady flow at
140 kPa, 17°C
and 70 m/s
and leaves it
at 350 kPa,
 ⎡ 400 350 ⎤
= 1  1.005(400  290)  1  280 1.005 ln  0.287 ln
⎢⎣ 290 140
⎥⎦
1.110  70
2 2

 2000 kJ
= 110.55 – 16.86 + 3.6 = 97.29 kJ/kg

Actual work required

V V
2 2
= h2  h 1
 2000 1 = (110.55 + 3.6) kJ = 114.15 kJ
2

 Irreversibility of the process

= T0  s2 – s1  = T0(ΔS) univ = 16.86 kJ/kg
Q8.23 Air expands in a turbine adiabatically from 500 kPa, 400 K and 150 m/s to
100 kPa, 300 K and 70 m/s. The environment is at 100 kPa, 17°C.
Calculate per kg of air
(a) The maximum work output
(b) The actual work output
(c) The irreversibility
(Ans. (a) 159 kJ, (b) 109 kJ, (c) 50 kJ)
Solution: Maximum work output
V V
2 2

w = h1  h2  T0(s1  s2 )  1 2
2000
 ⎧ T
p ⎫ V  V2
2 2

= CP(T1 T2 )  T0 ⎨CP ln 1  R ln 1 ⎬  1
⎩ T2 p2 ⎭ 2000


=1.005(400  300)  290 1.005 ln
400
200
 0.287 ln

500 150  70
100
 2
2000
2

= 159.41 kJ/kg
V V
Actual output = h  h  2 1 2 2 = 100.5 + 8.8 = 109.3 kJ/kg
1 2
2000
The irreversibility (I) = T0(ΔS) univ = 50.109 kJ/kg
Q8.24 Calculate the specific exergy of air for a state at 2 bar, 393.15 K when the
surroundings are at 1 bar, 293.15 K. Take cp = 1 and R = 0.287 kJ/kg K.
(Ans. 72.31 kJ/kg)
Solution: Exergy = Available energy
= h1 – h2 – T 0  s 1 – s 2 
⎡ T p ⎤
= C (T  T )  T C ln 1  R ln 1
0⎢ p
p⎥
p 1 0
T
⎣
⎡ 393.15
0 0⎦
⎛ 2 ⎞⎤
= 1  (393.15  293.15)   ln  0.287 ln kJ/kg
293.15 1⎢ ⎜⎟ ⎥
⎣ 293.15 ⎝ 1⎠⎦
= 72.28 kJ/kg
Q8.25 Calculate the specific exergy of CO 2 (cp = 0.8659 and R = 0.1889 kJ/kg K)
for a state at 0.7 bar, 268.15 K and for the environment at 1.0 bar and
293.15 K.
(Ans. – 18.77 kJ/kg)
Solution:
Exergy = Available energy Emin
 h1 – h0 – T 0  s 1 – s 2  p0 = 100 kPa
⎡ T p⎤ T0 = 293.15 K
= C p (T1  T0 )  T0 ⎢C p ln 1  R ln 1 ⎥
⎣ T0 p0 ⎦ p
= 0.8659 (268.15  293.15)  293.15

 
268.15 70
 0.8659 ln  0.1889 ln kJ/ kg p1 = 70 kPa, T1 = 68.15 K
293.15 100
= –18.772 kJ/kg
V
Q8.26 A pipe carries a stream of brine with a mass flow rate of 5 kg/s.
Because of poor thermal insulation the brine temperature increases
from 250 K at the pipe inlet to 253 K at the exit. Neglecting pressure
losses, calculate the irreversibility rate (or rate of energy degradation)
associated with the heat leakage. Take T0 = 293 K and cp = 2.85 kJ/kg
K.
(Ans. 7.05 kW)
Solution:
1 T. dT 2

m = 5 kg/s
p, 250 K p, 253 K
T0 = 293 K
cp = 2.85 kJ/kg – K
Entropy generation rate

  Q
Sgas = Ssys 
T0
 m (253  250)

c
= m (S2  S1 ) P
⎡ T 3 ⎤ T0
= m c ln 2  kW/ K
P⎢ T T ⎥
⎣ 1 0⎦

= 0.0240777 kW/K
 
Where, Q =  m cp(253  250)

–ve because Q flux from surroundings.
T2
S2 – S1 = cp ln
T1


 I = rate of energy degradation

= rate of exergy loss

To Sgen = 293 × 0.0240777 kW = 7.0548 kW

Q8.27 In an adiabatic throttling process, energy per unit mass of enthalpy

remains the same. However, there is a loss of exergy. An ideal gas
flowing at the rate m is throttled from pressure p1 to pressure p2 when
 the environment is at temperature T0. What is the rate of exergy loss
due to throttling?
⎛ i i p1 ⎞

⎜ Ans. I  m RT0 ln p ⎟
⎝ 2⎠
Solution:
Adiabatic throttling process h1 = h2

 Rate of entropy generation (Sgen )
  

Sgen = (ΔS)sys  (ΔS)surr.



= (ΔS)sys  0
= m (S  S )
2 1

= m ⎛ p1 ⎞
R ln
⎜p⎟
⎝ 2⎠
(as no heat interaction with surroundings)  kg/s
m
TdS = dh – Vdp
or dS = dh dp V mR
T V T T= p p1, T1 p2, T2
dp
dS = 0  mR
p
2 dp p2 p1
or S2 – S1 =   mR =  mR ln = mR ln
1 p p1 p2


 Irreversibility rate (I)


= T0  Sgen
⎛p ⎞
= T  mR ln 1
0 ⎜p⎟
⎛ p ⎝⎞ 2 ⎠
= mR T ln 1
0 ⎜
p⎟
⎝ 2⎠

Q8.28. Air at 5 bar and 20°C flows into an evacuated tank until the pressure
in the tank is 5 bar. Assume that the process is adiabatic and the
temperature of the surroundings is 20°C.
(a) What is the final temperature of the air?
(b) What is the reversible work produced between the initial and final
states of the air?
(c) What is the net entropy change of the air entering the tank?
(d) Calculate the irreversibility of the process.
(Ans. (a) 410.2 K, (b) 98.9 kJ/kg,
(c) 0.3376 kJ/kg K, (d) 98.9 kJ/kg)
Solution: If m kg of air is entered to the tank then the enthalpy of entering fluid is equal to
internal energy of tank fluid.
(a) h=v
 CpT1 = CvT⎛2 C ⎞
p
or T2 = T =  T1
⎜ ⎟ 1
⎝C v ⎠
 =1.4 × 293 K = 410.2 K
V1
(b) Reversible work

W = pdV work
= p (V2 – V1)
= p (0 – V1) RT1
v1 = = 0.168182 m3/kg
= pV1 p1

Q8.29 A Carnot cycle engine receives and rejects heat with a 20°C
temperature differential between itself and the thermal energy
reservoirs. The expansion and compression processes have a pressure
ratio of 50. For 1 kg of air as the working substance, cycle temperature
limits of 1000 K and 300 K and T0 = 280 K, determine the second law
efficiency.
(Ans. 0.965)
Solution:

Let Q1 amount of heat is in input. Then actual Carnot cycle produces work
W=Q ⎛
1  360 ⎞ = 0.7 Q1
1⎜ ⎟
1000
⎝ ⎠
If there is no temperature differential between inlet and outlet then from Q 1 heat
input Carnot cycle produce work.
Wmax = Q ⎛
1  280 ⎞ = 0.72549 Q1
1⎜ ⎟
1020
⎝ ⎠
W 0.7
 Second law efficiency (II ) = 0.965
Wma = 0.72549
= x

Q8.30 Energy is received by a solar collector at the rate of 300 kW from a

source temperature of 2400 K. If 60 kW of this energy is lost to the
surroundings at steady state and if the user temperature remains
constant at 600 K, what are the first law and the second law
efficiencies? Take T0 = 300 K.
 (Ans. 0.80, 0.457)
Solution: First law
efficiency 300  60 = 0.8
= 300
 ⎛ 300 ⎞
(300  60) 1 
⎜ ⎟
600

Second law efficiency = ⎝ ⎠

= 0.457
⎛ 300 ⎞⎟
300 1  2400
⎜
⎝ ⎠

Q8.31 For flow of an ideal gas through an insulated pipeline, the pressure
drops from 100 bar to 95 bar. If the gas flows at the rate of 1.5 kg/s and
has cp = 1.005 and cv = 0.718 kJ/kg-K and if T0 = 300 K, find the rate of
entropy generation, and rate of loss of exergy.
(Ans. 0.0215 kW/K, 6.46 kW)
Solution:
1 2

m = 1.5
p1 = 100 bar kg/s p2 = 95 bar
T0 = 300 K
cp = 1.005 kJ/kg – K
cv = 0.718 kJ/kg – K
Rate of entropy generation

  Q
Sgen = (Δ S)sys 
T0

As it is insulated pipe so Q = 0


= (ΔS)sys TdS = dh – Vdp

= m (S
 S1 )
2 Here h1 = h2 so dh = 0
= m ⎛p ⎞
R ln 1  TdS = – Vdp
⎜p⎟
⎝ 2⎠
⎛ 100 ⎞ V
= 1.5  0.287  ln kW/K dS =  dp
⎜⎝ ⎟⎠ T2
95 2
dp p
= 0.022082
kW/K  dS = mR  = mR ln 2

1 1
p p1

Rate of loss of exergy = Irreversibility rate (I)


To Sgen = 300 × 0.22082 = 6.6245 kW

Q8.32 The cylinder of an internal combustion engine contains gases at

2500°C, 58 bar. Expansion takes place through a volume ratio of 9
according to pv1.38 = const. The surroundings are at 20°C, 1.1 bar.
Determine the loss of availability, the work transfer and the heat
transfer per unit mass. Treat the gases as ideal having R = 0.26 kl/kg-K
 and cv = 0.82 kJ/kg-K.
(Ans. 1144 kJ/kg, 1074 kJ/kg, – 213 kJ/kg)
Solution:
 1 1

p T
2

V
S
p1 = 58 bar = 5800 kPa
p2 = 279.62 kPa (calculated)
v1 = 0.1243 m3/kg (calculating) v2 = 9 v1 = 1.11876 m3/kg
T1 = 2500ºC = 2773 K T2 = 1203.2 K (calculated)
RT1
v=m = 0.1243 m3/kg
1
p1
p0 = 1.1 bar = 110 kPa R = 0.26 kJ/kg – K
T0 = 20ºC = 293 K W = 0.82 kJ/kg – K
 cP = cv  R = 1.08 kJ/kg
p ⎛ v ⎞n
1.38
or p2 = p1 ⎜⎛ 1v⎟⎞ = 1 p
 =⎜ ⎟
2 1

p1 ⎝ v2 ⎠ ⎝ v2 ⎠ 91.38
T ⎛v
n1
⎞ 1
= 0.38
2
= ⎜ 1⎟ 9
T1 v
⎝ 2⎠
 T2 = T
1 = 1203.2 K
90.38

 Loss of availability
 1  2
= (u1  u2 ) – T0  s1 – s2  + p0 ( v1 – v2 )
⎡ T p⎤
= C (T  T )  T C ln 1  R ln 1  p (v  v )
0⎢ p
p ⎥
v 1 2 0 1 2
T
⎣ 2 ⎡ 2⎦
= 0.82(2773 – 1203.2)  ⎛
2773  0.26 ln 5800 ⎞⎤

293 ⎣⎢1.08 ln ⎜ ⎟⎥
1203.2 ⎝ 279.62 ⎠ ⎦
+ 110(0.1243 – 1.11876) kJ/kg
= 1211 kJ/kg
Work transfer (W) p1 v1  p2 v2
= = 1074 kJ/kg
n1
dQ = du + dW
 Q1 – 2 = Cv (T2 – T1) + W1 – 2
 = –1287.2 + 1074 = –213.2 kJ/kg

Q8.33 In a counterflow heat exchanger, oil (cp = 2.1 kJ/kg-K) is cooled from 440
to 320 K, while water (cp = 4.2 kJ/kg K) is heated from 290 K to
temperature T. The respective mass flow rates of oil and water are 800
 and 3200 kg/h. Neglecting pressure drop, KE and PE effects and heat loss,
determine
(a) The temperature T
(b) The rate of exergy destruction
(c) The second law efficiency
Take T0 = I7°C and p0 = 1
atm.
(Ans. (a) 305 K, (b) 41.4 MJ/h, (c) 10.9%)
Solution:

cp = 2.1 kJ/kg – K
440 K 0
From energy balance
800 kg/K

(a) m P c (440  320 K

320) P
T cp = 4.2 kJ/kg – K
= m w c W
Pw 3200 kg/K
(T 
290)
 T = 290 + 15 = 305 K
200 K
   T = 17°C = 290 K
(b) Sgen = (ΔS)0  (ΔS) 0
p0 = 1 m = 101.325 kPa
= m c Tfo Tfw S
ln  m c ln
o po w pw
T T
⎡ 800 io
320 3200 iw 305 ⎤
 2.1  ln   4.2  ln
 

⎢⎣3600 440 3600 290 ⎥⎦

= 0.039663 kW/K = 39.6634 W/K


 Rate of energy destruction = To  Sgen = 290 × 0.039663 kW

= 11.5024 kW = 41.4 MJ/K

(c) Availability decrease of oil

= A1 – A2 = h1 – h2 – T0  s1
– s2 
= m 0 c ⎡ T ⎤
(T  T )  T ln 1
p0 ⎢ 1 2 0 ⎥
⎣ T2 ⎦
800  2.1  ⎡(440  320)  290 ln 440 ⎤
=
⎢⎣
3600 320 ⎥⎦
= 12.903 kW
Availability decrease of water
A1 – A2 = h1 – h2 – T0  s1 – s2 
= m w c ⎡ T ⎤
(T  T )  T ln 1
 pw⎢ 1 2 0 ⎥
⎣ T2 ⎦
3200 ⎡ 305 ⎤
=  4.2  (305  290)  290 ln kW = 1.4 kW

3600 ⎢⎣ 290 ⎥⎦
 Second law efficiency (II Gain of availability 1.4
)= Loss for that = 12.903 = 10.85%
Page 122 of 265
 Properties of Pure
Substances Chapter 9
By: S K Mondal
9. Properties of Pure Substances

Some Important Notes

1. Triple point

On p-T diagram It is a Point.

On p-V diagram It is a Line

On T-s diagram It is a Line

On U-V diagram It is a Triangle

2. Triple point of water

T = 273.16 K p = 0.00612 bar Entropy (S) = 0

= 0.01ºC = 4.587 mm of Hg Internal Energy (u) = 0
Enthalpy (h) = u + pV
= Slightly positive

3. Triple point of CO2

p = 5 atm And T = 216.55 K = – 56.45º C that so why

sublimation occurred.

3. Critical Point
For water pc = 221.2 bar  225.5 kgf/cm2
Tc = 374.15ºC  647.15 K
vc = 0.00317 m3/kg

At critical point
hfg = 0; vfg = 0; Sfg = 0

4. Mollier Diagram
⎞⎛  h ⎡∵ TdS  dh  vdp⎤
Basis of the h-S diagram is ⎜ ⎢ ⎥
⎟=T ⎛h⎞
⎝  S ⎠P ⎢⎜ ⎟  T ⎥
⎣⎢ ⎝  S ⎠p ⎥⎦
 The slope of an isobar on the h-s co-ordinates is equal to the absolute saturation
temperature at that pressure. And for that isobars on Mollier diagram diverges from one
another.
5. Dryness friction x=
 Properties of Pure
Substances Chapter 9
6. By:
v = (1 S
– x)K
v Mondal
xv
f g

u = (1 – x) uf  x ug mv
mv + ml
h = (1 – x) hf  x hg
s = (1 – x) sf  x sg v = v f  x vfg
u = uf  x ufg
h = hf  x hfg
s = sf  x sfg

7. Super heated vapour: When the temperature of the vapour is greater than
the saturation temperature corresponding to the given pressure.

8. Compressed liquid: When the temperature of the liquid is less than the
saturation temperature at the given pressure, the liquid is called compressed
liquid.

9. In combined calorimeter

x = x1  x 2 x1 = from throttle calorimeter

x2 = from separation calorimeter
 Questions with Solution P. K. Nag
Q9.1 Complete the following table of properties for 1 kg of water (liquid,
vapour or mixture)

Solution:
p bar tºC v m3/kg x/% Superheat h kJ/kg s kJ/
0ºC kg – K
a 0.0563 35 25.22 100 0 2565.3 8.353
b 1.0135 100º 0.001044 0 0 419.04 1.307
c 20 212.42 0.089668 90 0 2608.3 5.94772
d 1 99.6 1.343 79.27 0 2207.3 6.104
e 10 320 0.2676 100 140 3093.8 7.1978
f 5 238.8ºC 0.4646 100 87.024 2937.1 7.2235
g 4 143.6 0.4400 95.23 0 2635.9 6.6502
h 40 500 0.0864 100 249.6 3445.3 7.090
i 20 212.4ºC 0.1145 100 50 2932.5 6.600
j 15 400 0.203 100 201.70 3255.8 7.2690
Calculations: For (a) ………… For (b)
For (c) v = v f  x(vg  vf ) h = h f  x hf g  s= sf  x sf g

For (d) s = s
s  x sf g x= = 0.7927  h = h f  x hf g
f
sf
sfg
v = vf  x(vfg  vf )
20
For (e) tsat = 180ºC v = 0.258  0.282  0.258,
50
20
h = 3051.2  3157.8  = 3093.8
3051.2)
50
20
s = 7.123  7.310  7.123 = 7.1978
50
0.4646  0.425
For (f) t = 200   50 = 238.8º C
0.476  0.425
 38.8
h = 2855.4  (2960.7  2855.4)
50 = 2937.1
 38.8
s = 7.059  (7.271  7.059) = 7
50
(g) 0.4400 = 0.001084 + x(0.462 – 0.001084)  x = 09523
h = 604.7 + x × 2133, s = 1.7764 + x × 5.1179 = 6.6502
12.4
(i) t = 262.4ºC v = 0.111  (0.121  0.111),
50
12.4
h = 2902.5  (3023.5  2902.5) = 2932.5
50
12.9
s = 6.545  (6.766  6.545) = 6.600
50

Q9.2 (a) A rigid vessel of volume 0.86 m 3 contains 1 kg of steam at a pressure

of 2 bar. Evaluate the specific volume, temperature, dryness fraction,
internal energy, enthalpy, and entropy of steam.

(b) The steam is heated to raise its temperature to 150°C. Show the
process on a sketch of the p–v diagram, and evaluate the pressure,
increase in enthalpy, increase in internal energy, increase in
entropy of steam, and the heat transfer. Evaluate also the pressure
at which the steam becomes dry saturated.
(Ans. (a) 0.86 m3/kg, 120.23°C, 0.97, 2468.54 k/kg, 2640.54 kJ/kg, 6.9592 kJ/kg K
(b) 2.3 bar, 126 kJ/kg, 106.6 kJ/kg, 0.2598 kJ/kg K, 106.6 kJ/K)
3
0.86 m
Solution: (a)  Specific volume = Volume/mass = = 0.86 m3/kg
1 kg
 at 2 bar pressure saturated steam sp. Volume = 0.885
m3/kg So it is wet steam and temperature is saturation
temperature
= 120.2º C
v=v v  vf
f  x(vg  vf ) x=
vg  v f
0.86  0.001061
=0.885  0.001061 = 0.97172
 Internal energy (u) = h – pv = 2644 – 200 × 0.86 = 2472 kJ/kg
 Here h = hf  x hf g = 504.7 + 0.97172 × 2201.6 = 2644 kJ/kg
 s = sf  x sf g = 1.5301 + 0.97172 × 5.5967 = 6.9685 kJ/kg – K

(b) T2 = 150ºC = 423 K

v2 = 0.86 m3/kg
 Properties of Pure Substances
By: S K Mondal Chapter 9

S
p

V
0.885  0.86
pS = 2   (2  0  2) = 2.0641 bar
0.885 
0.846
vS = 0.86 m3/kg
0.0691
T= (121.8  120.2)  120.2 = 121.23º C = 394.23 K
S
0.1
Path 2 – 5 are is super heated zone so gas law (obey)
pSv1 pv [ v2 = v1]
 TS
= 2 2
T2
 p = T2
p 423  2.0641 = 2.215 bar
2 S
=
TS 394.23
From Molier diagram ps = 2.3 bar, h2 = 2770 kJ/kg, s2 = 7.095
 Δh = 127 kJ/kg, Δs = 0.1265 kJ/kg – K,
u2 = h2 – p2v2 = 2580
 Δq = u2  u1 = 107.5 kJ/kg

Q9.3 Ten kg of water at 45°C is heated at a constant pressure of 10 bar until

it becomes superheated vapour at 300°C. Find the change in volume,
enthalpy, internal energy and entropy.
(Ans. 2.569 m3, 28627.5 kJ, 26047.6 kJ, 64.842 kJ/K)
Solution:

2
30°C
1 2 T
p 1

m = 10 kg S
V ΔS
At state (1) At state (2)
Page 127 of 265
p1 = 10 bar = 1000 kPa p2 = p1 = 10 bar
T1 = 45ºC = 318 K T2 = 300ºC
For Steam Table

Page 128 of 265

 Properties of Pure
Substances Chapter 9
By: S Kv Mondal
= 0.001010 m /kg
1
3 v2 = 0.258 m3/kg
h1 = 188.4 kJ/kg u2 = 2793.2 kJ/kg
u1 = h1  p1v1 = 187.39 kJ/kg h2 = 3051.2 kJ/kg
s1 = 0.693 kJ/kg – K s2 = 7.123 kJ/kg – K

 Change in volume = m  v 2 – v1  = 2.57 m3

Enthalpy change = m(h2  h1 ) = 28.628 MJ
Internal Energy change = m(u2  u1 ) = 26.0581 MJ
Entropy change = m  s2 – s1  = 64.3 kJ/K

Q9.4 Water at 40°C is continuously sprayed into a pipeline carrying 5

tonnes of steam at 5 bar, 300°C per hour. At a section downstream
where the pressure is 3 bar, the quality is to be 95%. Find the rate of
water spray in kg/h.
(Ans. 912.67 kg/h)
Solution:
3
1 2

m1 m2 = (m1 + h3)
p1 = 5 bar p2 = 3 bar
= 500 kPa T2 = 133.5°C
T1 = 300°C h2 = 561.4 + 0.95 × 2163.2
h1 = 3064.2 kJ/kg = 2616.44 kJ/kg

T3 = 40º C
h3 = 167.6 kJ/kg
 For adiabatic steady flow
 
m h m h = (h ) = 
 m3 )
11 3 1 2
 
m (m h
3 2 2
 
 m (h  h ) = m (h  h )
1 1 2 3 2 3


 = (h1  h2 )
m m
3
1 (h  h )
2 3

⎧3064.2  2616.44 ⎫
= 5000  ⎨ kg/hr
⎩ 2616.44  ⎭

= 914.23 kg/hr.

Q9.5 A rigid vessel contains 1 kg of a mixture of saturated water and

 Properties of Pure
Substances Chapter 9
By: S Ksaturated
Mondal steam at a pressure of 0.15 MPa. When the mixture is
heated, the state passes through the critical point. Determine
(a) The volume of the vessel
(b) The mass of liquid and of vapour in the vessel initially
 (c) The temperature of the mixture when the pressure has risen to 3
MPa
(d) The heat transfer required to produce the final state (c).
(Ans. (a) 0.003155 m3, (b) 0.9982 kg, 0.0018 kg,
(c) 233.9°C, (d) 581.46 kJ/kg)

Solution:

30 bar
2
p
p1 = 1.5 bar
1

V
It is a rigid vessel so if we
(a) Heat this then the process will be constant volume heating. So the volume of
the vessel is critical volume of water = 0.00317 m3

v  vf 0.00317  0.001053
(b) v = v f  x(vg  vfg ) x= = 1.159  0.001053
vg  v f
 Mass of vapour = 0.0018282 kg
 Mass of water = 0.998172 kg

(c) As it passes through critical point then at 3 MPa i.e. 30 bar also it will be wet
steam 50 temperatures will be 233.8ºC.

(d) Required heat (Q) = (u2  u1 )

= (h2  h1 )  (p2v2  p1v1 )
= (h2f  x2hfg )2  (h1f  x1hfg ) 1 p2  vf  x2(vg  vf ) 2
 p1{vf  x1(vg  vf )1 }
v2 = vf 2 x2(vg  v2 f ) 2

 x=
v2  vf
2
0.00317  0.001216 = 0.029885
2 =
v g2  v f2 0.0666  0.001216
 Q = (1008.4 + 0.029885 × 1793.9)
– (467.1 + 0.0018282 × 2226.2) – 3000 (0.001216 +
0.029885 (0.0666 – 0.001216)) + 150(0.001053 + 0.001828 (1.159 – 0.0018282))
= 581.806 kJ/kg

Q9.6 A rigid closed tank of volume 3 m 3 contains 5 kg of wet steam at a

pressure of 200 kPa. The tank is heated until the steam becomes dry
saturated. Determine the final pressure and the heat transfer to the
tank.
(Ans. 304 kPa, 3346 kJ)
Solution: V1 = 3 m3
m = 5 kg
3
 v= = 0.6 m3/kg
1
5
p1 = 200 kPa = 2 bar
 x = v v (0.6 
1 f 0.001061)
= = 0.67758
1
vg  vf (0.885  0.001061)
h1 = hf  x1 hfg = 504.7 + 0.67758 × 2201.6 = 1996.5 kJ/kg
u1 = h1  p1v1 = 1996.5 – 200 × 0.6 = 1876.5 kJ/kg
As rigid tank so heating will be cost vot heating.
 vg = 0.6 m3/kg
2

From Steam Table vg = 0.606 m3/kg for p = 300 kPa

vg = 0.587 m3/kg for p = 310 kPa

 For V = 0.6 m3 10  0.006 = 303.16 kPa

p 2= 300 
0.019

 u2 = h 2  p 2 v 2
= 2725 – 303.16 × 0.6 = 2543 kJ/kg
 Heat supplied Q = m(u2  u1 ) = 3333 kJ

Q9.7 Steam flows through a small turbine at the rate of 5000 kg/h entering at
15 bar, 300°C and leaving at 0.1 bar with 4% moisture. The steam enters
at 80 m/s at a point 2 in above the discharge and leaves at 40 m/s.
Compute the shaft power assuming that the device is adiabatic but
considering kinetic and potential energy changes. How much error
would be made if these terms were neglected? Calculate the diameters of
the inlet and discharge tubes.
(Ans. 765.6 kW, 0.44%, 6.11 cm, 78.9 cm)
5000
Solution: m = 5000 kg/hr = kg/s
3600
p1 = 15 bar
t1 = 300º C

2m

Z0 2

 From Steam Table

h1 = 3037.6 kJ/kg p2 = 0.1 bar
V1 = 80 m/s
(100  4)
x=
= 0.96
2
100
Z1 = (Z0 + 2) m t2 = 45.8º C
v1 = 0.169 m3/kg h2 = hf  x2 hfg
= 191.8 + 0.96 × 2392.8 = 2489 kJ/kg
V2 = 40 m/s, Z2 = Z0 m  v2 = 14.083 m3/kg

⎡ V12  V 22 g(Z1 Z2 ) ⎤
 Work output (W) = m ⎢(h1  h2 )   ⎥
⎣ 2000 2000 ⎦
5000 ⎡ 2
80  90
2
9.81(2) ⎤
=
⎢⎣ (3037.6  2489)   ⎥ kW
3600 2000 2000 ⎦
= 765.45 kW
If P.E. and K.E. is neglected the
W = m1(h 2 h ) = 762.1
kW
WW
 Error =  100% = 0.44%
W
m
 v Area at inlet (A1) =1
V1 = 0.002934 m = 29.34 cm
2 2

 d1 = 6.112 cm
m v
2
Area at outlet (A2) = = 0.489 m2  d2 = 78.9 cm
V2

Q9.8 A sample of steam from a boiler drum at 3 MPa is put through a

throttling calorimeter in which the pressure and temperature are
found to be 0.1 MPa, 120°C. Find the quality of the sample taken from
the boiler.
(Ans. 0.951)
Solution : p1 = 3 MPa = 30 bar
p2 = 0.1 MPa = 1 bar
t2 = 120º C
20
h = 2676.2  (2776.4  2676.2)
2
50
= 2716.3 kJ/kg
1 2
 h1 = h2
 h1 = 2716.3 at 30 bar h

If dryness fraction is
 h1 = hg 1 x hfg 1

x= h h
1 f1

hfg1 S
2716.3  1008.4
= 1793.9 = 0.952
Q9.9 It is desired to measure the quality of wet steam at 0.5 MPa. The
quality of steam is expected to be not more than 0.9.
(a) Explain why a throttling calorimeter to atmospheric pressure will
not serve the purpose.
 (b) Will the use of a separating calorimeter, ahead of the throttling
calorimeter, serve the purpose, if at best 5 C degree of superheat is
desirable at the end of throttling? What is the minimum dryness
fraction required at the exit of the separating calorimeter to satisfy
this condition?
(Ans. 0.97)

Solution: (a) After throttling if pressure is atm. Then minimum temperature

required t = tsat + 5ºC = 100 + 5 = 105º C
Then Enthalpy required
= 2676  5 (2776.3  2676) kJ/kg = 2686 kJ/kg
50
If at 0.5 MPa = 5 bar dryness fraction is < 0.9
 hmax = hf + 0.9 hfg = 640.1 + 0.9 × 2107.4 = 2536.76 kJ/kg
So it is not possible to give 5º super heat or at least saturation i.e. (2676
kJ/kg) so it is not correct.

(b) Minimum dryness fraction required at the exit of the separating calorimeter
(x) then
h=h 2686  640.1 = 0.971
f  x h fg x=
2107.4

Q9.10 The following observations were recorded in an experiment with a

combined separating and throttling calorimeter:
Pressure in the steam main–15 bar
Mass of water drained from the separator–0.55 kg
Mass of steam condensed after passing through the throttle valve –4.20
kg
Pressure and temperature after throttling–1 bar, 120°C
Evaluate the dryness fraction of the steam in the main, and state with
reasons, whether the throttling calorimeter alone could have been used
for this test.
(Ans. 0.85)
Solution: p1 = 15 bar = p2
T1 = 198.3º C = t2
p3 = 1 bar, T3 = 120º C
 h3 = 2716.3 kJ/kg

1 2 3
1 bar

t= 120°C
1 2 3

mw = 0.55 kg 4.2 kg

h2 = h2f  x2  hfg =2 844.7 + x2 × 1945.2

 x2 = 0.96216  dry steam = x2 × 4.2
  Total dryness fraction (x)
x  4.2 0.96216  4.2
= 4.22  0.55 = 4.2  0.55 = 0.85
h1 = hf1  x hfg1 = 844.7 + 0.85 × 1945.2 = 2499.6 kJ/kg
But at 1 bar minimum 5º super heat i.e. 105ºC enthalpy is 2686 kJ/kg
So it is not possible to calculate only by throttling calorimeter.

Q9.11 Steam from an engine exhaust at 1.25 bar flows steadily through an
electric calorimeter and comes out at 1 bar, 130°C. The calorimeter has
two 1 kW heaters and the flow is measured to be 3.4 kg in 5 min. Find the
quality in the engine exhaust. For the same mass flow and pressures,
what is the maximum moisture that can be determined if the outlet
temperature is at least 105°C?
(Ans. 0.944, 0.921)
30
Solution: h = 2676.2  (2776.4  2676.2) = 2736.3 kJ/kg
2
50

 h =
m m1 h2  Q

1 1.25 bar 1 bar 2

130°C
m = 3.4 kg
5 mm
= 0.0113333 kg/s
2 kW capacity

Q
= 2560 kJ/kg
h1 = h 2  
m
At 1.25 bar: from Steam Table
At 1.2 bar, hf = 439.4 kJ/kg hfg = 2244.1 kJ/kg
At 1.3 bar, hf = 449.2 kJ/kg hfg = 2237.8 kJ/kg
At 1.25 bar hf = 444.3 kJ/kg; hfg = 2241 kJ/kg
If dryness fraction is x
Then 2560 = 444.3 + x × 2241
or x = 0.9441
If outlet temperature is 105º C then
h2 = 2686 kJ/kg (then from problem 9.9)

Q
 h1 = h 2  = 2509.53 kJ/kg

m
Then if dryness fraction is x2 then
2509 = 444.3 + x2 × 2241  x2 = 0.922 (min)

Q9.12 Steam expands isentropically in a nozzle from 1 MPa, 250°C to 10 kPa.

The steam flow rate is 1 kg/s. Find the velocity of steam at the exit
from the nozzle, and the exit area of the nozzle. Neglect the velocity of
steam at the inlet to the nozzle.
 The exhaust steam from the nozzle flows into a condenser and flows out
as saturated water. The cooling water enters the condenser at 25°C and
leaves at 35°C. Determine the mass flow rate of cooling water.
(Ans. 1224 m/s, 0.0101 m2, 47.81 kg/s)
Solution: At inlet
h1 = 2942.6 kJ/kg t2 = 45.8º C
s1 = 6.925 kJ/kg-K s2 = 6.925 kJ/kg-K

If dry fraction x
hf2 = 191.8 kJ/kg
v2 = 12.274 m3/kg

1 2
p1 = 1000 kPa
= 10 bar p2 = 10 kPa
= 0.1 bar
t1 = 250°C m = 1 kg/s
V1 = 0 V2
 s1  s2 = 0.649 + x × 7.501  x = 0.8367
 h2 = 191.8 + 0.8367 × 2392.8 = 2193.8 kJ/kg
 V2 = 2000(h1  h2 ) = 1224 m/s
m v
 Outlet Area = 2
= 100.3 cm2
V2
 If water flow rate is m kg/s
 1 × (2193.8 – 191.8) = m 4.187 (35 – 25)

 m = 47.815 kg/s

Q9.13 A reversible polytropic process, begins with steam at p1 = 10 bar, t1 =

200°C, and ends with p2 = 1 bar. The exponent n has the value 1.15. Find
the final specific volume, the final temperature, and the heat transferred
per kg of fluid.

Solution:
p1 = 10 bar = 1000 kPa
p2 = 1 bar = 100 kPa
t1 = 200º C = 473 K
From Steam Table
V1 = 0.206 m3/s
h1 = 2827.9 kJ/kg
n 1 1
pv ⎛ p ⎞n ⎛ 10 ⎞1.15
 v2 = 1 1 = 1 .v ⎜ ⎟  0.206 = 1.5256 m3/kg
p2 ⎜⎝ p2 ⎠⎟ 1 ⎝ 1 ⎠
As at 1 bar vg = 1.694 m3/kg  then steam is wet
 1.5256 = 0.001043 + x (1.694 – 0.001043)
 x = 0.9
Final temperature = 99.6º C
= u1  u2
= (h1  h2 )  (p1v1  p2v2 )
 = (2827.9 – 2450.8) – (1000 × 0.206 – 100 × 1.5256)
= 323.7 kJ/kg
[h2  hf 2  x hfg 2 ]
= 417.5 + 0.9 × 2257.9
= 2450.8
Work done (W) p1v1  p2v2
= = 356.27 kJ/kg
n1
 From first law of thermo dynamics
Q2 = (u2  u1 ) + W1 – 2
= (–323.7 + 356.27) = 32.567 kJ/kg

Q9.14 Two streams of steam, one at 2 MPa, 300°C and the other at 2 MPa,
400°C, mix in a steady flow adiabatic process. The rates of flow of the
two streams are 3 kg/min and 2 kg/min respectively. Evaluate the final
temperature of the emerging stream, if there is no pressure drop due to
the mixing process. What would be the rate of increase in the entropy
of the universe? This stream with a negligible velocity now expands
adiabatically in a nozzle to a pressure of 1 kPa. Determine the exit
velocity of the stream and the exit area of the nozzle.
(Ans. 340°C, 0.042 kJ/K min, 1530 m/s, 53.77 cm2)
Solution: p2 = 2 MPa = 20 bar
t2 = 400º C
m 2
= 2 kg/min
h2 = 3247.6 kJ/kg
s2 = 7.127 kJ/kg-K

1
p1 = 2 MPa = 20 bar  
3 m = m + = 5 kg/min
m
t1 = 300°C 3 1 2
2
m = 3
p = 20 bar
1 3 40
(6.956 – 6.766)
kg/min For Steam s3 = 6.766 + 50
table
h1 = 3023.5 kJ/kg = 6.918 kJ/kg – K
s1 = 6.766 KJ/kgK

For adiabatic mixing process

m1 1 h 2 m2 h3 =3 m h
 h3 = 3113.14 kJ/kg
3113.14  3023.5
 Final temperature (t) = 300   50 = 340º C
3137  3023.5
Rate of increase of the enthalpy of the universe

sgen = m S  m S = 0.038 kJ/K – min
 m S
 3 3 1 1
After passing 22 through nozzle if dryness fraction is x then

S3 = Sexit or 6.918 = 0.106 + x × 8.870  x = 0.768

 he = 29.3 + 0.768 × 2484.9 = 1937.7 kJ/kg
 V = 2000 (3113.14  1937.7) = 1533.3 m/s


Exit area of the nozzle m = 0.0054 m2 = 54 cm2

= v
V
Q9.15 Boiler steam at 8 bar, 250°C, reaches the engine control valve through a
pipeline at 7 bar, 200°C. It is throttled to 5 bar before expanding in the
engine to 0.1 bar, 0.9 dry. Determine per kg of steam
(a) The heat loss in the pipeline
(b) The temperature drop in passing through the throttle valve
(c) The work output of the engine
(d) The entropy change due to throttling
(e) The entropy change in passing through the engine.
(Ans. (a) 105.3 kJ/kg, (b) 5°C, (c) 499.35 kJ/kg,
(d) 0.1433 kJ/kg K, (e) 0.3657 kJ/kg K)
Solution:  From Steam Table
h1 = 2950.1 kJ/kg h2 = 2844.8
h3 = 2844.8 h4 = hfa + xa hfga = 2345.3 kJ/kg
 Heat loss in pipe line = (h1  h2 ) = 105.3 kJ/kg

1 2 3

1 2 3
p1 = 8 bar p2 = 7 bar p3 = 5 bar p4 = 0.1 bar
t1 = t2 = x4 = 0.9
250°C 200°C t4 = 45.8°C
(b) In throttling process h2 = h3
From Steam Table
5 bar 151.8º C hg = 2747.5
5 bar 200º C h = 2855.4
2855.4  2844.8
 t = 200   (200  151.8)
3
2855.4  2747.5
= 200 – 4.74 = 195.26º C
 Δt = 4.74º C (drop)

(c) Work output for the engine (W) = h3  h4

= (2844.8 – 2345.3) kJ/kg= 499.48 kJ/kg

(d) From Steam Table

s2 = 6.886 kJ/kg – K
(195.26  151.8)
s = 6.8192  (7.059  = 7.03542 kJ/kg – K
6.8192)
 3 (200  151.8)
 Δs  s3 – s2 = 0.1494 kJ/kg – K

(e) For Steam Table

s4 = sga  0.9 sfga = 0.649 + 0.9 × 7.501 = 7.4 kJ/kg – K
ΔS = s4 – s3 = 0.3646 kJ/kg – K
 Q9.16 Tank A (Figure) has a volume of 0.1 m3 and contains steam at 200°C, 10%
liquid and 90% vapour by volume, while tank B is evacuated. The valve is
then opened, and the tanks eventually come to the same pressure,

Which is found to be 4 bar. During this process, heat is transferred such

that the steam remains at 200°C. What is the volume of tank B?
(Ans. 4.89 m3)

Solution:
t1= 200°C
From Steam table VA = 0.1 m3 B
pa = 15.538 bar –3 Initial
Vf = 1.157 – 10
Vg = 0.12736

 Initial volume of liquid = 10

 0.1m
3

100
mf = 8.643 kg
Initial mass of steam = (mg)
90
 0.1
= 100 kg = 0.70666 kg
0.12736
 Total mass = 9.3497 kg
After open the valve when all over per = 4 bar at 200ºC
Then sp. Volume = 0.534 m3/kg
 Total volume (V) = 9.3497 × 0.534 m3 = 4.9927 m3
 Volume of Tank B = V – VA = 4.8927 m3

Q9.17 Calculate the amount of heat which enters or leaves 1 kg of steam

initially at 0.5 MPa and 250°C, when it undergoes the following
processes:
(a) It is confined by a piston in a cylinder and is compressed to 1 MPa
and 300°C as the piston does 200 kJ of work on the steam.
(b) It passes in steady flow through a device and leaves at 1 MPa and
300°C while, per kg of steam flowing through it, a shaft puts in 200
kJ of work. Changes in K.E. and P.E. are negligible.
(c) It flows into an evacuated rigid container from a large source
which is maintained at the initial condition of the steam. Then 200 kJ of
shaft work is transferred to the steam, so that its final condition is 1
MPa and 300°C.
(Ans. (a) –130 kJ (b) – 109 kJ, and (c) – 367 kJ)
Solution: Initially: ti = 250ºC
 From Steam pi = 0.5 MPa = 5 bar; mass = 1 kg
Table ui = 2729.5
kJ/kg hi = 2960.7 kJ/kg
vi = 0.474 m3/kg

(a) After compression

p = 1 mPa = 10
bar
T = 300ºC
 From S.T. u = 2793.2 kJ/kg
h = 3051.2 kJ/kg
and Winput = 200 kJ

 From first law of thermodynamics –W

Q1 – 2 = m(u2  u1 ) + W1 – 2
[(2793.2 – 2729.5) – 200] kJ
= [63.7 – 200 kJ] = – 136.3 kJ
i.e. heat rejection to atm.

(b) For steady flow process

V
h  12  gz  dQ
1
2
1 dm V
h  2  gz  dW

= 2 2 2
2 dm
h or V1, V2, Z1, Z2 are negligible so
dQ dW
= (h  h ) 
2 1
dm dm
= (3051.2 – 2960.7) – 200
= –109.5 kJ/kg
[heat rejection]

(c) Energy of the gas after filling

E1 = u1 kJ/kg = 2729.5 kJ/kg

uP, hP, VP
Energy of the gas after filling
E2 = u2 = 2793.2 kJ/kg
 ΔE = E2 – E1
= (2793.2 – 2729.5) kJ/kg
= 63.7 kJ/kg

There is a change in a volume of gas because of the collapse of the envelop to

zero volume
W1 = pi (0 – vi ) = – pivi = – 500 × 0.474 kJ/kg = –237 kJ/kg
 From first law of
thermodynamic Q = ΔE + W1 +
W2
= (63.7 – 237 – 200) kJ/kg = –373.3 kJ/kg
Q9.18 A sample of wet steam from a steam main flows steadily through a
partially open valve into a pipeline in which is fitted an electric coil.
The valve and the pipeline are well insulated. The steam mass flow
rate is
0.008 kg/s while the coil takes 3.91 amperes at 230 volts. The main
pressure is 4 bar, and the pressure and temperature of the steam
downstream of the coil are 2 bar and 160°C respectively. Steam
velocities may be assumed to be negligible.
(a) Evaluate the quality of steam in the main.
(b) State, with reasons, whether an insulted throttling calorimeter
could be used for this test.
(Ans. (a) 0.97, (b) Not suitable)
Solution: (a)

2 3

2 3
1 1

m 
kg/s = 0.008 
3.91  230
= i2 R = kW = 0.8993 kW
2 Q
1000
p2 = 4 bar p3 = 2 bar; t2 = 160ºC
t = 143.6º C 10
h = 2768.8  (2870.5  2768.8) kJ/kg
2 3
50
= 2789.14 kJ/kg

From steady flow energy equation

Q
m h    0 : h = h  = 2676.73 kJ/kg
2 Q = m h 3 2
3 
m
If dryness fraction of steam x then
h2 = hf2 + x hfg2
or 2676.73 = 604.7 + x × 2133  x= 0.9714

(b) For throttling minimum enthalpy required 2686 kJ/kg if after throttling
5ºC super heat and atm. Pressure is maintained as here enthalpy is less so
it is not possible in throttling calorimeter.

Q9.19 Two insulated tanks, A and B, are connected by a valve. Tank A has a
volume of 0.70 m3 and contains steam at 1.5 bar, 200°C. Tank B has a
volume of 0.35 m3 and contains steam at 6 bar with a quality of 90%. The
valve is then opened, and the two tanks come to a uniform state. If there
is no heat transfer during the process, what is the final pressure?
Compute the entropy change of the universe.
 (Ans. 322.6 KPa, 0.1985 kJ/K)
Solution: From Steam Table from Steam Table
Sp. Enthalpy (h A ) = 2872.9 kJ/kg tB = 158.8º C
Sp. Vol (vA ) = 1.193 m3/kg Sp. Enthalpy (hB )
 = (670.4 + 0.9 × 2085) = 2547 kJ/kg

A B

VA = 0.7 m3 VB = 0.35 m3
pA = 1.5 bar tA = 200°C pB = 6 bar xB = 0.9

Sp. Internal energy (u) = 2656.2 kJ/kg =

Sp. Vol. (v B ) = v Bf  x  v Bg – v Bf  = 0.2836 m3/kg
Sp. entropy (s) = 7.643 kJ/kg – K
Sp. in energy (uB ) = uf  x  ufg = 2376.7 kJ/kg
Sp. entropy (sB ) = 6.2748 kJ/kg – K

u = h p v
fB f
B
f
B
f
= 670.4 – 600 × 0.001101 = 669.74 kJ/kg
B

u = hfg – p v – v  V
mB = B = 1.2341 kg
fg fB g f
vB
= 1896.7 kJ/kg
V
 mA = v A = 0.61242 kg
A

 From First Law of thermodynamics

U1 = U2
 m A u A  mBuB = (mA  mB ) u  u = 2469.4 kJ/kg
And sp. volume of gas after mixing = VA  VB
= 0.5686 m3/kg
mA  mB
Q9.20 A spherical aluminum vessel has an inside diameter of 0.3 m and a 0.62
cm thick wall. The vessel contains water at 25°C with a quality of 1%.
The vessel is then heated until the water inside is saturated vapour.
Considering the vessel and water together as a system, calculate the
heat transfer during this process. The density of aluminum is 2.7 g/cm 3
and its specific heat is 0.896 kJ/kg K.
4
Solution: Volume of water vapour mixture (V) =  d
3
(Ans. 2682.82 kJ)
= 0.113097 m3
i
3
4
 d = 0.127709
3
Ext. volume = m3
o
3
 Volume of A1 = 0.0146117 m3
 Mass = 39.451 kg

di = 0.3 m do = di + 21 = 0.3 +
 0.62
At 25º C; 1% quality × 2 m = 0.3124 m
100
From Steam Table p1 = 0.0317 bar

v1 = 0.001003  1
(43.36) = 0.434603 m3/kg
100
h1 = 104.9  1
 24212.3 = 129.323 kJ/kg
100
u1 = h1  p1v1 = 127.95 kJ/kg
0.113097
Mass of water and water vapour = kg = 0.26023 kg
0.434603
Carnot volume heating until dry saturated
So then Sp. volume vg = 0.434603 m3/kg

For Steam Table

At 4.2 bar vg = 0.441
At 4.4 bar vg = 0.423
0.441  0.434603 = 4.27 bar
(pf ) = 4.2  0.2 
0.441  0.423
0.07
Then h = 2739.8  (2741.9  2739.8) = 2740.55 kJ/kg
f
0.2
tf = 146º C
uf = hf  pf vf = 2555 kJ/kg

 Heat required to water = m(uf  u1 )

= 0.26023(2555 – 127.95) kJ
= 631.58 kJ
Heat required for A1
= 39.451 × 0.896 × (146 – 25)
= 4277.2 kJ
Total heat required = 4908.76
kJ

Q9.21 Steam at 10 bar, 250°C flowing with negligible velocity at the rate of 3
kg/min mixes adiabatically with steam at 10 bar, 0.75 quality, flowing
also with negligible velocity at the rate of 5 kg/min. The combined
stream of steam is throttled to 5 bar and then expanded isentropically
in a nozzle to 2 bar. Determine
(a) The state of steam after mixing
(b) The state of steam after throttling
(c) The increase in entropy due to throttling
(d) The velocity of steam at the exit from the nozzle
(e) The exit area of the nozzle. Neglect the K.E. of steam at the inlet to
the nozzle.
(Ans. (a) 10 bar, 0.975 dry, (b) 5 bar, 0.894 dry, (c) 0.2669 kJ/kg K,
(d) 540 m/s, (e) 1.864 cm2)
Solution: From Steam Table
h1 = 2942.6 kJ/kg
h2 = 762.6 + 0.75 × 2013.6 = 2272.8 kJ/kg
3  2942.6  5  2272.8
 h3 = 8
= 2524 kJ/kg
 
m 1 = 3 kg/min
1 10 bar
250°C 3 4 5

1
5 bar
1 2 bar
10 bar
x2 = 0.75 3 4 5
 p3 = 10 bar t4 = 151.8°c
m 2 = 5 kg/min

1 m 3= 8
kg/min
t3 = 180°c

(a)
h3 = 762.6 + x3 × 2013.6 or x3 = 0.87474

(b) h4 = 2524 kJ/kg = 640.1 + x4 × 2107.4

x4 = 0.89395
s4 = 1.8604 + x4 × 4.9588 = 6.2933 kJ/kg – K
 s5  s4
 at 2 bar quality of steam
6.2933 = 1.5301 + x5 × 5.5967
x5 = 0.851
 h5 = 504.7 + 0.851 × 2201.6 = 2378.4 kJ/kg

(c)
s3  sf  x3 sfg = 2.1382 + 0.89395 × 4.4446 = 6.111451 kJ/kg
Δs  s4 – s3 = 6.2933 – 6.11145 = 0.18185 kJ/kg – K

(d) V= 2000(2524  2378.4) = 540 m/s

mv
(e) A=
V
m × x5 . 0.885 8 0.885
 0.851 
2
 = m = 1.86 cm2
V 60 540

Q9.22 Steam of 65 bar, 400°C leaves the boiler to enter a steam turbine fitted
with a throttle governor. At a reduced load, as the governor takes
action, the pressure of steam is reduced to 59 bar by throttling before
it is admitted to the turbine. Evaluate the availabilities of steam before
and after the throttling process and the irreversibility due to it.
(Ans. I = 21 kJ/kg)
Solution: From Steam Table
h1 = 3167.65 kJ/kg h2 = 3167.65 kJ/kg
s1 = 6.4945 kJ/kg-K t2 = 396.6º C
 1 2

1
p1 = 65 bar 2
h1 = 400°C
60 bar
46.6
s = 6.333  (6.541  6.333)
2
50
= 6.526856
 Δs  s4 – s3 = 0.032356 kJ/kg – K
Atmospheric Pressure p0 = 1 bar
T0 = 25º C
 Availability before throttling
2
 = (h1  h 0 ) – T0  s1 – s0  + V 1 + g (2 Z0)
2
Same as example 9.14

Q9.23 A mass of wet steam at temperature 165°C is expanded at constant

quality 0.8 to pressure 3 bar. It is then heated at constant pressure to a
degree of superheat of 66.5°C. Find the enthalpy and entropy changes
during expansion and during heating. Draw the T–s and h–s diagrams.
(Ans. – 59 kJ/kg, 0.163 kJ/kg K during expansion and 676 kJ/kg,
1.588 kJ/kg K during heating)

Solution:
p1 = 7 bar
t1 = 165º C

For Steam Table

h1 = hf  0.8 hfg
= 2349 kJ/kg
s1  sf  0.8  sfg
= 5.76252 kJ/kg – K 165°C
1 3
For Steam Table at 3 bar T 66 .5°C
x = 0.8
t2 = 133.5º C 2

h2 = 561.4 + 0.8 × 2163.2 = 2292 kJ

s2 = 1.6716 + 0.8 × 5.3193
= 5.92704 kJ/kg – K S
 temperature of (3)
t3 = 200ºC
 h3 = 2865.6 kJ/K
s3 = 7.311 kJ/kg-K
 Enthalpy charge in expansion = (h1  h2 ) = 57 kJ/kg
Entropy charge in expansion =  s2 – s1  = 0.16452 kJ/kg-K
Enthalpy charge in heating = h3  h2 = 573.6 kJ/kg
Entropy charge in heating = s3  s2 = 1.38396 kJ/kg – K
Page 144 of 265
 Properties of Gases and Gas Mixtures
By: S K Mondal Chapter 10

10. Properties of Gases and Gas Mixture

Some Important Notes
1. As p  0, or T  , the real gas approaches the ideal gas behaviour.
R = 8.3143 kJ/kmole-K

2. Tds  du  pdv
Tds  dh – vdp
2
3.   1+
N
For mono-atomic gas N = 3 [N = degrees of freedom]
For di -atomic gas N = 5
For Tri-atomic gas N = 6

4. Reversible adiabatic
process 1 1
 T2 ⎛ v 1⎞
pv = C ; ⎛ p2 ⎞ 
=
= ⎜⎝ 1 ⎟⎠
p ⎜⎝ 2⎟⎠
T1 v

5. For isentropic process

⎡
1 1
⎤  ⎡⎛ p ⎞ ⎤
u u=
RT ⎢⎛ p2 ⎞ 
 1⎥ ; h  h = (RT ) ⎢ 2  1⎥
1 
  1 ⎢⎜ p ⎟ 1  ⎢⎜ p ⎟


2 1
⎥ 2 1 1
⎥
⎣⎝ 1 ⎠ ⎦ ⎣⎝ 1 ⎠ ⎦
2 pvpv
(i) For closed
 pd
1 1 22
=
system 1
v 
1
2

For steady flow (p1 v1  p2 v2 )

1 v dp =
1

6. Isobaric process (p = C), n = 0, pvº = C

Isothermal process (T = C), n = 1, pv1 = RT
Isentropic process (s = C), n =  , pv = C
Isometric or isobaric process (V = C), n = 

7. For minimum work in multistage compressor, p 2 = p1p3

(i) Equal pressure ratio
i.e. p2 p3

p1 p2
(ii) Equal discharge temperature (T2  T3 )

Page 145 of 265

 Properties of Gases and Gas Mixtures
By: S K Mondal Chapter 10
p3

p2

p1
T
3 2

2 1

S
And (iii) Equal work for the two stages.
⎛ p2 ⎞ 1
8. Volumetric Efficiency (  ) = 1  C  C n
vol
⎜p⎟
⎝ 1⎠
Clearance volume
Where, C = Piston displacement volume

9. Equation of states for real gas

(i) Van der Waals ⎛ a⎞
equation: ⎜p (v  b) = RT
v2 ⎟

⎝ ⎠
or p = RT  a
vb v
2

⎛
or p  3 ⎞ (3 v
⎜⎝ r r  1) = 8Tr
2⎟
v r ⎠

(ii) Beattie Bridge man equation

RT (1  e) A
p= (v  B)  2
2
⎛v a ⎞ v⎛ b⎞ C
Where A=A 1 ;B=B 1 ;e=
0⎜ ⎟ 0⎜ ⎟ 3
v v vT
⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠

‘Does not’ give satisfactory results in the critical point region.

(iii) Virial Expansions:

Page 146 of 265

 pv
= 1 + Bp + Cp2 + Dp3 + ……………
RT
pv = 1  B  C  D  ....... 
Or 

2 3
RT v v v

Page 147 of 265

 Properties of Gases and Gas Mixtures
By: S K Mondal Chapter
10
vc
10. a = 3p cvc2; b = ;R= 8 pcvc values of Z at critical point 0.375 for Van der Waal
3 ;
3 Tc
gas.
a
11. Boyle temperature (TB) =
bR
12.  = x1 1  x2 2  .......  x c c

Rm = m1R1 + m2R2 + ....... mcRc

m1 + m2 + ........... mc
um = m u + m u + ....... m u m1h1 + m2h2 + ....... mchc
1 1 2 2 c c
m + m + ........... m ;
1 2 c
hm = m1 + m2 + ........... mc

cpm = m1 cP1 + m2 cP2 + ....... mc cPc

cvm = m1 cv1 + m2 cv2 + ....... mc cvc
m1 + m2 + ........... mc m1 + m2 + ........... mc
⎡ p1 p2 pc ⎤
s  s =  m R ln  m R ln  ......  m R ln
f i ⎢ 1 1 p 2 2 c c
p⎥
p
⎣ ⎦

13. Gibbs function G = RT  n x (k + ln p  ln x k )

Questions with Solution P. K. Nag

Q.10·1 What is the mass of air contained in a room 6 m  9 m  4 m if the
pressure is 101.325 kPa and the temperature is 25°C?
(Ans. 256 kg)
Solution: Given pressure (p) = 101.325 kPa
Temperature (T) = 25ºC = (25 + 273) K = 298
K Volume (V) = 6 × 9 × 4 m3 = 216 m3
From equation of states
pV = mRT For air R = 0.287 kJ/kg – K, Gas constant mass is m kg

pV
 m=
RT 101.325  216
= 0.287  298 kg = 255.9 kg

Q.10.2 The usual cooking gas (mostly methane) cylinder is about 25 cm in

diameter and 80 cm in height. It is changed to 12 MPa at room
temperature (27°C).
(a) Assuming the ideal gas law, find the mass of gas filled in the
cylinder.
(b) Explain how the actual cylinder contains nearly 15 kg of gas.
(c) If the cylinder is to be protected against excessive pressure by means of
a fusible plug, at what temperature should the plug melt to limit the
maximum pressure to 15 MPa?

Solution: Given diameter (D) = 25 cm = 0.25

m Height (H) = 80 cm = 0.8 m
D
2
 Properties of Gases and Gas Mixtures
By: S K Mondal Chapter
 Volume of the cylinder (V) =
10
 H = 0.03927 m3
4
Gas pressure (p) = 12 MPa = 12000 kPa
 Temperature (T) = 27º C = 300 K

(a) Mass of gas filled in the cylinder

pV ⎡ 8.3143 ⎤
m= RHere R  Gas constant   kJ/kg – K  0.51964
⎢ ⎥
RT ⎣ M 16 ⎦
= 3.023 kg

(b) In cooking gas main component is ethen and it filled in 18 bar pressure. At
that pressure it is not a gas it is liquid form in atmospheric temperature so
its weight is amount 14 kg.

(c) Let temperature be T K, then pressure, p = 15 MPa = 15000 kPa

pV
 T=
mR = 15000  0.03927 = 375 K = 102º C
3.023  0.51964

Q.10.3 A certain gas

has cP = 0.913 and cV = 0.653 kJ/kg K. Find the molecular
weight and the gas constant R of the gas.

Solution: Gas constant, R = c p – c v

= (0.913 – 653) kJ/kg – K = 0.26 kJ/kg – K
If molecular weight,( M )kJ/kg – mole
Then R = MR  MR = = 8.3143 kJ/kg – mole = 31.98 kJ/kg – mole
0.26
R

Q.10.4 From an experimental determination the specific heat ratio for

acetylene (C2H2 ) is found to 1.26. Find the two specific heats.

R 8.3143
Solution: Gas constant of acetylene (C H ) (R) = = kJ/kg – K = 0.3198 kJ/kg – K
2 2
M 26
As adiabatic index () = 1.26 then

c = R = 1.55 kJ/kg – K

and p R

cv = 1 = 1.23 kJ/kg – K
1

Q.10.5 Find the molal specific heats of monatomic, diatomic, and polyatomic
gases, if their specific heat ratios are respectively 5/3, 7/5 and 4/3.
Solution: Mono-atomic: 
c =
 R = 20.79 kJ/kg – mole – K;
p
R
cv =   = 12.47 kJ/kg – mole – K
1
1
Di-atomic:
c = R = 29.1 kJ/kg – mole – K;

p
R
cv =   1 = 20.79 kJ/kg – mole – K
1
Polyatomic: 
c = R = 33.26 kJ/kg – mole – K;
p
1
cv = 24.94 kJ/kg – mole – K

Q.10.6 A supply of natural gas is required on a site 800 m above storage level.
The gas at - 150°C, 1.1 bar from storage is pumped steadily to a point on
the site where its pressure is 1.2 bar, its temperature 15°C, and its flow
3
rate 1000 m /hr. If the work transfer to the gas at the pump is 15 kW,
find the heat transfer to the gas between the two points. Neglect the
change in K.E. and assume that the gas has the properties of methane (C
H 4) which may be treated as an ideal gas having  = 1.33 (g = 9.75 m/ s ).
2

(Ans. 63.9 kW)

Solution: Given: At storage (p1 ) = 1.1 bar = 110 kPa
(T1 ) = –150ºC = 123 K
p3 = 1.2 bar = 120 kPa
T3 = 288 K
3
Flow rate (V 3 ) = 1000 5 m/s
m3/m = 18
R
Gas constant (R) =
16 = 0.51964 kJ/kg – K
 c = R = 2.0943 kJ/kg 3

p

1
   pV

3
 2
p3 V3 = m RT3 m= = 0.22273 kg/s 800m

RT P
⎛ dW ⎞ 3
Pump work = –15 kW 1
⎜ ⎟
⎝ dt ⎠
 From steady flow energy equation
dQ dW
m (h  0  gZ )  = m ( h  0  g Z ) 
1 1 3 3
dt dt
 ⎡
dQ = (h (Z3  Z1 ) ⎤ dW
 m
 h)g 
dt ⎢⎣ 3 ⎥1
1000 ⎦ dt
= m ⎡
c (T  T )  g Δ Z ⎤ dW

⎢ P3 1 ⎥⎦ dt800 ⎤
10009.75
⎡ ⎣
= 0.22273 2.0943  (288  123) 

⎣⎢ ⎥⎦ 1000
 (15)
= 63.7 kJ/s = 63.7 kW (heat given to the system)

3
Q.10.7 A constant volume chamber of 0.3 m capacity contains 1 kg of air at
5°C. Heat is transferred to the air until the temperature is 100°C. Find
the work done, the heat transferred, and the changes in internal
energy, enthalpy and entropy.
Solution: Constant volume (V) = 0.3 m3 T2 = 100ºC = 373 K
p
Mass (m) = 1 kg  p = 1  T = 357 kPa
2 2
T1
T1 = 5º C = 278 K

mRT
 1 p = = 265.95 kPa
1
V
Work done =  pdV = 0
Heat transferred Q
=  du   dW =  dW = m cv  dT = m cv (T2 – T1 ) = 68.21 kJ
Change in internal Energy =
du = 68.21 kJ
Change in Enthalpy =
 dh = m c (TP 2 – T1 ) = 95.475
V kJ p
Change in Entropy = ds = s – s = m c ln 2  m c ln 2

 2 1
p v
V1 p1
p2 357
= m c ln = 1  0.718  ln
v
p1 265.95
= 0.2114 kJ/kg – K

3
Q.10.8 One kg of air in a closed system, initially at 5°C and occupying 0.3 m
volume, undergoes a constant pressure heating process to 100°C. There
is no work other than pdv work. Find (a) the work done during the
process, (b) the heat transferred, and (c) the entropy change of the gas.

Solution: T1 = 278 K
V1 = 0.3 m3
m = 1 kg
 p1 = 265.95 kPa
 T2 = 100º C = 373 K
p2 = 265.95 kPa

 V2 = mRT2
= 0.40252 m3
p2
1 2
(a) Work during the process
2 p
(W12) = p dV = p(V2  V1 ) = 27.266 kJ
1

(b) Heat transferred Q1 – 2 = u2 – u1  W12

= mcv (T2 – T1 )  W1 – 2 = 95.476 kJ V

(c) Entropy change of the gas

V p
s – s = mc ln 2  mc ln 2
2 1 p v
V1 p1

= m cp v2
ln = 0.29543 kJ/kg – K
v1

3
Q.10.9 0.1 m of hydrogen initially at 1.2 MPa, 200°C undergoes a reversible
isothermal expansion to 0.1 MPa. Find (a) the work done during the
process, (b) the heat transferred, and (c) the entropy change of the gas.
Solution: V1 = 0.1 m3
p1 = 1.2 MPa = 1200 kPa
T1 = 473 K

1
1 2
p T
2

R V S
R= 8.3143
M = kJ/kg – K = 4.157 kJ/kg – K
2
p1 V1
m=
RT1 = 0.06103 kg
Reversible isothermal expansion
So T2 = T1 = 473 K
Enthalpy change (Δh) = m c p(T2 – T1 ) = 0
And p2 = 0.1 MPa = 100 kPa
Heat transferred (Q) = Δu + ΔW 2
mRT 3
 V2 = 2

p2 = 1.2 m = u2  u1   p dV
1
dV
pV = RT = 0  RT
RT

⎛ V2V⎞
 p= = RT ln
V ⎜V⎟
⎝ 1⎠
⎛ 1.2 ⎞
= 4.157  473  ln ⎜ ⎟
⎝ 0.1 ⎠
= 4886 kJ
2

Work done (W) =  p dV = 4886 kJ

1
V p
Entropy change, s – s = mc ln 2  mc ln 2
2 1 p v
V1 p1
⎡ ⎛ 1.2 ⎞ ⎛ 100 ⎞⎤
= 0.06103 ⎢14.55 ln ⎜ ⎟  10.4 ln ⎜ ⎟⎥
0.1 1200


⎣ ⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠⎦
= 0.6294 kJ/kg – K
For H2 diatomic gas ( = 1.4)
 R
c = R = 14.55 kJ/kg – K; c = = 10.4 kJ/kg – K
p
1 v
1

Q.10.10 Air in a closed stationary system expands in a reversible adiabatic

process from 0.5 MPa, 15°C to 0.2 MPa. Find the final temperature, and
per kg of air, the change in enthalpy, the heat transferred, and the work
 done.
Solution: p1 = 0.5 MPa = 500 kPa
T1 = 15ºC = 288 K
Let mass is 1 kg
v = 1 × R  T1 = 0.1653 m /kg
3

1
p1
p2 = 0.2 MPa = 200 kPa
 p1v1  = p v22: 1
1
v=v T
⎛ p ⎞ = 0.31809 m3/kg
 1
1⎜
p ⎟
2

⎝ 2⎠ 2
T1 1 1
 ⎛ p1 ⎞  ⎛ p2 ⎞ 
T 2 = ⎜ ⎝ 2 ⎠⎟  T2 = T1  ⎜⎝ 1 ⎠⎟
p p S
= 222 K
Change of Enthalpy
(ΔH) = mc p(T2 – T1 ) = –66.33 kJ/kg
The Heat transferred (Q) = 0
The work done
2
pvpv
(W) =  p d = 1 1 22
1
v
1

= 47.58 kJ/kg

Q.10.11 If the above process occurs in an open steady flow system, find the final
temperature, and per kg of air, the change in internal energy, the heat
transferred, and the shaft work. Neglect velocity and elevation changes.

Solution:
T2
Final temperature will be same because then also 1
⎛ p2 ⎞  valid.
=
T ⎜p⎟
1 ⎝1⎠
i.e. T2 = 222 K
Change in internal energy = Δu = mcv(T2 – T1 ) = –47.4 kJ/kg
2

Shaft work (W) =   v dp = [p v  p v ] = +66.33 kJ/kg
1 1 1 22
1
Heat transferred:
dQ dW
h 00 = h2  0  0 
1
dm dm
dQ dW
 = (h  h ) 
= –66.33 + 66.33 = 0
dm
2 1 dm
[As it is reversible adiabatic so dQ = 0]

Q.10.12 The indicator diagram for a certain water-cooled cylinder and piston air
 1.3
compressor shows that during compression pv = constant. The
compression starts at 100 kPa, 25°C and ends at 600 kPa. If the process is
reversible, how much heat is transferred per kg of air?
Solution: p1 = 100 kPa
T1 = 298 K
 v1 = RT
= 0.8553 m3/kg
1
p1
p2 = 600 kPa 2
1
v=v p pV1.3 = constant
⎛ p1 ⎞n = 0.21554 m3/kg
1⎜
p⎟
2

⎝ 2⎠ 1
⎛ p2 ⎞ n  1
T=T n = 451 K
2 1 ⎜ ⎟ V
p
⎝ 1⎠
dQ dW
h 00 = h2  0  0 
1
dm dm
dQ dW
 = (h  h ) 
2 1
dm dm

dW n[p v  p v ]
 dm = 1 1 2 2
n1
= –189.774 kJ/kg
= Cp(T2 – T1) -189.774
= 153.765 – 189.774
= –36 kJ/kg
[Heat have to be rejected]

Q.10.13 An ideal gas of molecular weight 30 and  = 1.3 occupies a volume of 1.5
3
m at 100 kPa and 77°C. The gas is compressed according to the law
1.25
pv = constant to a pressure of 3 MPa. Calculate the volume and
temperature at the end of compression and heating, work done, heat
transferred, and the total change of entropy.

R
Solution: R= = 0.27714 kJ/kg – K
30
 = 1.3; n = 1.25
 cv = R
= 0.9238 kJ/kg – K

1

cP =  R
= 1.2 kJ/kg – K

1
 p1 = 100 kPa; V1 = 1.5 m3; T1 = 350 K 2
p2 = 3 MPa = 3000 kPa p
⎛ p1 ⎞ 1
V = V n = 0.09872 m3
2 1⎜ ⎟ 1
p
⎝ 2⎠
pV
m = 1 1 = 1.5464 kg V
RT1
pV
 T2 = 2 2 = 691 K
mR

 2

Work done (W1 – 2) =  pdV

1

p V 1
n
1
 p V  p V2 2
n n
n
n 2 dV p V ⎡ 1 1 ⎤
= p1 V1  n = 1 1 n1
 n1⎥
⎢ V1 ⎦
1V  n  1 ⎣ V2

p2 V2  p1 V1
= p V p V
1n = 1 1n  12 2

100  1.5  3000  0.09872

= = –584.64 kJ
kJ
1.25  1
Heat transfer Q = u2 – u1 + W1 – 2
= mcv(T2 – T1 )  W1 – 2
= [1.5464 × 0.9238 (691 – 350) – 584.64] kJ
= – 97.5 kJ ⎡ p V ⎤
ΔS = S2 – S1 = mc ln 2  mc ln 2
⎢ v p
P
V⎥
⎣ 1 1⎦

= – 0.19 kJ/K

Q.10.14 Calculate the change of entropy when 1 kg of air changes from a

3
temperature of 330 K and a volume of 0.15 m to a temperature of 550 K
3
and a volume of 0.6 m .
n
If the air expands according to the law, pv = constant, between the
same end states, calculate the heat given to, or extracted from, the air
during the expansion, and show that it is approximately equal to the
change of entropy multiplied by the mean absolute temperature.

Solution: Try please.

Q.10.15 0.5 kg of air, initially at 25°C, is heated reversibly at constant pressure

until the volume is doubled, and is then heated reversibly at constant
volume until the pressure is doubled. For the total path, find the work
transfer, the heat transfer, and the change of entropy.

Solution: Try please.

Q.10.16 An ideal gas cycle of three processes uses Argon (Mol. wt. 40) as a
working substance. Process 1-2 is a reversible adiabatic expansion
from
0.014 m3 , 700 kPa, 280°C to 0.056 3
m . Process 2-3 is a reversible
isothermal process. Process 3-1 is a constant pressure process in which
heat transfer is zero. Sketch the cycle in the p-v and T-s planes, and find
(a) the work transfer in process 1-2, (b) the work transfer in process 2-3,
and (c) the net work of the cycle. Take  = 1.67.

Solution: Try please.

 3
Q.10.17 A gas occupies 0.024 m at 700 kPa and 95°C. It is expanded in the non-
1.2
flow process according to the law pv = constant to a pressure of 70 kPa
 Properties of Gases and Gas Mixtures
By: S K Mondal Chapter
after which it is heated at constant pressure back 10
to its original
temperature. Sketch the process on the p-v and T-s diagrams, and
calculate for the whole process the work done, the heat transferred, and
the change of entropy. Take c p = 1.047 and cV = 0.775 kJ/kg K for the gas.
Solution: Try please.

Q.10.18 0.5 kg of air at 600 kPa receives an addition of heat at constant volume
so that its temperature rises from 110°C to 650°C. It then expands in a
cylinder poly tropically to its original temperature and the index of
expansion is 1.32. Finally, it is compressed isothermally to its original
volume. Calculate (a) the change of entropy during each of the three
stages, (b) the pressures at the end of constant volume heat addition
and at the end of expansion. Sketch the processes on the p-v and T-s
diagrams.
Solution: Try please.

Q.10.19 0.5 kg of helium and 0.5 kg of nitrogen are mixed at 20°C and at a total
pressure of 100 kPa. Find (a) the volume of the mixture, (b) the partial
volumes of the components, (c) the partial pressures of the components,
(a) the mole fractions of the components, (e) the specific heats cP and cV
of the mixture, and (f) the gas constant of the mixture.

Solution: Try please.

Q.10.20 A gaseous mixture consists of 1 kg of oxygen and 2 kg of nitrogen at a

pressure of 150 kPa and a temperature of 20°C. Determine the changes in
internal energy, enthalpy and entropy of the mixture when the mixture
is heated to a temperature of 100°C (a) at constant volume, and (b) at
constant pressure.

Solution: Try please.

Q.10.21 A closed rigid cylinder is divided by a diaphragm into two equal

3
compartments, each of volume 0.1 m . Each compartment contains air at
a temperature of 20°C. The pressure in one compartment is 2.5 MPa and
in the other compartment is 1 MPa. The diaphragm is ruptured so that
the air in both the compartments mixes to bring the pressure to a
uniform value throughout the cylinder which is insulated. Find the net
change of entropy for the mixing process.

Solution: Try please.

Q.10.22 A vessel is divided into three compartments (a), (b), and (c) by two
3
partitions. Part (a) contains oxygen and has a volume of 0.1 m , (b) has a
3 3
volume of 0.2 m and contains nitrogen, while (c) is 0.05 m and holds
C O2 . All three parts are at a pressure of 2 bar and a temperature of
13°C. When the partitions are removed and the gases mix, determine the
change of entropy of each constituent, the final pressure in the vessel
and the partial pressure of each gas. The vessel may be taken as being
completely isolated from its surroundings.
(Ans. 0.0875, 0.0P7a8g3e, 105.056o8f02k6J5/K; 2 bar; 0.5714, 1.1429, 0.2857
bar.)
Solution:
a b c

0.1 m3 0.2 m3 0.05 m3

O2 N2 W2

p = 2 bar = 200 kPa

T = B° C = 286 K
After mixing temperature of the mixture will be same as before 13ºC = 286 K and
also pressure will be same as before 2 bar = 200 kPa. But total volume will be
V = Va + V b + V c
= (0.1 + 0.2 + 0.05) = 0.35 m3
 pVa 200  0.1 = 0.26915 kg
=
RT kg
ma = 8.3143
a 
32 286
mb = pVa 200  0.2 = 0.471 kg
=
RT kg
8.3143
b 
28 286
mc = pVc 200  0.05 = 0.18504 kg
=
RT kg
8.319
 286
c
44 T
 ΔS = S2 – Sp12= mc ln 2  ⎡ T2 = T1
Here p2 v1 ⎤
mR ln so  

P
T p
⎢∵ p v ⎥
1 1 ⎣ 1 2 ⎦
(S  S ) V
= om R ln 8.3143 ⎛
= 0.26915
9.35 ⎞   ln
2 1 O2


⎜ ⎟
O2 O2 32 0.1
O2 ⎝ ⎠
= 0.087604 kJ/K
(S  S )
= ⎛m R V⎞ 8.3143 ⎛ = 0.078267 kJ/K
ln 0.35=⎞ 0.471   ln
2 1 N2
 

⎟
N2 N2 ⎜V⎟ 32 0.2
⎝ n2 ⎠ ⎝ ⎠
(S  S )
= ⎛m R V ⎞ 8.3143 ⎛ = 0.06804 kJ/K
ln 0.35 ⎞= 0.18504   ln
⎜ ⎟
 

2 1 CO2
⎜CO2 CO2 44 0.05
V ⎝
CO
2⎠
⎝ ⎠
Partial pressure after mixing
Mole 0.1
fraction of O (x ) =
2 O2
0.35
Mole fraction of
Page 156 of 265
 0
N
.
2
)=
2
0
N2 .
3
Mole
5
fraction
=
C0
.
0
5
0.3
5
[∵
temperature and
pressure same mole
of gas has same]

O
pressure of
(p200
=p=x
57.
=143
0kPa
.
1
0.35 2 2

Partial
N of
pressure
= 200
x
p=
114
=.29
0kPa
.
2
0.35 2 2

Partial
C p
CO 2
pressure
O of
(p=
x 0.05

200
=
28.5
14
kPa
0.
3
5
Page 157 of 265
Q.10.23 A Carnot cycle uses 1 kg of air as the working fluid. The maximum
and minimum temperatures of the cycle are 600 K and 300 K. The
maximum pressure of the cycle is 1 MPa and the volume of the gas
doubles during the isothermal heating process. Show by calculation of
net work and heat supplied that the efficiency is the maximum possible
for the given maximum and minimum temperatures.

Solution: Try please.

Q.10.24 An ideal gas cycle consists of three reversible processes in the following
sequence: (a) constant volume pressure rise, (b) isentropic expansion to
r times the initial volume, and (c) constant pressure decrease in
volume. Sketch the cycle on the p-v and T'-s diagrams. Show that the
efficiency of the cycle is

cycle  r  1   r  1



r 1
4
Evaluate the cycle efficiency when y = and r =
3 8.
(Ans. (  = 0.378))
Solution: For process 1 – 2 constant volume heating
Q1 – 2 = Δu + pdv
= mcv ΔT + pdv
= mcv ΔT = mcv(T2 – T1 )

2
2
T

1 3 p
3
1
S V
Q2 – 3 = 0 as isentropic expansion.
Q3 – 1 = mcP ΔT = mcP(T3 – T1 )
heat rejection
 Efficiency = 1 
heat addition
⎛ T3 ⎞
1
mc (T  T ) ⎜T ⎟
⎝ ⎠
p 3T )1 = 1  
1
=
mc1 (T
v 2 1 ⎛ T2 ⎞
1
⎜T ⎟
⎝ 1 ⎠
p1v1 p2v2 as V1 = V2 
T = p2 = r
Here
T1 = T2 2
p1
T ⎛v

⎜ ⎞
1

And p v = p v p v
or 2
= 3 = r as p  p then
⎟
p
 22 33 3 1
3 ⎝ 2 ⎠
p3v3 p2 
And pv =r
= 2 2 p1
T3 T1
T3 (   
or v3 v3 = r   = 1  1) r  1  (r  1) Proved
=
T1 = v1 = v2


r  r 1
1
If = 
4 r  1  (r  1)
and r = 8 then cycle = 
3 r 1
4
(8  1)
=13 4
= 0.37778
(83  1)

Q.10.25 Using the Dietetic equation of state

RT ⎛ a ⎞
P v  b .exp ⎜  RT ⎟
⎝ v⎠

(a) Show that

pc  a
, vc  2b,  a
2 2
4e b T 4Rb
c
(b) Expand in the form
⎛ B C ⎞
pv  RT 1    ....
⎜ ⎟
v v2
⎝ ⎠
(c) Show that
a
TB 
bR
Solution : Try please.

Q.10.26 The number of moles, the pressures, and the temperatures of gases a, b,
and c are given below
Gas m (kg mol) P (kPa) t (0C)
N2 1 350 100
CO 3 420 200
O2 2 700 300
If the containers are connected, allowing the gases to mix freely, find
(a) the pressure and temperature of the resulting mixture at
equilibrium, and (b) the change of entropy of each constituent and that
of the mixture.

Solution : Try please.

Q.10.27 Calculate the volume of 2.5 kg moles of steam at 236.4 atm. and 776.76
K with the help of compressibility factor versus reduced pressure
graph. At this volume and the given pressure, what would the
temperature be in K, if steam behaved like a van der Waals gas?
The critical pressure, volume, and temperature of steam are 218.2 atm.,
 3
57 cm /g mole, and 647.3 K respectively.

Solution : Try please.

3
Q.10.28 Two vessels, A and B, each of volume 3 m may be connected together by
a tube of negligible volume. Vessel a contains air at 7 bar, 95°C while B
 contains air at 3.5 bar, 205°C. Find the change of entropy when A is
connected to B. Assume the mixing to be complete and adiabatic.
(Ans. 0.975 kJ/kg K)
Solution: VA = VB = 3m 3

pA = 7 bar = 700 kPa

TA = 95ºC = 368 K
pB = 3.5 bar = 350 kPa
TB = 205ºC = 478 K

 mA = p V pBVB
A A
= 19.883 kg mB = = 7.6538 kg
RTA RTB

In case of Adiabatic mixing for closed A B

system Internal energy remains constant.
 UA + UB = U 3m3 3m3
or m A c v . TA  mBcv . TB = (mA  mB ) cvT

 T = mATA + mBTB
= 398.6 K
mA + mB pA = 7 bar pB = 3.5 bar
After mixing partial for of A TA = 95°C TB = 205°C
⎢⎡Total pressure ⎥⎤
mRT
⎢ p   525.03 kPa⎥

⎢⎣ V ⎥⎦
pAf = mART
= 379.1 kPa
V
pBf = m RT
B
= 145.93 kPa
V
T p
ΔSA = SAf – SA = m c ln  m R ln Af
A p A
TA pA
= 5.0957 kJ/K
Δs  s T p
= m c ln  m R ln Bf
Bf B B P B
TB pB
= 0.52435 kJ/kg
 ΔSuniv = ΔSA + ΔSB = 5.62 kJ/K

Q.10.29 An ideal gas at temperature

is heated at constant pressure to and
T1
T2
then expanded reversibly, according to the n
pv = constant, until the
law
temperature is once again T1 What is the required value of n if the
changes of entropy during the separate processes are equal?
⎛ ⎛ 2 ⎞ ⎞
⎜ Ans. ⎜ n = ⎟⎟
⎝ ⎝  +1 ⎠ ⎠
Solution: Let us mass of gas is 1 kg

2 T1 1 T2
T T2 p 2

1 3 3 (T1)

S V
Then v2 p2 R
⎡ T2 p2 ⎤ T2 T2
s – s = 1  c ln + c ln = c ln  R ln =c ln =  ln
p
2 1 P
v
v
p ⎢ p
T p⎥ T 1 T
1 1 ⎣ 1 1⎦ 1 1

or s3 – s2 = T3 p3
c ln  R ln
p
T2 2p
n1 n1
Hence
T T and T3
⎛ p3 ⎞ n ⎛ p3 ⎞ ⎛ T 3 ⎞ n
 = =
3 1
T ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
p p T
T1 n 2 ⎝ 2⎠ ⎝ 2⎠ ⎝ 2⎠
⎤ T1
= c ln  R ⎛ T ⎞ ⎡  R  nR ln ⎛ T ⎞⎡ n ⎤
ln ⎜ 1 ⎟ = ⎢ ⎥ = R ⎜ln 2 ⎟ ⎢ 
T n  1   1⎥
P
T n1 T 4 n1 T
2 ⎝ 2⎠ ⎣ ⎦ 2 ⎝ 1⎠ ⎣ ⎦
 As s2 – s  s3 – s2
1

R T ⎛ T2 ⎞ ⎡ n  ⎤
 ln 2 = R ln
⎜ ⎟ ⎢ 
1 T T n  1   1⎥

or 2 ⎝ 1 1 ⎠ ⎣ ⎦
 n
=
1 n1

or 2n – 2 = n – n

or n (n) = 2
⎛2⎞
or n= proved
⎜⎝ ⎟
  1⎠

Q.10.30 A certain mass of sulphur dioxide ( SO2 ) is contained in a vessel of

3
0.142 m capacity, at a pressure and temperature of 23.1 bar and 18°C
respectively. A valve is opened momentarily and the pressure falls
immediately to 6.9 bar. Sometimes later the temperature is again 18°C
and the pressure is observed to be 9.1 bar. Estimate the value of
specific heat ratio.
(Ans. 1.29)
Solution: Mass of SO2 before open the valve S = 32 O  16 × 2 = 64
 pV
m1 = 2310  0.142 = 8.6768 kg
R T = 8.3143 RSO = 0.12991 kJ/kg-K
SO2
 291
64
Mass of SO2 after closing the valve
910  0.142 = 3.4181 kg
m 2=
R SO2  291

If intermediate temperature is T then

p1V
p2V2 9.1  6.9  0.142
1 = or
0.142 = T
T1 T2
291
or T = 220.65 K
As valve is opened momentarily term process is adiabatic
T2
So 1 1
⎛p ⎞  220.65 ⎛ 6.9 ⎞ 
= 2 or = ⎜ ⎟
T ⎜p⎟ 291 23.1
1 ⎝1⎠ ⎝ ⎠
⎛ 220.65 ⎞
ln
⎛ 1⎞ ⎜ ⎟
299
or ⎜1  ⎝⎛ ⎠ = 0.22903
⎝  ⎠⎟ = ln 6.9 ⎞
⎜ ⎟
⎝ 23.1 ⎠
1
or = 1 – 0.22903 = 0.77097

  = 1.297

Q.10.31 A gaseous mixture contains 21% by volume of nitrogen, 50% by volume

of hydrogen, and 29% by volume of carbon-dioxide. Calculate the
molecular weight of the mixture, the characteristic gas constant R for the
mixture
and the value of the reversible adiabatic index  . (At 10ºC, the cp values
of nitrogen, hydrogen, and carbon dioxide are l.039, 14.235, and 0.828
kJ/kg K respectively.)
3
A cylinder contains 0.085 m of the mixture at 1 bar and 10°C. The gas
undergoes a reversible non-flow process during which its volume is
reduced to one-fifth of its original value. If the law of compression is
1.2
pv = constant, determine the work and heat transfer in magnitude
and
sense and the change in entropy.
(Ans. 19.64 kg/kg mol, 0.423 kJ/kg K, 1.365,
–16 kJ, – 7.24 kJ, – 0.31 kJ/kg K)
Solution : Volume ratio = 21: 50: 29
  Mass ratio = 21 × 28: 50 × 2: 29 × 44
Let m N = 21 × 28 kg, m H = 50 × 2 kg, m N = 29 × 44 kg
2 2 2

= 588 kg = 100 kg = 1276 kg

⎡ R ⎤
R 
mN RN  mH R H 
mCO RCO ⎢ N2 ⎥
⎢ 28 ⎥
 Rmix = 2 2 2 2 2 2

m2 N  mH2  mCO2 ⎢ R R⎥
 ,  ⎥
⎢ R H2 R 2 CO2
44 ⎦
21  R  50  R  29 R ⎣
=
21  28  50  2  29 
44
= 0.42334 kJ/kg – K

mN Cp + mH Cp + mCO Cp
cp Mix =
2 N2 2 H2 2 CO2 [m m m  1964]
m +m + N2 H2 CO2
m
N2 H2 CO2

21  28  1.039  100  14.235  0.828 

=
1276 = 1.5738 kJ/kg – K
588  100  1276
R
cVN = 1.039 
2 28 = 0.74206
R
c = 14.235  = 10.078
VH2
2
cVCO = 0.828  R
2
44 = 0.63904

588  0.74206  100  10.078  1276 

0.63904
 c Mix = = 1.1505 kJ/kg – K
v
588  100  1276
cv mix = cP mix – Rmix = 1.5738 – 0.42334 = 1.1505 kJ/kg – K

 mix = c
p
mix = 1.368
cv
mix

Given
 p1 = 1 bar = 100 kPa p2 = 690 kPa (Calculated)
v
V2 = 0.085 m3 V2 = 1 = 0.017 m3
5
T1 = 10º C = 283 K T2 = 390.5 K (Calculated)

p ⎛ v ⎞n
 2 1 = 51.2
p1 = ⎜⎝ v2⎟⎠ 2
 p2 = 100 × 51.2 kPa
n1 p
T2 ⎛ p 2 ⎞ n  T = 390.5 K
 =
T ⎜ p ⎟ 2
1
1 ⎝1⎠
p1 V1  p2 V2
W= n1
⎡ 2 2
dV ⎤
⎢ ∵ W   pdV  C  V4 ⎥
⎣ 1 1 ⎦

100  0.085  690  0.017

= 1.2  1
= –16.15 kJ –W
[i.e. work have to be given to the system)

Q = u2  u 1 + W

p1V1 = 0.070948 kg
m=
RT1
= mcv (T2  T1 ) + W
–Q
= (8.7748 – 16.15) kJ
= –7.3752 kJ
[i.e. Heat flow through system]
 Charge of entropy ⎛ T ⎞ ⎛p ⎞
ΔS = S2 – S1 = mc ln 2
 m R ln 2
P ⎜
T ⎟ ⎜p ⎟
⎝ 1⎠ ⎝ 1⎠
⎡ ⎛ 390.5 ⎞ ⎛ 690 ⎞⎤
=  0.42334  ln kJ/K
m ⎢1.5738 ln ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟⎥
⎣ ⎝ ⎠ ⎝ 100 ⎠⎦

= –0.022062 kJ/K = –22.062 J/K

Q.10.32 Two moles of an ideal gas at temperature T and pressure p are contained
in a compartment. In an adjacent compartment is one mole of an ideal
gas at temperature 2Tand pressure p. The gases mix adiabatically but do
not react chemically when a partition separating: the compartments are
withdrawn. Show that the entropy increase due to the mixing process is
given by
⎛ 27   ln32 ⎞ ⎟
R⎜ln 1 27
⎝ 4 ⎠
Provided that the gases are different and that the ratio of specific heat 
is the same for both gases and remains constant.
What would the entropy change be if the mixing gases were of the same
Species?
nRT
Solution: VA = 2 RT nR 2 2 RT
p = p V
TB = = p
p

A B

2 mole 1 mole
T 2T
p p

After mixing if final temperature is Tf then

2T12 9
T= 4 3R Tp
= T nRTf 3
f
pf= =
2 3 4 RT
1
Vf
 Final pressure = p
4 4 RT
Temperature = T and Volume = VA + VB =
3 p
2 
After mixing Partial Pressure of A = p = p c = R
fA
3
PA 1
1
Partial pressure of B = p = p
 fB
⎡ Tf 3 p ⎤
 (ΔS)A = n c ln  R ln fA
A ⎢ pA T p ⎥
⎣⎡  A
4 2 ⎤ A⎦
= 2R ln  ln
⎣⎢   1 3 3 ⎥⎦
(ΔS)B = n ⎡ T p ⎤
c ln f  R ln fB
B ⎢ PB T p ⎥
⎣ 2B 1 ⎤ B⎦
⎡  ln  ln
=R
⎢⎣   1 3


3 ⎦⎥

 (ΔS) univ = (ΔS)A + (ΔS)B

⎡⎛ 9
⎞⎟   ⎛⎜ ln 16 2 ⎞⎤
= R ⎢⎜ ln  ln 1  ln ⎟⎥
3 4 9 3
⎝
⎣⎡ 27 ⎠ ⎝ ⎠⎦
= R ln   32 ⎤ Proved.
⎢ 4 ln
  1 27 ⎥


⎣ ⎦

Q.10.33 n1 moles of an ideal gas at pressure p1 and temperature T are in one

compartment of an insulated container. In an adjoining compartment,
separated by a partition, are n2 moles of an ideal gas at pressure and
p2
temperature T. When the partition is removed, calculate (a) the final
pressure of the mixture, (b) the entropy change when the gases are
identical, and (c) the entropy change when .the gases are different.
Prove that the entropy change in (c) is the same as that produced by
two independent free expansions.

Solution: Try please.

Q.10.34 Assume that 20 kg of steam are required at a pressure of 600 bar and a
temperature of 750°C in order to conduct a particular experiment. A 140-
litre heavy duty tank is available for storage.
Predict if this is an adequate storage capacity using:
(a) The ideal gas theory,
(b) The compressibility factor chart,
(c) The van der Waals equation with a = 5.454 (litre) 2 atm/ (g mol) 2 , b =
0.03042 litres/gmol for steam,
(d) The Mollier chart
(e) The steam tables.
Estimate the error in
each.

Solution: Try please.

Q.10.35 Estimate the pressure of 5 kg of CO2
gas which occupies a volume of 0.70
3
m at 75°C, using the Beattie-Bridgeman equation of state.
Compare this result with the value obtained using the generalized
compressibility chart. Which is more accurate and why?
For CO2 with units of atm, litres/g mol and K, Ao = 5.0065, a = 0.07132, Bo =
-4
0.10476, b = 0.07235, C * 10 = 66.0.

Solution: Try please.

Q.10.36 Measurements of pressure and temperature at various stages in an

adiabatic air turbine show that the states of air lie on the line 1.25
pv =
 constant. If kinetic and gravitational potential energy is neglected,
prove that the shaft work per kg as a function of pressure is given by
the following relation
⎡ ⎛p
1/5
W = 3.5p1v1 ⎢1 – ⎜ 2 ⎟ ⎞ ⎤⎥
p
⎣⎢ ⎝ 1 ⎠ ⎥⎦
Take  for air as 1.4.

Solution: Using
S.F.E.E. ⎡ V2 ⎤

Q W  Δ ⎢⎣ 22 g Z⎥ ⎦ = h2 – h1

or Q – W = mc p(T2  T1 )

= mR(T  T )  p v = mRT p v = mRT
2 1
1
1 1 1 2 2 2

 p1 v1 ⎡ p2v2 ⎤
= 1 1
⎢pv ⎥
⎣ 1 1 ⎦
n 1
⎡ ⎤
 ⎛p ⎞
= pv ⎢ 2
n  1⎥
1 1 1 ⎜ ⎟
⎢ p ⎥
⎣⎝ 1 ⎠ ⎦

Here adiabatic process  Q  0 and as

n 1
⎡ ⎤
 ⎛ ⎞
So W= p n⎥
 p v ⎢1  2
1 ⎜p ⎟
1 1
⎢ ⎥
⎣ ⎝ 1⎠ ⎦
 = 1.4 and n = 1.25
1
⎢ ⎡ ⎞ ⎤
W = 3.5 p v 1  ⎛ 5 proved
⎜p2 ⎟⎥
1 1
⎢ p ⎥
⎣ ⎝ 1⎠ ⎦

Q.10.37 A mass of an ideal gas exists initially at a pressure of 200 kPa,

3
temperature 300 K, and specific volume 0.5 m /kg. The value of r is 1.4.
(a) Determine the specific heats of the gas. (b) What is the change in
entropy
when the gas is expanded to pressure 100 kPa according to the pv1.3 =
law
const? (c) What will be the entropy change if the path
is pv1.5 = const. (by
the application of a cooling jacket during the process)? (d) What is the
 inference you can draw from this example?
(Ans. (a) 1.166,0.833 kJ/kg K, (b) 0.044 kJ/kg K (c) - 0.039 kJ/kg K
(d) Entropy increases when n <  and decreases when n >  )
Solution: Given p = 200 kPa
1

T1 = 300 K
v1 = 0.5 m3/kg
 = 1.4

p1v1 200  0.5

(a) Gas constant( R) = = 0.33333 kJ/kg – K
T1 = 300
  Super heat at constant Pressure
c p=  1.4
R = 1.4   0.33333 = 1.1667 kJ/kg – K

1 1
cV = cp – R = 0.83333 kJ/kg – K
(b) Given p2 = 100 kPa
⎛p ⎞1
v = v  1 1.3 = 0.85218 m3/kg p
1⎜
2
p ⎟
⎝ 2⎠
V2 p
 s – s = c ln  c ln 2 2
2 1 p V
⎛ 0.85218 V1⎞ p 1 ⎛ 100 ⎞ V
= 1.1667  ln ⎜  0.83333  ln kJ/kg  K
0.5 ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
200
⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠
= 0.044453 kJ/kg – K = 44.453 J/kg – K

(c) If path is pv1.5 = C. Then

1
v=v
⎛ p1 ⎞ = 0.7937 m /kg
3
1.5
2  ⎟
1 ⎜
p
⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎛ 0.7937 ⎞ ⎛ 150 ⎞
 s – s = 1.1667  ln ⎜  0.83333 ln kJ/kg  K
2 1
⎟ ⎜ ⎟
⎝ ⎠ ⎝ 200 ⎠
= –0.03849 kJ/kg – K
(a) n >  is possible if cooling arrangement is used and ΔS will be –ve

Q.10.38 (a) A closed system of 2 kg of air initially at pressure 5 atm and

temperature 227°C, expands reversibly to pressure 2 atm following
1.25
the law pv = const. Assuming air as an ideal gas, determine the
work done and the heat transferred.
(Ans. 193 kJ, 72 kJ)
(b) If the system does the same expansion in a steady flow process, what
is the work done by the system?
(Ans. 241 kJ)
Solution: Given m = 2 kg
p1 = 5 atm = 506.625 kPa
1
T1 = 277º C = 550 K
p2 = 2 atm = 202.65 kPa p
⎛ p2 ⎞ n  1
T=T n = 457.9 K
2 1⎜ ⎟ 2
p
⎝ 1⎠

W1 – 2 = p1V1  p2V2 mR(T1  T2 ) V

= n1
n1
2  0.287(550 
=
457.9) Heat transfer
1.25  1 Q1 – 2 = u2  u1  W1 – 2
Reversible polytropic process
= mcv (T2  T1 )  W1 – 2
= 211.46 kJ
 = 2 × 0.718 (457.9 – 550) + W = –132.26 + 211.46 = 79.204 kJ

(b) For steady flow reversible polytropic process

W = h1  h 2
n
= [p V  p V ] = mR
[T  T ] = 264.33 kJ
n1 1 1 22
1 2
n1

Q.10.39 Air contained in a cylinder fitted with a piston is compressed reversibly

according to the law
pv1.25 = const. The mass of air in the cylinder is 0.1
kg. The initial pressure is 100 kPa and the initial temperature 20°C.
The final volume is 1/ 8 of the initial volume. Determine the work and
the heat transfer.

Solution: It is a reversible polytropic (Ans. – 22.9 kJ, –8.6 kJ)

process
m = 0.1 kg p2 = 1345.4 kPa
p1 = 100 kPa T2 = 492.77 K

 V1 = mRT1
V2 = 0.010511 m3
P1
= 0.084091 m3
⎛V

1.25
p = p 1 ⎞1.25 = 100 × 8 2
2 1⎜ ⎟
V
⎝ 2⎠
n1 p
⎛ p2 ⎞ n
T 2= T
1⎜
p⎟ 1
⎝ 1⎠
 W1 – 2 = p V  p V
1 1 2 2
n1 V
100  0.084091  1345.4  0.010511
= 1.25  1
= –22.93 kJ
Q1 – 2 = u2  u1  W1 – 2
= mcv (T2  T1 )  W1 – 2
= 0.2 × 0.718 × (492.77 – 293) – 22.93
= –8.5865 kJ

Q.10.40 Air is contained in a cylinder fitted with a frictionless piston. Initially

3
the cylinder contains 0.5 m of air at 1.5 bar, 20°C. The air is
Then compressed reversibly according to the law pvn = constant until
the final pressure is 6 bar, at which point the temperature is 120°C.
Determine: (a) the polytropic index n, (b) the final volume of air, (c)
the work done on the air and the heat transfer, and (d) the net change
in entropy.
(Ans. (a) 1.2685, (b) 0.1676 m
3
T1 = 20ºC = 293 K
Solution: Given p1 = 1.5 bar = 150 kPa V1 = 0.5 m3
(c) –95.3 kJ, –31.5 kJ, (d)
0.0153 kJ/K)
 p 1 V1 2
m= = 0.89189 kg
RT1
p2 = 6 bar = 600 kPa p
T2 = 120º C = 393 K 1
n1
T2 ⎛ p2 ⎞ n V
 =
T ⎜p ⎟
1 ⎝1⎠
⎛ T2 ⎞
⎛ 1⎞ ln
⎜ T1 ⎟
or ⎜1  ⎟ = ⎝ ⎠ = 0.2118
⎝ n⎠ ⎛ P2 ⎞
ln ⎜ ⎟
P
⎝ 1⎠
 n = 1.2687

(a) The polytropic index, n = 1.2687

(b) Final volume of air (V1) = mRT2 0.189  0.287  m3 = 0.16766 m3
p2 =393
600
2
p1 V1  p V
(c) W1 – 2 =  pdV = 2 2

1
n1

150  0.5  600  0.16766

= 1.2687  1 kJ = –95.263 kJ

Q1 – 2 = u2  u1  W1 – 2
= mcv(T2  T1 )  W1 – 2
= 0.89189 × 0.718(393 – 293) + W1 – 2
= –31.225 kJ
⎡ p2 V2 ⎤
(d) Δs = s  s = m c ln  c ln
⎢v V⎥


2 1 P
p
⎣ 1 1⎦
⎡ ⎛ 600 ⎞ ⎛ 0.16766 ⎞⎤
= 0.89189 ⎢0.718 ln ⎜ ⎟  1.005  ln ⎜ 0.5 ⎟⎥ = –0.091663 kJ/K
⎣ 150
⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠⎦

Q.10.41 The specific heat at constant pressure for air is given by

-4 -8 2
c p = 0.9169 + 2.577 + 10 T - 3.974 * 10 T kJ/kg K
Determine the change in internal energy and that in entropy of air when
it undergoes a change of state from 1 atm and 298 K to a temperature of
2000 K at the same pressure.
( Ans. 1470.4 kJ/kg, 2.1065 kJ/kg K )
Solution: p1  p2 = 1 atm = 101.325 kPa
T1 = 298 K; T2 = 2000 K
cp = 0.9169 + 2.577 × 10–4 T – 3.974
× 10–3 T2 kJ/kg – K
Δu = u2  u1 = m cv dT
 Properties of Gases and Gas Mixtures
By: S K Mondal Chapter
=  m(c P  R) dT
10
=  mc P dT  mR  dT
2000 2
= 1   (0.9169  2.577  104 T  3.974
T
298
2000 1
 108 T2 ) dT  1  0.287  dT kJ / kg
298 S

= (1560.6 + 503.96 – 105.62 – 488.47) kJ/kg

= 1470.5 kJ/kg
 Tds = dh – vdp

or Tds = mcPdT  v dp
2
2000

1
 dS = m  dT
cP
T
298
2000 4
 s – s = 0.9169  ln  2.577  10 (2000  298)
2 1
298 8
⎛ 2000  298 ⎞
 3.974  10  2 2
⎜ ⎟
⎝ 2 ⎠
= 2.1065 kJ/kg – K

Q.10.42 A closed system allows nitrogen to expand reversibly from a volume of

3
0.25 m to 0.75 m3 along the pv1.32 = const. The original pressure of
path
the gas is 250 kPa and its initial temperature is 100°C.
(a) Draw the p-v and T-s diagrams.
(b) What are the final temperature and the final pressure of the gas?
(c) How much work is done and how much heat is transferred?
(d) What is the Entropy change of nitrogen?
(Ans. (b) 262.44 K, 58.63 kPa,
(c) 57.89 kJ, 11.4 kJ, (d) 0.0362 kJ/K)
Solution: Given p1 = 250 kPa
V1 = 0.25 m3
T1 = 100ºC = 373 K

p1

p2
1
1
2
p T

2


m
p1v1 RT1
 Properties of Gases and Gas Mixtures
By: S K Mondal Chapter
10
V

= 0.563 kg = 0.5643 kg
Page 169 of 265
 Properties of Gases and Gas Mixtures
By: S K Mondal Chapter
R =
8.3143 = 0.29694 kJ/kg 10
N2
28
⎛ v ⎞n
p2 = p1  ⎜ 1 ⎟ = 58.633 kPa
⎝ v2 ⎠
V
2 n1
=
0
.
7
5
m
3
T = 262.4 K
=
T⎛
2
p
⎞
n
2 1 ⎜p ⎟
⎝ 1⎠

W = 250  0.25  = 57.891 kJ

= 58.633  0.75
p1 (1.32 
V1 1)

p2
V2
n1
Q = u2  u1  W = mcv(T2  T1 )  W
= 0.5643 × 0.7423 (262.4 – 373) + W
cv = R
= 0.7423


1
2
= 11.56 kJ =1
5 = 1.4

c =  0.29694 = 1.04 kJ/kg – K
p R =
1
1.4
1.
4

1
⎡ V p ⎤
 Δs = s – s = m c ln 2  c ln 2
2 1 ⎢P V
V
p⎥
⎣ 1 1⎦
⎡ ⎛ 0.75 ⎞ ⎛ 58.633 ⎞⎤
= 0.5643 ⎢1.04  ln 2
5
0 ⎟ ⎥ kJ/K
⎜ ⎟  0.7423 
ln 0.25
⎜
⎣ ⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠⎦
= 0.0373 kJ/kg – K Methane has
a specific
 Properties of Gases and Gas Mixtures
By: S K Mondal Chapter
heat pressure, the heat 10 the work
transfer,
at done and the change in entropy.
consta = (Ans. 2.577 atm, 1258.5 kJ/kg,
nt 17.66 Solution: 2.3838 kJ/kg K)
pressu + R
p = 1 atm = 101.325 kPa R=
re 1
16
given
by cp T1 = 27ºC = 300 K = 0.51964
kJ/kg – K
0.06 m = 1 kg p2 = 261 kPa
188
T  m
kJ/k V2 = 1.5385
R
g V T
mol 1 1

K = p1
whe = 1.5385 m3 = V2 T2 = 500ºC =
n 1 773 K V=C
kg
(i) Find m
of
pressur R
met
e (p2 ) = T
han
2
e is
heat
ed V
2
at
= 261 kPa  2.577 atm T
cons
tant
volu (ii) Heat transfer Q =  mcv dT
me
fro = m  [c P  R]dT
m
27
to Page 170 of 265
500
°C.
If
the
initi
al
pres
sure
of
the
gas
is 1
atm
,
calc
ulat
e
the
fina
l
 Properties of Gases and Gas Mixtures
By: S K Mondal Chapter
773
10
=1
 (1.1038  3.8675  10
3
 0.51964) dT
300
3 (773  300 )
= 0.58411(773  300)  3.8675  10 2 2
2
17.66 0.06188
cP=  T kJ/kg  K
16 16
= 1.1038 + 3.8675 × 10–3 T = 1257.7 kJ/kg
2

(iii)
pdV  0
1
Work done
=
 Tds = du = mcv dT
d dT
T  R)
d =
s T
= m(c
m p
c
v

2 T 773 3
⎛ 1  0.58411  3.8675  10 T ⎞
  dS =  ⎜ T
⎟ dT
1 300
⎝ ⎠
773 3
s – s = 0.58411 ln  3.8675  10 (773  300) = 2.3822
kJ/kg – K
2 1
300

Q.10.44 Air is compressed reversibly

according to the law pv1. = const. from an
25
3
initial pressures of 1 bar and volume of 0.9 m to a final
volume of 0.6
3
m .Determine the final pressure and the change
of entropy per kg of air.
(Ans. 1.66 bar, –0.0436 kJ/kg
Solut p1 = 1 K)
ion: bar V1
= 0.9
m3 V2
= 0.6 .⎞25
1

m3
⎛V
 p2 = p1 ⎜ 1 ⎟ = 1.66 bar
⎝ V2 ⎠

2 2
p T
1
1
 Properties of Gases and Gas Mixtures
By: S K Mondal Chapter
V 10
⎛ V2
Δs= s  s =p2 ⎞c ln  c
ln


1
p

1
= 1.005
ln

ln
⎜ ⎟ kJ/kg
0.9 ⎜
1⎟
⎝ ⎠ ⎝
=–
0.043587
kJ/kg – K

Q.10.45 In a heat
engine
cycle,
air is
isother
mally
compr
essed.
Heat is
then
added
at
consta
nt
pressu
rPea,

gaeft1e
7r1woh
f
2ic6h5
the air
expan
ds
isentro
pically
to
 its original state. Draw the cycle on p-v and T'-s coordinates. Show that
the cycle efficiency can be expressed in the following form

  1 lnr
 1   1/ 
 ⎡⎣ r  1⎤⎦
Where r is the pressure ratio, p2/p1 . Determine the pressure ratio and
the cycle efficiency if the initial temperature is 27°C and the maximum
temperature is 327°C.

Solution: Heat addition (Q1) = Q2 – 3 = mc p(T3  T2 ( Ans. 13.4, 32.4%)

)

p2

p1
3 3
p 2
W T
2
1 1

V ⎛ p2 ⎞ S
Heat rejection (Q2) = mRT ln
1 ⎜
p⎟
⎝ 1 ⎠p
⎛ ⎞
RT1 ln 2
⎜p ⎟
Q p
 =1 2
= 1 ⎝ 1 ⎠
2
Here, = r
Q1 Cp(T3  T2 ) p1
⎛p ⎞
ln 2 1
1 ⎜p⎟ T ⎛p⎞ 1

=1 ⎝ 1⎠
 ⎛ T3 ⎞  3
T1 = ⎜⎝ p1⎟⎠
3 =r
1
⎜T ⎟
⎝ 1 ⎠
R
c p=
1
1 ln r
=1 Proved
 1

(r  1)

 If initial temperature (T1) = 27ºC = 300 K = T2

And T3 = 327ºC = 600 K
 1.4
⎛ 600 ⎞1.4  1 = 11.314
⎛ T3 ⎞  1 =
 r=
⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
T 300
⎝ 1⎠ ⎝ ⎠
Page 172 of 265
 (1.4  1)
(1.4) ln
= 0.30686
 =1  (11.314)
1.4  1

 (11.314) 1.4
1

Page 173 of 265

Q.10.46 What is the minimum amount of work required to separate 1 mole of
air at 27°C and 1 atm pressure (assumed composed of 1/5 O 2 and N2 )
4/5
into oxygen and nitrogen each at 27°C and 1 atm pressure?
( Ans. 1250 J)
Solution: Total air is 1 mole
1
So O2 = mole
5 = 0.0064 kg
4
N2 = mole = 0.0224 kg
5
Mixture, pressure = 1 atm, temperature = 300 K
1
Partial pressure of O2 = atm
5
4
Partial pressure of N2 = atm
5
Minimum work required is isothermal work
pf ⎛ pf N ⎞
= m R T ln O2  m R T ln 2
O2 O2 N2 N2 12 ⎜ ⎟
⎝ p1 N8.3143
1O2
p 1 2⎠
8.3143 O2
⎛5⎞
= 0.0064   300 ln (5)  0.0224   300 ln
32 28 ⎜ ⎟
⎝4⎠
= 1.248 kJ = 1248 J

3
Q.10.47 A closed adiabatic cylinder of volume 1 m is divided by a partition into
3
two compartments 1 and 2. Compartment 1 has a volume of 0.6 m and
contains methane at 0.4 MPa, 40°C, while compartment 2 has a volume of
3
0.4 m and contains propane at 0.4 MPa, 40°C. The partition is removed
and the gases are allowed to mix.
(a) When the equilibrium state is reached, find the entropy change of
the universe.
(b) What are the molecular weight and the specific heat ratio of the
mixture?
The mixture is now compressed reversibly and adiabatically to 1.2
MPa. Compute
(c) the final temperature of the mixture,
(d) The work required per unit mass, and
(e) The specific entropy change for each gas. Take cp of methane and
propane as 35.72 and 74.56 kJ/kg mol K respectively.
(Ans. (a) 0.8609 kJ/K, (b) 27.2,1.193 (c) 100.9°C,
(d) 396 kJ, (e) 0.255 kJ/kg K)
Solution: After mixing pf = 400 kPa
Tf = 313 K
1 2
But partial pressure of (p1f )

0.6 V1 = 0.6 m3 V2 = 0.4 m3

CH4 =  400 = 240 kPa p2 = 400 kPa
1
p1 = 400 kPa
T1 = 313 K T2 = 313 K
 p2f = 0.4 × 400 = 160 kPa CH4 C3H8
 (a) ⎡ T2 p2 ⎤
(ΔS) = m c ln  R ln
⎥


CH4
CH4 ⎢ PCH T p
4

⎣ ⎛ p1 i ⎞ 1 ⎦
= m R ln
CH4 CH4 ⎜ ⎟
p
⎝ f⎠
⎛p⎞
p1 V1  R ln i
=
CH4 ⎜ ⎟
R T p
CH4 1
⎝ f⎠
p1 V 1 ⎛p ⎞
= R ln i

T1 CH4 ⎜p ⎟
⎝ f1 ⎠
(ΔS) p2 V2 p
38 =  ln i
CH T2 pf
2

(ΔS) Univ = (ΔS)CH  (ΔS)C H

400  0.6 ⎛ 400 ⎞ 400  0.4 ⎛ 400 ⎞
4 38

= ln ⎜ ⎟ ln⎜ ⎟ kJ /K
313 240 313 160
⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠
= 0.86 kJ/K

(b) Molecular weight

xM = x1M1 +
x2M2
 M = x1 x
M  2 M = 0.6 × 16 + 0.4 × 44 = 27.2
1 2
x x
n 1 cp  n c 0.6  35.72  0.4 
c = 1 2 p2
74.56
= = 51.256 kJ/kg
p mix n n 1
1 2

Rmix = R = 8.3143
 cv mix = cP mix – R = 42.9417
cP mix
 mix = 51.256 = 1.1936
=
cv mix 42.9417

Q.10.48 An ideal gas cycle consists of the following reversible processes: (i)
isentropic compression, (ii) constant volume heat addition, (iii)
isentropic expansion, and (iv) constant pressure heat rejection. Show
that the efficiency of this cycle is given by

1 ⎡   a  1 ⎤
1/ 

  1  1 ⎢ a  1 ⎥
r
k ⎢ ⎥⎦
⎣
Where rk is the compression ratio and a is the ratio of pressures after
and before heat addition.
 An engine operating on the above cycle with a compression ratio of 6
starts the compression with air at 1 bar, 300 K. If the ratio of pressures
after and before heat addition is 2.5, calculate the efficiency and the
m.e.p. of the cycle. Take
 = 1.4 and cv = 0.718 kJ/kg K.
( Ans. 0.579, 2.5322 bar)
Solution: Q2 – 3 = u3  u2  pdV = mcv(T3  T2 )
 Q1 – 4 = mc p(T4  T1 )
m c p (T4  T1 )
  = 1  m c (T  T )
v 3 2
⎛ T4  T1 ⎞
=1 ⎟
T
⎝ 3 2⎠

T ⎛ v 1
⎞
2
= ⎜ 1⎟ k
= r  1
T1 ⎝ v2 ⎠
 1
 T2 = T1  rk
1 1
T3 ⎛ p3 ⎞  ⎛ p3 ⎞ 
= =
⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
T p p
4
⎝ 4⎠ ⎝ 1⎠
p3
 p2 = 9 V=C
p2 v2 p3 v3 3
T2 = T
3 Q1
T 1 p=C

W
 3 = (a  r) T 2
T4
p v ⎞ p T W
2
= 1 ⎟ = a  =3 3 = a, 4
p1 v2 ⎠ p2 T2
1 1 Q2
 T3 = aT2 = aT r1 k
1 1 1 S
T4 ⎛ p4 ⎞  ⎛ p1 ⎞  ⎛p p ⎞
= = = 1 2
⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
 

T p p p p
3 ⎝ 3⎠ ⎝ 3⎠ ⎝ 2 3⎠
1
⎛⎛ V ⎞ 1 ⎞ 
= ⎜⎜⎜ V2 ⎟  a ⎟⎟ 3
⎝ 1⎠
⎝ ⎠
 1 r  1 T Q1
= (rk a ) r
2
1  1  
 T4 = r .a .T
k 3
1
1
1
= rk1   . a .aT.r 4
1 k 1 Q2
1

= a . T1
1
(a T  T ) S

  = 1 1   1 1 1
(aT1 rk  T 1r k )
1

[(a   1)]
= 1 r   1(a  1) Proved.
k
 Given p1 = 1 bar = 100 kPa
T1 = 300K, rk = 6,
a = 2.5,  = 1.4
1

1.4(2.51.4  1)
  = 1  61.4  1(2.5  1) = 0.57876
Q1 = mcv(T3  T2 )
1 1
= m cv(aT 1r k  T 1r k )
1
= mc T
v 1r
k (a  1)
= m × 0.718 × 300 × 60.4 × (2.5 – 1)
= 661.6 m kJ
 W =  Q1 = 382.9 m kJ
1

For V4 = ; T4 = 2.5  300 = 577.25 K

1.4

p4  p1 = 100 kPa

V4 = mRT4 m  0.287  577.25 3

p4 = 100 m
= 1.6567 m m3
mR m  0.287  300
V1 = =
T1 100
p1 = 0.861m m3
 V4 – V1 = 0.7957 m3

Let m.e.p. is pm then

pm ( V4 – V1 ) = W
382.9  m
pm= kPa
0.7957 m

= 481.21 kPa = 4.8121 bar

Q10.49 The relation between u, p and v for many gases is of the form u = a +
bpv where a and b are constants. Show that for a reversible adiabatic
y
process pv = constant, where
 = (b + 1)/b.
Solution: Try please.

Q10.50 (a) Show that the slope of a reversible adiabatic process on p-v
coordinates
dp is1 cp 1 ⎛ v ⎞
 wherek  
⎜ ⎟
dv kv c v p
v ⎝ ⎠T

(b) Hence, show that for an ideal gas, pv = constant, for a reversible
adiabatic process.
Solution: Try please.

Q10.51 A certain gas obeys the Clausius equation of state p (v – b) = RT and has
 its internal energy given by u = cv T. Show that the equation for a
reversible adiabatic process is p  v  = constant, where   cp / c v .
b   Solution: Try please.
Q10.52 (a) Two curves, one representing a reversible adiabatic process
undergone by an ideal gas and the other an isothermal process by
the same gas, intersect at the same point on the p-v diagram. Show
that the ratio of the slope of the adiabatic curve to the slope of the
isothermal curve is equal to  .
(b) Determine the ratio of work done during a reversible adiabatic
process to the work done during an isothermal process for a gas
having  = 1.6. Both processes have a pressure ratio of 6.
Solution: Try please.

Q10.53 Two containers p and q with rigid walls contain two different
monatomic gases with masses m p and mq , gas constants Rp and Rq ,
and initial temperatures and Tq respectively, are brought in contact
Tp
with each other and allowed to exchange energy until equilibrium is
achieved. Determine:
(a) the final temperature of the two gases and
(b) the change of entropy due to this energy
exchange. Solution:Try please.

Q10.54 The pressure of a certain gas (photon gas) is a function of temperature

only and is related to the energy and volume by p(T) = (1/3) (U/V). A
system consisting of this gas confined by a cylinder and a piston
undergoes a Carnot cycle between two pressures P 1 and P2.
(a) Find expressions for work and heat of reversible isothermal and
adiabatic processes.
(b) Plot the Carnot cycle on p-v and T- s diagrams.
(c) Determine the efficiency of the cycle in terms of pressures.
(d) What is the functional relation between pressure and temperature?
Solution: Try please.

Q10.55 The gravimetric analysis of dry air is approximately: oxygen = 23%,

nitrogen = 77%. Calculate:
(a) The volumetric analysis,
(b) The gas constant,
(c) The molecular weight,
(d) the respective partial pressures,
(e) The specific volume at 1 atm, 15°C, and
(f) How much oxygen must be added to 2.3 kg air to produce . A mixture
which is 50% oxygen by volume?
(Ans. (a) 21% O2 , 79% N2 , (b) 0.288 kJ/kg K,
3
(d) 21 kPa for O 2' (e) 0.84 m /kg, (f) 1.47 kg)
Solution: By gravimetric analysis O2: N2 = 23: 77

23 77
(a)  By volumetric analysis O2: N2 = :
32 28
= 0.71875: 2.75
= 0.71875  (100) 2.75  100
:
(0.71875  2.75) 2.75
= 20.72: 79.28
(b) Let total mass = 100 kg
 O2 = 23 kg, N2= 77 kg

23  RO  77  RN
 R= 2 2
’
23  77
8.3143 8.3143
23  32  77  28
=
23  77
= 0.2884 kJ/kg – K

(c) For molecular weight ()

x = x1 1  x2 2
or  = x1 x
  2 


1 2
x x
= 2072 × 32 + 0.7928 × 28 = 28.83

(d) Partial pressure of O2 = x O  p

2

= 0.2072 × 101.325 kPa = 20.995 kPa

Partial pressure of N2 = x N  p = 0.7928 × 101.325 kPa = 80.33 kPa
2

RT
(e) Sp. volume, v = 0.2884  288 3
 = = 0.81973 m3/kg
101.325 m / kg
Density   1  2
1 p
 = 1 1 pO2
 =  N2

v v1 v 2 RO  288 RN  288
2 2

0.2072  101.325  32 0.7928  101.325  28

= 8.3143  2.88  8.3143  288
 v = 0.81974 m /kg
3

(f) In 2.3 kg of air O2 = 2.3 × 0.23 kg = 0.529 kg

 N2 = 2.3 × 0.77 = 1.771 kg = 63.25 mole
For same volume we need same mole O2
Total O2 = 63.25  32
= 2.024 kg
1000kg
 Oxygen must be added = (2.024 – 0.529) kg = 1.495 kg
 Thermodynamic Relations
By: S K Mondal Chapter
11
11. Thermodynamic Relations

Some Important Notes

Some Mathematical Theorem

Theorem 1. If a relation exists among the variables x, y and z, then z may be expressed as a
function of x and y, or⎛ z ⎞
⎛ z ⎞
dz  ⎜ ⎟ dx  ⎜ ⎟ dy
x y
⎝ ⎠y ⎝ ⎠x
then dz = M dx + N dy.
Where z, M and N are functions of x and y. Differentiating M partially with respect to y, and N
with respect to x.
⎛ M ⎞ z
2


⎝⎜ ⎟ ⎠x x.y
 y
⎛ N ⎞ z
2

⎜⎝ ⎟ ⎠ y
 x y.
x
⎛ M ⎞
⎜ ⎟ ⎛ N ⎞
⎝  ⎠x  ⎝⎜ ⎟⎠ y
y x
This is the condition of exact (or perfect) differential.

Theorem 2. If a quantity f is a function of x, y and z, and a relation exists among x, y and z,

then f is a function of any two of x, y and z. Similarly any one of x, y and z may be regarded to
be a function of f and any one of x, y and z. Thus, if
x = x (f, y)
x⎛ ⎞
⎛ x ⎞ df  dy
dx 
⎜ f ⎟ ⎜ y ⎟
⎝ ⎠y ⎝ ⎠f
Similarly, if
y = y (f, z)
y
⎛ y ⎞ df  ⎛ ⎞ dz
dy 
⎝⎜  ⎠z ⎝⎜  ⎠ f
⎟ ⎟
Substituting fthe expression
z of dy in the preceding equation
Theorem 3. Among the variables x, y, and z any one variable may be considered as a function
of the other two. Thus
x = x(y, z)
x
⎛ x ⎞ dy  ⎛ ⎞ dz
dx 
⎝⎜ ⎠z ⎜⎝ ⎠ y
 
Similarly,
⎛ z ⎞ ⎛ z ⎞
dz  ⎜ ⎟ dx  ⎜ ⎟ dy
x y
⎝ ⎠y ⎝
⎡⎛ z ⎞ ⎤
x ⎞
⎛ y ⎠x ⎢ ⎜ ⎟ ⎛ z dy
dx  ⎜ ⎟ x dx ⎞  y
⎜ ⎟
x ⎞
⎛ z
dy  ⎜ ⎟ ⎥
⎝ ⎠z ⎝ ⎠ y ⎢⎣⎝ ⎠y ⎝ ⎠ x ⎥⎦
⎡⎛ x ⎞
 ⎛ x ⎞ ⎛ z ⎞ ⎤ ⎛ x ⎞ ⎛ z ⎞
 ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ ⎥ dy  dx
⎢⎜ ⎟ z y ⎜ ⎟⎜ ⎟
y z x
⎢⎣ ⎝ ⎠ z ⎝ ⎠y ⎝ ⎠x ⎝ ⎠y ⎝ ⎠ y
⎥⎦
⎡⎛ x ⎞ ⎤
⎢⎜ ⎟ ⎛⎜ x ⎟⎞ ⎛⎜ z ⎞⎟ dy  dx
 y  z y ⎥
⎢⎣ ⎝ ⎠ z ⎝ ⎠y ⎝ ⎠ x ⎥⎦
⎛ x ⎞ ⎛ z ⎞ ⎛ x ⎞
  0
⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟⎜ ⎟
y y z
⎝ ⎠z ⎝ ⎠x ⎝ ⎠y
⎛ x ⎞ ⎛ z ⎞ ⎛ y ⎞
⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟  1
y x z
⎝ ⎠z ⎝ ⎠ y ⎝ ⎠x
Among the thermodynamic variables p, V and T. The following relation holds good
⎛ p ⎞ ⎛ V ⎞ ⎛ T ⎞
⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟  1
V T p
⎝ ⎠T ⎝ ⎠p ⎝ ⎠v

Maxwell’s Equations
A pure substance existing in a single phase has only two independent variables. Of the eight
quantities p, V, T, S, U, H, F (Helmholtz function), and G (Gibbs function) any one may be
expressed as a function of any two others.
For a pure substance undergoing an infinitesimal reversible process
(a) dU = TdS - pdV
(b) dH = dU + pdV + VdP = TdS + Vdp
(c) dF = dU - TdS - SdT = - pdT - SdT
(d) dG = dH - TdS - SdT = Vdp - SdT
Since U, H, F and G are thermodynamic properties and exact differentials of the type
 dz = M dx + N dy, then
⎛ M ⎞ ⎛ N ⎞
⎜ ⎟  ⎜ ⎟
y x
⎝ ⎠x ⎝ ⎠y
Applying this to the four equations
 ⎛ T ⎞ ⎛ p ⎞
⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
V S
⎝ ⎠s ⎝ ⎠v
⎛ T ⎞ ⎛ V ⎞
⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
P S
⎝ ⎠s ⎝ ⎠p
⎛ p ⎞ ⎛ S ⎞
⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
T V
⎝ ⎠V ⎝ ⎠T
⎛ V ⎞
⎜ ⎟   ⎛⎜ S ⎞
⎝  ⎠P ⎝  ⎠T
These four equations are known as Maxwell’s equations.

Questions with Solution (IES & IAS)

(i) Derive:
dS  C dT ⎛ p ⎞ dV [IAS - 1986]

⎜ ⎟


T ⎝ T ⎠
v

Let entropy S be imagined as a function of T and V.

Then S  S  T, V 
or dS  ⎛ S ⎞
⎛ S ⎞ dT  dV
⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
T V
⎝ ⎠V ⎝ ⎠T
multiplying both side by T
⎛ S ⎞ ⎛ S ⎞
TdS  T dT  T dV
⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
T V
⎝ ⎠V ⎝ ⎠T
⎛ S ⎞
Since T  C , heat capacity at constant volume
⎜ ⎟ V
⎝  ⎠V
T
and ⎛ S ⎞
⎜ ⎟  ⎛ p ⎞ by Maxwell 's equation
⎝ V ⎠T ⎝⎜  ⎠V p
⎛ ⎞
 TdS  C dT  T dV
V
⎜ ⎟
⎝  ⎠V
dividing both side by T
T
dS  C
dT ⎛ p ⎞ dV proved
 

V ⎜ ⎟
T ⎝  ⎠V
T

(ii) Derive:
TdS ⎛ V ⎞
C dT  T dp
p ⎜ ⎟ [IES-1998]
⎝ ⎠p
 T
Let entropy S be imagined as a function of T and p.
Then S  ST, p

or dS  ⎛ S ⎞
⎛ S ⎞ dT  dp
⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
T p
⎝ ⎠p ⎝ ⎠T
multiplying both side by T
⎛ S ⎞ ⎛ S ⎞
TdS  T dT  T dp
⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
T p
⎝ ⎠p ⎝ ⎠T
⎛ S ⎞
Since T  C , heat capacity at constant pressure
⎜ ⎟ p

⎝ T ⎠ p
and
⎛ S ⎞ ⎛ V ⎞
⎜ ⎟   ⎜ ⎟ by Maxwell 's equation
p T
⎝ ⎠T ⎝ ⎠p
⎛ V ⎞
 TdS  C dT  T dp proved.
p ⎜ ⎟
⎝ T ⎠p

(iii) Derive:
 k Cv dp Cp

TdS  CpdT  TV dp   dV

CVdT  T dV  V
k
[IES-2001]
We know that volume expansivity () = 1 ⎛ V ⎞
⎜ ⎟
V ⎝T ⎠p

and isothermal compressibility (k)

1 ⎛ V ⎞
=  V ⎜ p
⎝ ⎠T
⎟
 Frompfirst TdS equation
⎛ ⎞
TdS  C dT  T dV
V
⎜ ⎟
⎝  ⎠V
⎛⎜ V ⎟
T ⎞
 T
⎛ V ⎞ ⎛ p ⎞
⎝ ⎠p   
 ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
k ⎛ V ⎞ T
⎝ ⎠p ⎝ V ⎠T
⎜ ⎟
⎝ p ⎠T
⎛ V ⎞
As ⎜ ⎟ ⎛ T ⎞ ⎛ p ⎞   1
⎝ T ⎠p  ⎝⎜ ⎠V  ⎝⎜
  ⎠T
⎟
⎛ V ⎞ p⎛ p ⎞ ⎛ p ⎞
 ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
T V T
⎝ ⎠p ⎝ ⎠T ⎝ ⎠V
 ⎛ p ⎞
or 
 ⎜ ⎟
k ⎝ T ⎠V
 TdS  CVdT  T 
 dV proved
k
From second TdS relation
 ⎛ V ⎞
TdS  C dT  T dp
p ⎜ T ⎟
⎝ ⎠p
1 ⎛ V ⎞
as  ⎜
V ⎝  ⎠p
⎛ V ⎞
 ⎜ ⎟  V
⎝ T ⎠ p
 TdS  CpdT  TVdp proved

Let S is a function of p, V
 S = S(p, V)
⎛ S ⎞ ⎛ S ⎞
 dS = dp  dV
⎜⎝ ⎠V ⎜⎝
  ⎠p
Multiply both side by T
⎛ S ⎞ ⎛ S ⎞
TdS  T dp  T
dV
⎜⎝  ⎠V ⎜⎝ ⎠
⎛ S T ⎞  ⎛ S T ⎞
p

or TdS  T ⎟⎜p  ⎟ dp  T ⎜  ⎟ dV
T p T V
⎝ ⎠V ⎝ ⎠p
⎛ S ⎞ ⎛ S
or TdS  T ⎛ T ⎞
⎞
⎛ T dp ⎞ T  dV
⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟⎜ ⎟
⎝ T ⎠V ⎝ p ⎠V ⎝ T ⎠p ⎝V ⎠p
⎛ S ⎞ S
Cp
 T ⎜ T ⎟ and CV  T ⎛⎜ ⎞⎟
⎝ ⎠ p ⎝ T ⎠ V

 TdS  C ⎛ T ⎞ ⎛ T ⎞
v ⎜ ⎟ dp  p ⎜⎝ ⎟⎠ dV
p
⎝ ⎠V C V p

From
first
 ⎛ p ⎞ k ⎛ T ⎞
 
or  

k ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
⎝ T ⎠V  ⎝ p ⎠V
 TdS  C k dp  C ⎛ T ⎞
dV
p ⎜ ⎟
V
⎝ ⎠p

v

1 ⎛ V ⎞
  ⎜ ⎟
V ⎝ T ⎠p
⎛ T ⎞ 1
 
⎝⎜ V ⎠⎟ p V
C kdp Cp
 TdS  v  dV proved.
 V

(iv) Prove that ⎛ V ⎞2

 ⎛ p ⎞

Cp    T⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
Cv ⎝ T ⎠p ⎝ V ⎠T [IAS-1998]

We know that
 Thermodynamic Relations
By: S K Mondal
⎛ V ⎞ ⎛ p ⎞
Chapter
TdS  C dT  T dp  C dT  T dV 11
p
⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
⎝ T ⎠p ⎝ T ⎠ V
V

or C  C dT  ⎛ V ⎞ dp  T⎛ p ⎞ dV
T⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
T T
p v

⎛ V ⎞ ⎝ ⎠p ⎝ ⎠V
T
p
⎛ ⎞ dV
dp T
⎝⎜ T ⎠⎟p ⎝⎜ T ⎟⎠ V
or dT      i
Cp  CV Cp  C V
sin ce T is a function of p, V
T  Tp, V
⎛ T ⎞ ⎛ T ⎞
or dT  dp  dV    ii 
⎜⎝ ⎟⎠ V ⎜ ⎟
p ⎝ V ⎠ p
comparing i & ii we get
⎛ V ⎞ ⎛ p ⎞
T⎜ ⎟ ⎛ T ⎞ T⎜ ⎟ ⎛ T ⎞
T ⎝ T ⎠ V
⎝ ⎠p and ⎜
⎜ ⎟ ⎟
Cp  CV ⎝ p ⎠V Cp  CV ⎝ V ⎠p
both these give
Cp  C V ⎛ V ⎞ ⎛ p ⎞
 T ⎜ T ⎟ ⎜ T ⎟
⎝ ⎠p ⎝ ⎠V

Here ⎛ p ⎞ ⎛ T ⎞ ⎛ V  1 or ⎛ p ⎞ ⎛ V ⎞ ⎛ p ⎞
 ⎞





⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
T V p T T V
⎝ ⎠V ⎝ ⎠p ⎝ ⎠T ⎝ ⎠V ⎝ ⎠p ⎝ ⎠T

∵ Cp  ⎛ V
CV ⎛ p ⎞ proved. ...............Equation(A)
⎞2 ⎜
  T⎜ ⎝ ⎠T
⎟
⎝ T ⎠p
This is a very important equation in thermodynamics. It indicates the following important
facts.

(a) Since ⎛ V ⎞2 ⎛ p ⎞
⎜ ⎟ is always positive, and ⎜ ⎟ for any substance is negative. (Cp – Cv) is always
⎝  ⎠p ⎝  ⎠T
T V
positive. Therefore, Cp is always greater than Cv.
(b) As T  0K ,Cp  or at absolute zero, Cp = Cv.
Cv

(c) When
⎛ V ⎞ (e.g for water at 4ºC, when density is maximum. Or specific volume
⎜⎝ 0
 ⎠p
minimum). Cp = Cv.

(d) For an ideal gas, pV = mRT

⎛ V ⎞ mR V
  ⎜ ⎟
 Thermodynamic Relations
By: S K Mondal Chapter
⎝ ⎠ 11
p P
mRT
T
⎛ p ⎞
and ⎜ ⎟  2
⎝  ⎠T V
 Cp  Cv  mR
or cp  cv  R
Equation (A) may also be expressed in terms oPf avgoelu1m84eoef x2p6a5nsively () defined as
 1 ⎛ V ⎞
  V ⎜⎝  ⎠
p

and isothermal compressibility (k T) defined as

1 ⎛ V ⎞
k
T
 ⎜ ⎟
V ⎝ p ⎠T
⎡⎢ 1 ⎜⎛ V ⎟⎞ ⎥⎤ 2

T V T
Cp  Cv ⎢⎣ ⎝ ⎠p ⎥⎦

1 ⎛ V ⎞
V ⎜ 
⎝ ⎠T

Cp  Cv TV 
2

 kT
(v) Prove that
⎧ ⎛ U
 ⎛ p ⎞ ⎞and C C  p ⎫⎛ V ⎞
 

⎜ ⎟
k T p V ⎨ ⎜ ⎟ ⎬⎜ ⎟
V T
⎝ ⎠V ⎩ ⎝ ⎠T ⎭ ⎝ ⎠p
Hence show that

Cp - Cv = β2TV
[IES-2003]
k
1 ⎛ V ⎞
Here  
⎜
V ⎝  ⎠p
⎟
1T ⎛ V ⎞
k  V⎜ 
⎝ ⎠T
⎛ V ⎞
⎝⎜ ⎠⎟p
    T ⎛ V ⎞ ⎛ p ⎞
 
k ⎛ V ⎞


⎜ ⎟⎜ ⎟
T V
⎜ ⎟ ⎝ ⎠p ⎝ ⎠T
⎝ ⎠T
p
we know ⎛ V ⎞ ⎛ T ⎞ ⎛ p ⎞   1
that ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
T p V
⎝ ⎠p ⎝ ⎠V ⎝ ⎠T
⎛ V p
⎞ ⎛ ⎞ ⎛ ⎞ p
or   
⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
T V T
⎝ ⎠p ⎝ ⎠T ⎝ ⎠V
 ⎛ p ⎞
  
proved.
⎜ ⎟
k ⎝ T ⎠V
 From Tds relations

Page 185 of 265

 ⎛ V ⎞ ⎛ p ⎞
TdS  C dT  T dP  C dT  T dV
p ⎜ ⎟ V ⎜ ⎟
⎝ T ⎠p ⎝ T ⎠V
 C  C dT  T ⎛ V ⎞ dP  T ⎛ p ⎞ dV
p v ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
T T
⎝ ⎠p ⎝ ⎠v
⎛ V ⎞ ⎛ p ⎞
T⎜ T⎜ ⎟
⎝ T ⎟⎠p ⎝ T ⎠V
or dT  dP  dV     i 
Cp  CV Cp  CV
Since T is a function of p, V
T  Tp, V

⎛ T ⎞ dp  ⎛ T ⎞ dV
 dT  ⎝     ii 
⎜ ⎟⎠V ⎜⎝ ⎟⎠p
p V
Compairing i & ii we get
⎛ V ⎞ ⎛ p ⎞
T⎜ ⎟ ⎛ T ⎞ T⎜ ⎟ ⎛ T ⎞
T T
⎝ ⎠p and ⎝ ⎠V
⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
Cp  CV ⎝ p ⎠V Cp  CV ⎝ V ⎠p
 C  C  T ⎛ V ⎞  ⎛ p ⎞
p V ⎜ ⎟⎜ ⎟
⎝ T ⎠p ⎝ T ⎠V
as dU  dQ  pdV
 dU  TdS  pdV
⎛ U ⎞ ⎛ S ⎞
or T p
⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
⎝ V ⎠T ⎝ V ⎠T
⎛ U ⎞ ⎛ S ⎞
or pT
⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
V V
⎝ ⎠T ⎝ ⎠T
From Maxwell 's Thirdrelations
⎛ p ⎞ ⎛ S ⎞

⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
⎝ ⎠V ⎝ V ⎠T
T
 CC
⎛ V ⎞ ⎛ p ⎞ ⎧ ⎛ U ⎫⎛ V ⎞
T  
⎞ p
p V ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ ⎨ ⎜ ⎟ ⎬⎜ ⎟
T T V T
⎝ ⎠p ⎝ ⎠V ⎩ ⎝ ⎠T ⎭ ⎝ ⎠p

(vi) Prove that

⎛ T ⎞
2
Joule – Thomson co-efficient T ⎡⎢ ⎛ ⎜V ⎞⎟⎤⎥
 = ⎜ p ⎟  C T T [IES-2002]
⎝ ⎠h p⎣ ⎝ ⎠⎦p
The numerical value of the slope of an isenthalpic on a T – p diagram at any point is called
the Joule – Kelvin coefficient.
(vii) Derive Clausius – Clapeyron equation
⎛ dp ⎞ hfg dp hfg
 and dT

⎜ ⎟
⎝ dT ⎠ T  v g  vf  p RT2 [IES-2000]

⎛ p ⎞ ⎛ S ⎞ Maxwells equation

⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
T V
⎝ ⎠V ⎝ ⎠T
When saturated liquid convert to saturated vapour at constant temperature. During the
evaporation, the pr. & T is independent of volume.
⎛ dp ⎞ sg  sf

⎜ ⎟  vv
dT
⎝ ⎠sat g f

sss
hfg

g f fg
T
⎛ dp ⎞ hfg
or 
⎜ dT ⎟
⎝ ⎠sat T  vg  v f 
 It is useful to estimate properties like h from other measurable properties.
 At a change of phage we may find i.e. latent heat.
hfg
At very low pressure vg  vf g as vf very small

pvg  RT or vg
RT
 p

dp
  hfg  hfg hfg  p

dT T  vg dp hfg dT p R 2
T
or  
 RT p RT
2
⎛ p2 ⎞T 
or ln  hfg ⎛ 1 1⎞

⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
p
⎝ 1⎠ R ⎝ T1 T2 ⎠
 Knowing vapour pressure p1 at temperature T1, we may find out p2 at temperature T2.
Joule-Kelvin Effect or Joule-Thomson coefficient
The value of the specific heat cp can be determined from p–v–T data and the Joule–Thomson
coefficient. The Joule–Thomson coefficient J is defined as

⎛ T ⎞
J  ⎜ ⎟
p
⎝ ⎠h
Like other partial differential coefficients introduced in this section, the Joule–Thomson
coefficient is defined in terms of thermodynamic properties only and thus is itself a property.
The units of J are those of temperature divided by pressure.

A relationship between the specific heat cp and the Joule–Thomson coefficient J can be
established to write
⎜⎛ T ⎟⎞ ⎜⎛ p ⎟⎞ ⎜⎛ h ⎟⎞
p h T  1
⎝ ⎠h ⎝ ⎠T ⎝ ⎠p
The first factor in this expression is the Joule–Thomson coefficient and the third is cp. Thus

cp  1
J  p / h T
With h / p  1 / p / h
T
  this can be written as
T
1
c ⎛ h ⎞
 ⎜ p ⎟
p

J ⎝ ⎠T
The partial derivative h / p T, called the constant-temperature coefficient, can be

1⎡
eliminated. The following expression results:
c ⎛ v ⎞ ⎤

p ⎢T ⎜ ⎟  v⎥
 J ⎣ ⎝  ⎠p
T ⎦
allows the value of cp at a state to be determined using p–v–T data and the value of the Joule–
Thomson coefficient at that state. Let us consider next how the Joule–Thomson coefficient can
be found experimentally.
The numerical value of the slope of an isenthalpic on a T-p diagram at any point is called the
Joule-Kelvin coefficient and is denoted by J . Thus the locus of all points at which J is zero is
the inversion curve. The region inside the inversion curve where
J is positive is called the
cooling region and the region outside where J is negative is called the heating region. So,
 Thermodynamic Relations
By: S K Mondal Chapter 11
 ⎛ T ⎞
J ⎜ p ⎟
⎝ ⎠h

Energy Equation

For a system undergoing an infinitesimal reversible process between two equilibrium states,
the change of internal energy is
dU = TdS - pdV
Substituting the first TdS equation
⎛ p ⎞
dU  CvdT  T dV  pdV
⎝⎜ T ⎟⎠V
C dT ⎡ ⎛ p ⎞ ⎤
 v  ⎢ T ⎜ ⎟  p⎥ dV
T
⎢⎣ ⎝ ⎠V ⎥⎦
if U  (T ,V ) ⎛ U ⎞
⎛ U ⎞ dT  dV
dU 
⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
T V
⎝ ⎠V ⎝ ⎠T
⎛ U ⎞ ⎛ p ⎞
⎟  ⎟ 
T p
⎜ ⎜
V T
⎝ ⎠T ⎝ ⎠V
This is known as energy equation. Two application of the equation are given below-
(a) For an ideal gas,
nRT
p V

⎛ p ⎞  nR  p
 ⎝⎜ V T
 ⎠V p
⎛ U ⎞  T.  p  0
 ⎝⎜ T
 ⎠T
U does not change when V changes at T = C.
⎛ U ⎞ ⎛ p ⎞ ⎛ V ⎞
⎜⎝ ⎟⎜ ⎟⎜ ⎟ 1
p ⎠T ⎝V ⎠TU⎝  ⎠T
⎛ U ⎞ ⎛ p ⎞ ⎛ U ⎞
 0
⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
p V V
⎝ ⎠T ⎝ ⎠T ⎝ ⎠T
since
⎛ p ⎞ ⎛ U ⎞
 0, 0
⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
⎝  ⎠T ⎝  ⎠T
U does not change either when p changes at T = C. Sop the internal energy of an ideal gas is a
V
Page 189 of 265
function of temperature only.
Another important point to note is that for an ideal gas
⎛ p ⎞
pV  nRT and T p0
⎝⎜ T ⎟⎠v

Page 190 of 265

 Thermodynamic Relations
By: S K Mondal Chapter
Therefore 11
dU = Cv dT
holds good for an ideal gas in any process (even when the volume changes). But for any other
substance
dU = Cv dT
is true only when the volume is constant and dV = 0
Similarly

dH  TdS  Vdp

and TdS  Cp dT ⎛ V ⎞
 T dp
⎜⎝ ⎟⎠ p
T
 dH  C dT  ⎡  ⎛ V ⎞ ⎤
⎢V T ⎜ dp
p ⎟⎥
T
⎣⎢ ⎝ ⎠p ⎥⎦
V ⎞
⎛ H ⎞  V  T ⎛

⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
p T
⎝ ⎠T ⎝ ⎠p
As shown for internal energy, it can be similarly proved from Eq. shown in above that the
enthalpy of an ideal gas is not a function of either volume
⎛ H ⎞ or pressure.
⎤
⎡ ⎛ H ⎞  0 and 0
⎢i.e ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ ⎥
p V
⎣ ⎝ ⎠T ⎝ ⎠T ⎦
but a function of temperature alone.
Since for an ideal gas, pV = nRT
and ⎛ V ⎞
VT 0
⎜⎝ ⎠p

the relation dH = C p dT is true for any process (even when the pressure changes.)
However, for any other substance the relation dH = C p dT holds good only when the pressure
remains constant or dp = 0.
(b) Thermal radiation in equilibrium with the enclosing walls processes an energy that depends
only on the volume and temperature. The energy density (u), defined as the ratio of energy to
volume, is a function of temperature only, or
U
u  f (T )only.
V
The electromagnetic theory of radiation states that radiation is equivalent to a photon gas and
it exerts a pressure, and that the pressure exerted by the black body radiation in an enclosure
is given by
u
p
3
Black body radiation is thus specified by the pressure, volume and temperature of the
radiation.
since.
u
U  uV and p =
3
⎛ p ⎞
⎛ U ⎞  u and 1 du
⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟  3 dT
V T u
Eq. 
By substituting in the energy T
du
u
 Thermodynamic Relations
By: S K Mondal Chapter
⎝ ⎠T ⎝ ⎠V 11
3 dT 3
du
 dT u 4 T
or ln u = ln T4 + lnb
or u = bT4
where b is a constant. This is known as the Stefan - Boltzmann Law.
Since U  uV  VbT
4

⎛ U ⎞
 C  4VbT
3

⎜ ⎟ v
⎝  ⎠V
and T
⎛ p ⎞ 1 du 4 3
  bT
⎜ ⎟
⎝  ⎠V 3 dT 3
From the T first TdS equation
⎛ p ⎞
TdS  C dT  T dV
v ⎜ ⎟
⎝ T ⎠v
4
 4VbT dT  bT .dV
3 4

3
For a reversible isothermal change of volume, the heat to be supplied reversibly to keep
temperature constant.
4
Q
4
bT ΔV
3
For a reversible adiabatic change of volume
4
bT dV  4VbT dT
4 3

3
dV  3 dT
or
V T
or VT  const
3

If the temperature is one-half the original temperature. The volume of black body radiation is to
be increased adiabatically eight times its original volume so that the radiation remains in
equilibrium with matter at that temperature.

Gibbs Phase Rule

Gibbs Phase Rule determines what is expected to define the state of a system

F=C–P+2
F = Number of degrees of freedom (i.e.., no. of properties required)
C = Number of components P = Number of
phases e.g., Nitrogen gas C = 1; P = 1. Therefore, F = 2
 To determine the state of the nitrogen gas in a cylinder two properties are adequate.
 A closed vessel containing water and steam in equilibrium: P = 2, C = 1
 Therefore, F = 1. If any one property is specified it is sufficient.
 A vessel containing water, ice and steam in equilibrium
 P = 3, C = 1 therefore F = 0. The triple point is uniquely defined.

Question: Which one of the following can be considered as property of a system?

(a) dT
pd
v (b) vd
p ⎛p.dv ⎞ (d) ) ⎛ dT  v.dp ⎞
(c)
   ⎜T v
⎟ ⎜ T T
⎟
⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠
Given: p = pressure, T = Temperature, v = specific volume [IES-1993]
Solution: P is a function of v and both are connected by a line path on p and v coordinates.
Thus are not exact differentials and thus not properties.
 pdv 
and vdp
If X and Y are two properties of a system, then dx and dy are exact differentials. If
the differential is of the form Mdx + Ndy, then the test for exactness is
⎡M ⎤ ⎡N ⎤

⎢⎣ ⎥⎦ ⎢ ⎥
y ⎣ x ⎦ y
x
Now applying above test for
⎛⎞ dT p.dv ⎡⎤ (1 / T ) ⎤ ⎡ ( p / v) ⎡(RT / v2 ) ⎤ R

⎜ T ⎟,⎢ 

⎥
⎢
⎣ ⎦⎥⎢ ⎦ or 0  v
v ⎣
v T
⎝ ⎠ T
T ⎣ ⎦⎥v 2
v
This differential is not exact and hence is not a point function and hence
⎛⎞ dT p.dv is not a point function and hence not a property.

⎜ T ⎟
v
⎝ ⎠
And for ⎛ dT v.dp ⎞ ⎡(1 / T (v / T ) (R / P)
)⎤  ⎤ ⎡ ⎤ ⎡ or 0  0
⎜ T T
⎟⎢ 

⎥ ⎢ T ⎢ ⎥
p ⎥⎣ ⎣ T ⎦
⎦
⎝ ⎠⎣ ⎦T P P
Thus ⎛ dT v.dp ⎞
 is exact and may be written as ds, where s is a point function and
⎜ T T
⎟
⎝ ⎠
hence a property
 Vapour Power Cycles
By: S K Mondal Chapter
12
12. Vapour Power Cycles
Some Important Notes
A. Rankine Cycle

Q1
1

T 4
WT
p2
WP 2
3 Q2

S
For 1 kg of fluid using S.F.E.E.
(i) h4 + Q 1 = h 1
or Q1 = h1  h4
(ii) h 1 = WT + h 2
or WT = h1  h2
(iii) h3 + WP = h4
or WP = h4  h3
About pump: The pump handles liquid water which is incompressible.

For reversible Adiabatic Compression Tds = dh – vdp where ds = 0

 dh = vdp as v = constant
Δh = vΔp
or h4  h3 = v(p1  p2 ) = WP

(iv) WP = h4  h3 = v(p1  p2 ) kJ/kg Where v in m3 /kg and p in kPa

B. Rankine Cycle efficiency:

Wnet WN
(h  h )  (h  h )
1 2 4 3
= = T P =
Q1
Q1 (h1  h4 )
C. Steam rate = 3600 kg
WT  WP kWh

D. Heat Rate = Steam rate × Q1 3600 kJ 3600 kJ

= =
Q1
WT  WP kWh  kWh
 E. About Turbine Losses: If there is heat loss to the surroundings, h2 will decrease,
accompanied by a decrease in entropy. If the heat loss is large, the end state of steam
from the turbine may be 2.(figure in below).

It may so happen that the entropy increase due to frictional effects just balances the
entropy decrease due to heat loss, with the result that the initial and final entropies of
steam in the expansion process are equal, but the expansion is neither adiabatic nor
reversible.

F. Isentropic Efficiency:

 h1  h2 Actual Enthalpy drop

 isen = isentropic enthalpy drop
h 12s
h

Q1
1

T 4

Wp WT
3
Q2 2 2s 2

S

G. Mean temperature of heat addition: 1

Q1 = h  h = T (s  s )
5
Tm
1 4s
m 1 4s
T 4s

 h1  h4 s 3 2s
 Tm
s 14ss
S
H. For Reheat – Regenerative Cycle:

1
1 kg 4

2
12 (1–m1)kg

T 10 11
m1kg 5
3
8 9 (1–m1–m2)kg
m2kg
7 (1–m1–m2)kg 6
 S
WT = (h1 – h2) + (1 – m1) (h2 – h3) + (1 – m1) (h4 – h5) + (1 – m1 – m2) (h5 – h6) kJ/kg
WP = (1 – m1 – m2) (h8 – h7) + (1 – m1) (h10 – h9) + 1(h12 – h11) kJ/kg
Q1 = (h1 – h12) + (1 – m1) (h4 – h3) kJ/kg
Energy balance of heater 1 and 2
m1 h2 + (1 – m1) h10 = 1 × h11 ………… For calculation of m1
And m2 h5 + (1 – m1 – m2) h8 = (1 – m1 ) h9 ……... For calculation of m2 .

I. For Binary vapour Cycles:

m kg
a
1
d
b
T c
5 1 kg 6
4

3 2
S

WT = m (ha – hb) + (h1 – h2) kJ/kg of steam

WP = m (hd – hc) + (h4 – h3) kJ /kg of steam

Q1 = m (ha – hd) + (h1 – h6) + (h5 – h4) kJ /kg of steam.

Energy balance in mercury condenser-steam boiler

m (hb – hc) = (h6 – h5)
 m = h 6  h5
kg of Hg/kg of H2O i.e.  8 kg
h b  hc
J. Efficiency of Binary vapour cycle:
1 –  = (1  1 ) (1  2 ) ........ (1  n )
 For two cycles
 n1  n2  n1 n2

K. Overall efficiency of a power plant

overall = boiler  cycle  turbine (mean)  generator

Questions with Solution P. K. Nag

Q. 12.1 for the following steam cycles find
(a) WT in kJ/kg (b) Wp in kJ/kg,
(c) Q1 in kJ/kg, (d) cycle efficiency,
(e) steam rate in kg/kW h, and
(f) moisture at the end of the turbine process. Show the results in
tabular form with your comments.

Boiler Outlet Condenser Pressure Type of Cycle

10 bar, saturated 1 bar Ideal Rankine Cycle

-do- -do- Neglect Wp

-do- -do- Assume 75% pump and
Turbine efficiency
-do- 0.1 bar Ideal Rankine Cycle
10 bar, 300c -do- -do-
150 bar, 600c -do- -do-
-do- -do- Reheat to 600C
maximum intermediate
pressure to limit end
moisture to 15%
-do- -do- -do- but with 85% tur- bine
efficiencies
10 bar, saturated 0.1 bar Isentropic pump process ends
on satura
Boiler Outlet Condenser Pressure Type of Cycle
10 bar, saturated 0.1 bar -do- but with 80% machine
efficiencies
-do- -do- Ideal regenerative cycle
-do- -do- Single open heater at
110c
-do- -do- Two open heaters at 90c
and 135c
-do- -do- -do- but the heaters are
closed heaters
Solution: Boiler outlet: 10 bar, saturated
Condenser: 1 bar
Ideal Rankine Cycle

p = 10 bar

T 1
4
p = 1 bar
3 2

S
From Steam Table
h1 = 2778.1 kJ/kg
s1 = 6.5865 kJ/kg-K

 s2 = s1 = 6.5865 = 1.3026 + x (7.3594 – 1.3026)

 x = 0.8724
 h2 = 417.46 + 0.8724 × 2258 = 2387.3 kJ/kg
h3 = 417.46 kJ/kg
h4 = h3 + WP
WP = 1.043 × 10–3 [1000 – 100] kJ/kg = 0.94 kJ/kg
 h4 = 418.4 kJ/kg
(a) WT = h1 – h2 = (2778.1 – 2387.3) kJ/kg = 390.8 kJ/kg
(b) WP = 0.94 kJ/kg
(c) Q1 = (h1 – h4) = (2778.1 – 418.4) kJ/kg = 2359.7 kJ/kg
(d) Cycle efficiency () = Wne WT  NP 390.8  0.94
= = 2359.7
t
Q1
Q1
=
16.52% 3600
(e) Steam rate 3600 = 390.8  = 9.234 kg/kWh
= kJ/
kWh Wnet 0.94
(f) Moisture at the end of turbine process
= (1 – x) = 0.1276  12.76%

Q.12.2 A geothermal power plant utilizes steam produced by natural means

underground. Steam wells are drilled to tap this steam supply which is
available at 4.5 bar and 175°C. The steam leaves the turbine at 100 mm
Hg absolute pressure. The turbine isentropic efficiency is 0.75. Calculate
the efficiency of the plant. If the unit produces 12.5 MW, what is the
steam flow rate?

Solution:
p1 = 4.5 bar T1 = 175ºC
From super heated STEAM TABLE.
 Vapour Power Cycles
By: S K Mondal Chapter
p1 12
1

T
p2

2 2

At 4 bar at 5 bar
150°C 200°C 152°C 200°C
h = 2752.8 h = 2860.5 h = 2748.7 h = 2855.4
s = 6.9299 s = 7.1706 s = 6.8213 s = 7.0592

 at 4 bar 175°C at 5 bar,

1
175°C h = 2752.8  (2860.5  2752.8)
2
⎛ 175  152 ⎞
h = 2748.7  ⎜ (2855.4  2748.7)
⎝ 200  ⎠
= 2806.7 kJ/kg = 2800 kJ/kg
1 23
s = 6.9299 + (7.1706  6.9299) s = 6.8213  (7.0592  6.8213)
2 48
= 7.0503 kJ/kg – K = 6.9353
 at 4.5 bar 175°C
2806.7  2800 = 2803.4 kJ/kg
h=
1
2
7.0503  6.9353 = 6.9928 kJ/kg – K
s=
1
2
Pressure 100 mm Hg
100
m  (13.6  10 ) kg / m × 9.81 m/s2
3 3
=
1000
= 0.13342 bar = 13.342 kPa
Here also entropy 6.9928 kJ/kg – K
So from S. T. At 10 kPa at 15 kPa
hf = 191.83 sf = 0.6493 sf = 0.7549 hf = 225.94
hfg = 2392.8 sg = 8.1502 sg = 8.0085 hfg = 2373.1
 at 13.342
⎛ 15 kPa [Interpolation]
13.342 ⎞
s = 0.6493  (0.7549 – 0.6493) = 0.68432 kJ/kg – K
f ⎜ ⎟
15  10
⎛ 15  13.342 ⎞⎠
⎝
s = 8.1502  (8.0085 – 8.1502) = 8.1032 kJ/kg – K
g ⎜ ⎟
15  10
⎝ ⎠
 If dryness fraction is x then
6.9928 = 0.68432 + x (8.1032 – 0.68432)
 x = 0.85033
 Vapour Power Cycles
By: S K Mondal Chapter
 At 13.342 kPa 12
Page 198 of 265
 Vapour Power Cycles
By: S K Mondal
⎛ 15  13.342 ⎞
Chapter
h = 191.83 
f ⎜ ⎟
(225.94 – 191.83) = 203.14 kJ/kg 12
15  10
⎝ ⎠
⎛ 15  13.342 ⎞ (2373.1 – 2392.8) = 2386.3 kJ/kg
hfg = 2392.8  ⎜ ⎟
15  10
⎝ ⎠
h2s = hf + x hfg = 203.14 + 0.85033 × 2386.3 = 2232.3 kJ/kg

isentropic = h1  h 2
h1  h 2s
 h1  h2 = isentropic × (h1 – h2s)

 h = h1 –  (h1 – h2s)
2 isentropic

= 2803.4 – 0.75 (2803.4 – 2232.3) = 2375 kJ/kg.

 Turbine work (WT) = h1  h2 = (2803.4 – 2373) %
= 428.36 kJ/kg
WT 428.36
 Efficiency of the plant = =  0.1528 = 25.28%
h1 2803.4

If mass flow rate is m kg/s

m. WT = 12.5 × 103

or m = 12.5 
3 = 29.18 kg/s
10
428.36

Q.12.3 A simple steam power cycle uses solar energy for the heat input. Water
in the cycle enters the pump as a saturated liquid at 40°C, and is pumped
to 2 bar. It then evaporates in the boiler at this pressure, and enters the
turbine as saturated vapour. At the turbine exhaust the conditions are
40°C and 10% moisture. The flow rate is 150 kg/h. Determine (a) the
turbine isentropic efficiency, (b) the net work output (c) the cycle
efficiency, and (d) the area of solar collector needed if the collectors pick
2
up 0.58 kW/ m .
2
(Ans. (c) 2.78%, (d) 18.2 m )

Solution: From Steam Table T1 = 120.23°C = 393.23 K

h1 = 2706.7 kJ/kg
s1 = 7.1271 kJ/kg – K

2 bar

1
4
T

3 2s 2

Page 199 of 265

 Vapour Power Cycles
By: S K Mondal Chapter
S 12
At 40°C saturated pressure 7.384 kPa
hf = 167.57 hfg = 2406.7

Page 200 of 265

 sf = 0.5725 sg = 8.2570
 h2 = hf + 0.9 × 2406.7 = 2333.6 kJ/kg
For h2s if there is dryness fraction x
7.1271 = 0.5725 + x × (8.2570 – 0.5725)
 x = 0.853
 h2s = 167.57 + 0.853 × 2406.7 = 2220.4 kJ/kg
(a)  Isentropic efficiency,  h1  h2
isentropic = h  h

1 2s
2706.7  2333.6
= 2706.7  2220.4
=
76.72%
(b) Net work output WT = h1 – h2 = 373.1 kJ/kg
 Power = 15.55 kW i.e. (W
 W )  m
T P
Pump work, WP = v  p1 –
p2 
= 1.008 × 10–3 (200 – 7.384) kJ/kg = 0.1942 kJ/kg
 h3 = 167.57 kJ/kg, ha = 167.76 kJ/kg
 Q1 = (h1 – h4) = (2706.7 – 167.76) kJ/kg = 2539 kJ/kg
 cycle = WT  373.1  0.1942 = 14.69 %
WP = 2539
Q1 

Q1  m
Required area A
= collection picup

2539  150
= 0.58  3600 = 182.4 m2

Q.12.4 In a reheat cycle, the initial steam pressure and the maximum
temperature are 150 bar and 550°C respectively. If the condenser
pressure is 0.1 bar and the moisture at the condenser inlet is 5%, and
assuming ideal processes, determine (a) the reheat pressure, (b) the
cycle efficiency, and (c) the steam rate.
(Ans. 13.5 bar, 43.6%,2.05 kg/kW h)
Solution : From Steam Table at 150 bar 550°C
h1 = 3448.6 kJ/kg
s1 = 6.520 kJ/kg – K
At p3 = 0.1 bar T = 45.8°C
hf = 191.8 kJ/kg hfg = 2392.8 kJ/kg
 Vapour Power Cycles
By: S K Mondal Chapter 12
p1
p2
1
3

T
2
6
p3
5 4
S
 h4 = hf + x hfg = 191.8 + 0.95 × 2392.8 = 2465 kJ/kg
sf = 0.649: Sfg = 7.501
s4 = sf + x sfg = 0.649 + 0.95 × 7.501 = 7.775 kJ/kg – K
From Molier Diagram at 550°C and 7.775 entropy, 13.25 bar

From S.T. at 10 bar 550°C s = 7.8955

 15 bar 550°C s = 7.7045
⎛ p  10 ⎞
 7.775 = 7.8955  ⎜ (7.7045  7.8955)
⎝  ⎠
–0.1205 = (p – 10) (–0.0382)
 p – 10 = 3.1544  p = 13.15 bar
 from Molier Dia. At 13 bar 550°C
h3 = 3580 kJ/kg
h2 = 2795 kJ/kg t2 =
195°C h5 = 191.8 kJ/kg
WP = v5  p1 – p3  = 0.001010 (15000 – 10) kJ/kg
= 1.505 kJ/kg
 h6 = h5 + WP = 193.3 kJ/kg
 WT = (h1 – h2) + (h3 – h4) = 1768.6 kJ/kg
WP = 1.50 kJ/kg
 Wnet = 1767.5 kJ/kg
Q = (h1 – h6) + (h3 – h2) = 4040.3 kJ/kg

 cycle Wne = 1767.5  100 % = 43.75%

= tQ 4040.3

3600 = 3600 kg / kWh = 2.0368 kg/kWh

Steam rate
WT  WP 1767.5
=

Q.12.5 In a nuclear power-plant heat is transferred in the reactor to liquid

sodium. The liquid sodium is then pumped to a heat exchanger where
heat is transferred to steam. The steam leaves this heat exchanger as
saturated vapour at 55 bar, and is then superheated in an external gas-
fired super heater to 650°C. The steam then enters the turbine, which
has one extraction point at 4 bar, where steam flows to an open feed
water heater. The turbine efficiency is 75% and the condenser
Page 201 of 265
temperature is 40°C. Determine the heat transfer in the reactor and in
the super heater to produce a power output of 80 MW.

Page 202 of 265

 Vapour Power Cycles
By: S K Mondal Chapter
12
Solution: From Steam Table at 55 bar saturated
state h9 = 2789.9 kJ/kg

1
1 kg
Na

78 9
T 2
6m kg
(1–m) kg
5

4 (1–m)kg 3

S
From super heated S.T. at 55 bar 650°C
at 50 bar 600°C, 700°C  By calculation at
650°C
h = 3666.5 h = 3900.1 h = 3783.3
s = 7.2589 s = 7.5122 s = 7.3856

At 60 bar 600° C = 700°C  by calculation

h = 3658.4 h = 3894.2 h = 3776.3
s = 7.1677 s = 7.4234 s = 7.2956
 at 55 bar 650°C (by interpolation)
h1 = 3770.8 kJ/kg
s1 = 7.3406 kJ/kg

For h2, at 4 bar where S = 7.3406

At 200°C at 250°C if temp is t
s = 7.172, s = 7.379
h = 2860.5 h = 2964.2
⎛ 7.3406  7.171 ⎞
Then h2 = 2860.5  ⎜  (2964.2  2860.5)
7.379  = 2945 kJ/kg
⎝ ⎠

For h3, at point 3 at 40°C

hf = 167.6, hfg = sf = 0.573 sfg = 7.685
2406.7

If dryness fraction is x then

0.573 + x × 7.685 = 7.3406
 x = 0.8806
 h3 = 167.6 + 0.8806 × 2406.7 = 2287 kJ/kg
h4 = hf = 167.6 kJ/kg

W
= v4  p2 – p3  = 0.001010 × (400 – 7.38) kJ/kg
4– 5
P

= 0.397 kJ/kg  0.4 kJ/kg

 Vapour Power Cycles
By: S K Mondal Chapter
 h5 = h 4W P = 168 kJ/kg 12
45

h6 = 604.7 kJ/kg [at 4 bar saturated liquid]

 W
= v6  p1 – p2  = 0.001084 (5500 – 400) = 5.53 kJ/kg
67
P

 h7 = h  W = 610.23 kJ/kg
6 P 67

From heater energy balance

(1 – m) h5 + mh2 = h5  m = 0.1622 kg
 WT = [(h1 – h2) + (1 – m) (h2 – h3) × 0.75 = 1049.8 kJ/kg ;

Wnet = WT  WP  WP
= 1043.9 kJ/kg
45 67

 Steam flow rate (m

80  10
3
) = kg / = 76.638 kg/s
s
1049.8
 Heat transfer in heater = m (h  h )
9 7
= 76.638(2789.9 – 610.23) = 167.046 MW
Heat transfer in super heater = m1(h 9 h )
= 76.638(3779.8 – 2789.9) = 75.864 MW

Q.12.6 In a reheat cycle, steam at 500°C expands in a h.p. turbine till it is

saturated vapour. It is reheated at constant pressure to 400°C and then
expands in a l.p. turbine to 40°C. If the maximum moisture content at
the turbine exhaust is limited to 15%, find (a) the reheat pressure, (b)
the pressure of steam at the inlet to the h.p. turbine, (c) the net specific
work output, (d) the cycle efficiency, and (e) the steam rate. Assume all
ideal processes.
What would have been the quality, the work output, and the cycle
efficiency without the reheating of steam? Assume that the other
conditions remain the same.
Solution: Try please.

Q.12.7 A regenerative cycle operates with steam supplied at 30 bar and 300°C
and -condenser pressure of 0.08 bar. The extraction points for two
heaters (one Closed and one open) are at 3.5 bar and 0.7 bar
respectively. Calculate the thermal efficiency of the plant, neglecting
pump work.
Solution: Try please.

Q.12.8 The net power output of the turbine in an ideal reheat-regenertive

cycle is 100 MW. Steam enters the high-pressure (H.P.) turbine at 90
bar, 550°C. After .expansion to 7 bar, some of the steam goes to an
open heater and the balance is reheated to 400°C, after which it
expands to
0.07 bar. (a) What is the steam flow rate to the H.P. turbine? (b) What is
the total pump work? (c) Calculate the cycle efficiency. (d) If there is a
10c rise in the temperature of the cooling 'water, what is the rate of
flow of the cooling water in the condenser? (e) If the velocity of the
steam flowing from the turbine to the condenser is limited to a
 maximum of 130 m/s, find the diameter of the connecting pipe.
Solution: Try please.

Q.12.9 A mercury cycle is superposed on the steam cycle operating between

the boiler outlet condition of 40 bar, 400°C and the condenser
temperature
 of 40°C. The heat released by mercury condensing at 0.2 bar is used to
impart the latent heat of vaporization to the water in the steam cycle.
Mercury enters the mercury turbine as saturated vapour at 10 bar.
Compute (a) kg of mercury circulated per kg of water, and (b) the
efficiency of the combined cycle.
The property values of saturated mercury are given below
3
p T( C ) hf (kJ/kg) sf (kJ/kg k) v ( m /kg)
f
(bar) hg sg vg
10 515.5 72.23 0.1478 6
80.9 x10
363.0 0.5167 0.0333
0.2 277.3 38.35 0.0967 6
77.4 x10
336.55 0.6385 1.163
Solution: Try please.

Q.12.10 In an electric generating station, using a binary vapour cycle with

mercury in the upper cycle and steam in the lower, the ratio of mercury
flow to steam flow is 10 : 1 on a mass basis. At an evaporation rate of
1,000,000 kg/h for the mercury, its specific enthalpy rises by 356 kJ/kg in
passing through the boiler. Superheating the steam in the boiler furnace
adds 586 kJ to the steam specific enthalpy. The mercury gives up 251.2
kJ/kg during condensation, and the steam gives up 2003 kJ/kg in its
condenser. The overall boiler efficiency is 85%. The combined turbine
metrical and generator efficiencies are each 95% for the mercury and
steam units. The steam auxiliaries require 5% of the energy generated by
the units. Find the overall efficiency of the plant.
Solution: Try please

Q.12.11 A sodium-mercury-steam cycle operates between l000°C and 40°C.

Sodium rejects heat at 670°C to mercury. Mercury boils at 24.6 bar and
rejects heat at 0.141 bar. Both the sodium and mercury cycles are
saturated. Steam is formed at 30 bar and is superheated in the sodium
boiler to 350°C. It rejects heat at 0.0 8 bar. Assume isentropic expansions,
no heat losses, and no generation and neglect pumping work. Find (a)
the amounts of sodium and mercury used per kg of steam, (b) the heat
added and rejected in the composite cycle per kg steam, (c) the total
work done per kg steam. (d) the efficiency of the composite cycle, (e) the
efficiency of the corresponding Carnot cycle, and (f) the work, heat
added, and efficiency of a supercritical pressure steam (single fluid)
cycle operating at 250 bar and between the same temperature limits.
For mercury, at 24.6 bar, = 366.78 kJ/kg
hg
sg = 0.48kJ/kg K and at 0.141 bar, sj=0.09
And sg = 0.64kJ/kg K, hj=36.01 and hg =330.77 kJ/kg
For sodium, at 1000°C, = 4982.53 kJ/kg
hg
At turbine exhaust = 3914.85 kJ/kg
At 670°C, hf = 745.29 kJ/kg
For a supercritical steam cycle, the specific enthalpy and entropy at the
 turbine inlet may be computed by extrapolation from the steam tables.
Solution: Try please.
Q.12.12 A textile factory requires 10,000 kg/h of steam for process heating at 3
bar saturated and 1000 kW of power, for which a back pressure turbine
of 70% internal efficiency is to be used. Find the steam condition
required at the inlet to the turbine.
Solution: Try please.

Q.12.13 A 10,000 kW steam turbine operates with steam at the inlet at 40 bar,
400°C and exhausts at 0.1 bar. Ten thousand kg/h of steam at 3 bar are
to be extracted for process work. The turbine has 75% isentropic
efficiency throughout. Find the boiler capacity required.
Solution: Try please.

Q.12.14 A 50 MW steam plant built in 1935 operates with steam at the inlet at 60
bar, 450°C and exhausts at 0.1 bar, with 80% turbine efficiency. It is
proposed to scrap the old boiler and put in a new boiler and a topping
turbine of efficiency 85% operating with inlet steam at 180 bar, 500°C.
The exhaust from the topping turbine at 60 bar is reheated to 450°C and
admitted to the old turbine. The flow rate is just sufficient to produce
the rated output from the old turbine. Find the improvement in
efficiency with the new set up. What is the additional power developed?
Solution: Try please.

Q.12.15 A steam plant operates with an initial pressure at 20 bar and

temperature 400°C, and exhausts to a heating system at 2 bar. The
condensate from the heating system is returned to the boiler plant at
65°C, and the heating system utilizes for its intended purpose 90% of the
energy transferred from the steam it receives. The turbine efficiency is
70%. (a) What fraction of the energy supplied to the steam plant serves a
useful purpose? (b) If two separate steam plants had been set up to
produce the same useful energy, one to generate heating steam at 2 bar,
and the other to generate power through a cycle working between 20
bar, 400°C and 0.07 bar, what fraction of the energy supplied would have
served a useful purpose?
(Ans. 91.2%, 64.5%)
Solution: From S.T. at 20 bar
400°C
h1 = 3247.6 kJ/kg
s1 = 7.127 kJ/kg – K 1
20 bar

2 bar
4
T

3
65°C Q0 2

S
At 2 bar
 sf = 1.5301, sfg = 5.5967
sg = 7.127 kJ/kg – K so at point (2)
Steam is saturated vapour
So h2 = 2706.3 kJ/kg

At 2 bar saturated temperature is 120.2°C but 65°C liquid

So h3 = h2 – CP ΔT
= 504.7 – 4.187 × (120.2 – 65) = 273.6 kJ/kg
W
3  4= v  p – p2 = 0.001 × (2000 – 200) = 1.8 kJ/kg
P 3 1


 h4 = 275.4 kJ/kg

 Heat input (Q) = h1 – h4 = (3247.6 – 275.4) = 2972.2 kJ/kg

Turbine work = (h1 – h2)  = (3247.6 – 2706.3) × 0.7 kJ/kg
= 378.9 kJ/kg
Heat rejection that utilized (Q0) = (h2 – h3) 
= (2706.3 – 273.6) × 0.9 = 2189.4 kJ/kg
 Net work output (Wnet) = WT – WP = 378.9 – 1.8
= 377.1 kJ/kg

 Fraction at energy supplied utilized

Wnet  Q0
= 377.1  2189.4
Q1 =  100%
2972.2
= 86.35%
(b) At 0.07 bar
sf = 0.559, sfg = 7.717
 Dryness fraction x, 0.559 + x × 7.717 = 7.127
 x = 0.85137
 h2 = 163.4 + 0.85137 × 2409.1 = 2214.4 kJ/kg
h3 = 163.4 kJ/kg

WP = 0.001007 × (2000 – 7) = 2 kJ/kg

 h4 = 165.4 kJ/g.
 WT = (h1 – h2) × 0.7 = 723.24 kJ/kg
Wnet = WT – WP = 721.24 kJ/kg

Here heat input for power = (h1 – h4) = 3082.2. kJ/kg

For same 377.1 kg power we need 0.52285 kg of water
So heat input = 1611.5 kJ for power
2189.4
Heat input for heating = = 2432.7 kJ
kJ
0.9
377.1  2189.4
 Fraction of energy used =  100%
1611.5  2432.7
= 63.46%
Q.12.16 In a nuclear power plant saturated steam at 30 bar enters a h.p.
turbine and expands isentropically to a pressure at which its quality is
0.841. At this pressure the steam is passed through a moisture
separator which removes all the liquid. Saturated vapour leaves the
separator and is
 expanded isentropically to 0.04 bar in I.p. turbine, while the saturated
liquid leaving the separator is returned via a feed pump to the boiler.
The condensate leaving the condenser at 0.04 bar is also returned to
the boiler via a second feed pump. Calculate the cycle efficiency and
turbine outlet quality taking into account the feed pump term.
Recalculate the same quantities for a cycle with the same boiler and
condenser pressures but without moisture separation.
(Ans. 35.5%, 0.S24; 35%; 0.716)
Solution: Form Steam Table at 30 bar
saturated h1 = 2802.3 kJ/kg
s1 = 6.1837

From Molier diagram

h2 = 2300 kJ/kg
pr = 2.8 bar

From S.T. hg =2721.5 kJ/kg, sg = 7.014 kJ/kg

K t = 131.2°C
hf = 551.4 kJ/kg

From 0.04 bar S.T

sf = 0.423 kJ/kg, sfg = 8.052 kJ/kg
hf = 121.5 kJ/kg, hfg = 2432.9 kJ/kg

30 bar
1
1 kg
8 p
3
6
T 7 m kg 2

(1–m)kg
0.7 bar
5 (1–m)kg 4

S
 If dryness fraction is x the
7.014 = 0.423 + x × 8.052  x = 0.8186
 h4 = hf + x hfg = 2113 kJ/kg
WP = 0.001(3000 – 4) = 3 kJ/kg
5– 6

WP = 0.001071(3000 – 280) = 2.9 kJ/kg

7– 8

So h1 – 2802.3 kJ/kg h5 = 121.5 kJ/kg

h2 – 2380 kJ/kg h6 = 124.5 kJ/kg
h3 – 2721.5 kJ/kg h7 = 551.4 kJ/kg
h4 – 2113 kJ/kg h8 = 554.3 kJ/kg

 m = 1 – 0. 841 = 0.159 kg of sub/ kg of steam

 WT = (h1 – h2) + (1 – m) (h3 – h4) = 934 kJ/kg
WP = m  WP
7 8

P
+ (1 – m) W
5– 6
= 2.98 kJ/kg  3 kJ/kg
 Vapour Power Cycles
By: S K Mondal Chapter
 Wnet = 931 kJ/kg 12
Heat supplied (Q) = m(h1– h8) + (1 – m) (h1 – h6) = 2609.5 kJ/kg

931
  = 2609.5  100% = 35.68% with turbine exhaust quality 0.8186
If No separation is taking place, Then is quality of exhaust is x
Then 6.1837 = 0.423 + x × 8.052  x = 0.715

 h4 = hf + x × hfg = 1862 kJ/kg

 WT = h1-h4 = 941.28 kJ/kg
WP = WP = 3 kJ/kg
5 6

 Wnet = 938.28 kJ/kg


Heat input, Q = h1 – h6 = 2677.8 kJ/kg
938.28
 =  100% = 35%
2677.8

Q.12.17 The net power output of an ideal regenerative-reheat steam cycle is

80MW. Steam enters the h.p. turbine at 80 bar, 500°C and expands till
it becomes saturated vapour. Some of the steam then goes to an open
feedwater heater and the balance is reheated to 400°C, after which it
expands in the I.p. turbine to 0.07 bar. Compute (a) the reheat
pressure,
(b) the steam flow rate to the h.p. turbine, and (c) the cycle efficiency.
Neglect pump work.
(Ans. 6.5 bar, 58.4 kg/s, 43.7%)
Solution: From S.T of 80 bar 500°C
h1 = 3398.3 kJ/kg
s1 = 6.724 kJ/kg – K
s2 = 6.725 at 6.6 bar so
Reheat pr. 6.6 bar

1 80 bar 500°C
3
400°C

8
T
(1 – m) kg
7 m kg 2
6
0.07 bar
5 (1 – m) kg 4

S
 h2 = 2759.5 kJ/kg
h3 = 3270.3 + 0.6(3268.7 – 3270.3) = 3269.3 kJ/kg
s3 = 7.708 + 0.6 (7.635 – 7.708)
= 7.6643 kJ/kg – K

At 0.07 bar
 Vapour Power Cycles
By: S K Mondal Chapter
hf = 163.4, hfg = 2409.1
Page 208 of 265 12
hf = 0.559, sfg = 7.717
 If quality is x then
7.6642 = 0.559 + x × 7.717  x = 0.9207
 h4 = 163.4 + 0.9207 × 2409.1 = 2381.5 kJ/kg
h5 = 163.4 kJ/kg  h6, h7 = 686.8 kJ/kg  h8

 From Heat balance of heater

m × h2 + (1 – m) h6 = h7  m = 0.2016 kg/kg of steam at H.P

(1 – m) = 0.7984
WT = h1 – h2 + (1 –
m) (h3 –h4) =
1347.6kJ/kg

WP neglected
Q = (h1 – h8) + (1 – m) (h3 – h2) = 3118.5 kJ/kg at H.P

 (a) Reheat pr. 6.6

bar
80  10
3 kg/s = 59.36 kg/s
(b) Steam flow 1347.6
rate at H.P =

(c) Cycle 1347.6

 = 43.21%
efficiency () =
100%
W 3118.5
=
Q

Q.12.18 Figure shows the arrangement of a steam plant

in which steam is also required for an industrial
heating process. The steam leaves boiler B at 30
bar, 320°C and expands in the H.P. turbine to 2
bar, the efficiency of the H.P. turbine being
75%. At this point one half of the steam passes to
the process heater P and the remainder enters
separator S which removes all the moisture. The
dry steam enters the L.P. turbine at 2 bar and
expands to the condenser pressure 0.07 bar, the
efficiency of the L.P. turbine being 70%. The
drainage from the

Page 209 of 265

Page 210 of 265
 Separator mixes with the condensate from the process heater and the
combined flow enters the hotwell H at 50°C. Traps are provided at the
exist from P and S. A pump extracts the condensate from condenser C
and this enters the hot well at 38°C. Neglecting the feed pump work
and radiation loss, estimate the temperature of water leaving the
hotwell which is at atmospheric pressure. Also calculate, as percentage
of heat transferred in the boiler, (a) the heat transferred in the process
heater, and (b) the work done in the turbines.
Solution: Try please.

Q.12.19 In a combined power and process plant the boiler generates 21,000 kg/h
of steam at a pressure of 17 bar, and temperature 230 C . A part of the
steam goes to a process heater which consumes 132.56 kW, the steam
leaving the process heater 0.957 dry at 17 bar being throttled to 3.5
bar. The remaining steam flows through a H.P. turbine which exhausts
at a pressure of 3.5 bar. The exhaust steam mixes with the process
steam before entering the L.P. turbine which develops 1337.5 kW. At
the exhaust the pressure is 0.3 bar, and the steam is 0.912 dry. Draw a
line diagram of the plant and determine (a) the steam quality at the
exhaust from the H.P. turbine, (b) the power developed by the H.P.
turbine, and
(c) the isentropic efficiency of the H.P. turbine.
(Ans. (a) 0.96, (b) 1125 kW, (c) 77%)

Solution: Given steam flow rate

35
m = 21000 kg/h = kg/s
6

1
HPT

4
2
5
3
LPT

Con
BFP
From Steam Table at 17 bar 230°C
15 bar 200°C 250°C
h = 2796.8 2923.3
s = 6.455 6.709
 at 230°C
30
h = 2796.8 + (2623.3  2796.8) = 2872.7 kJ/kg
50
30
s = 6.455 + (6.709  6.455) = 6.6074 kJ/kg
50
20 bar 212.4°C 250°C
 h = 2797.2 h = 2902.5
s = 6.3366 s = 6.545
 at 230°C
17.6
h = 2797.2 + (2902.5 –2797.2) = 2846.4 kJ/kg
37.6
17.6
s = 6.3366 + (6.545  6.3366) = 6.434 kJ/kg
37.6
 at 17 bar
2
3
0
°
C
2
h1 = 2872.7 + (2846.5  2872.7) = 2862.2 kJ/kg
25
s = 6.6074 + (6.434  6.6074) = 6.5381 kJ/kg
1
5
h2 = 871.8 + 0.957 × 1921.5 = 2710.7 kJ/kg  h3
h4 = ?
 Mass flow through process heater
= (m 132.56 = 0.97597 kg/s = 3513.5 kg/h
1) =
hh
1 2

 Mass flow through HPT

= 17486.5 kJ/kg = 4.8574 kg/s
 21000 h5 = 17486.5 h4 + 3513.5 h3 ...
(i) h6 = 289.3 = 0.912 × 2336.1 = 2419.8 kJ/kg
WT = m5(h 6 h )
 h5 = W
T
h ⎛ 1337.5  3600 ⎞ = 2649.1 kJ/kg
⎜
6 =  2419.8 ⎟
 21000
m ⎝ ⎠
 From (i) h4 = 2636.7 kJ/kg

At 3–5 bar hg = 2731.6 kJ/kg so it is wet is quality x

(a)  2636.7 = 584.3 + x × 2147.4  x =
0.956
(b) WHPT = m 2
1
(h 4 h )
17486.5
= 3600 (2862.2 × 2636.7) kJ/kg = 1095 kW
(c) At 3.5 bar, sf – 1.7273, sfg = 5.2119 quality is isentropic
6.5381 = 1.7273 + x × 5.2119 x = 0.923
 h4s = 584.3 + 0.923 × 2147 .4 = 2566.4 kJ/kg
 isen. h h 2862.2  2636.7
= h1  h4 = 2862.2  2566.4  100% = 76.24%
1 4s

Q.12.20 In a cogeneration plant, the power load is 5.6 MW and the heating load is
1.163 MW. Steam is generated at 40 bar and 500°C and is expanded
 isentropically through a turbine to a condenser at 0.06 bar. The
heating load is supplied by extracting steam from the turbine at 2 bar
which condensed in the process heater to saturated liquid at 2 bar and
then pumped back to the boiler. Compute (a) the steam generation
capacity of the boiler in tonnes/h, (b) the heat input to the boiler in
MW, and (c) the heat rejected to the condenser in MW.
(Ans. (a) 19.07 t/h, (b) 71.57 MW, and (c) 9.607 MW)
Solution: From steam table at 40 bar 500°C
 Vapour Power Cycles
By: S K Mondal Chapter
h1= 3445.3 kJ/kg 12
s1 = 7.090 kJ/kg
1
1 kg

5 2
Q0 m kg
7 (1 – m ) kg
6

4 (1 – m) kg

at
2 S
b
sf = 1.5301, sfg = 5.5967
ar
 7.090 = 1.5301 + x × 5.5967
 x = 0.9934
h2 = 504.7 + 0.9934 × 2201.6
= 2691.8 kJ/kg

sf = 0.521, sfg = 7.809
a
t

0
.
0
6

b
a
r
 7090 = 0521 + x × 7.809  x = 0.8412
 h3 =151.5 + 0.8412 × 2415.9 = 2183.8
kJ/kg
h
4

1
 Vapour Power Cycles
By: S K Mondal Chapter
5 F 12
1 o
. r
5
W
T
k
J
=
/
k
(
g
h
1
h
6
–
=
h
2
5 )
0
4 +
.
7 (
1
k
J –
/
k m
g )
W = 0.001006 × (4000
P – 6) = 4
45
kJ/kg (
so h5 = h4 + WP = h
2
155.5 kJ/kg
W = 0.001061 × (4000 – 100) = 4
67 P –
kJ/kg
so h7 = h6 + WP = h
508.7kJ/kg 3
For heating load Qo = h2 )
– h6 = (2691.8 – 504.7) = 753.5 + (1 – m) 508
kJ/kg = 1261.5 – 508 m
=  Wnet = WT – WP (1  m)  m WP
4 5 6 7

= (1257.5 – 508 m) kJ/kg

2
1 If mass flow rate at ‘1’ of steam is w kg/s then
8 w (1257.5 – 508m) = 5600
7 wm × 2187.1 = 1163
.
1 From (i) & (ii) w = 4.668 kg/s = 16.805 Ton/h
 m = 0.11391 kg/kg of the generation
k
J (a) Steam generation capaPcaigtye
/
o2f1b2ooilfe2r6=516.805 t/h
k
g
 (b) Heat input to the boiler
= W [(1 – m) (h1 – h5) + m (h1 – h7)] =15.169 MW

(c) Heat rejection to the condenser

= (1 – m) (h3 – h4) = 8.406 MW

Q.12.21 Steam is supplied to a pass-out turbine at 35 bar, 350°C and dry

saturated process steam is required at 3.5 bar. The low pressure stage
exhausts at 0.07 bar and the condition line may be assumed to be
straight (the condition line is the locus passing through the states of
steam leaving the various stages of the turbine). If the power required
is 1 MW and the maximum process load is 1.4 kW, estimate the
maximum steam flow through the high and low pressure stages.
Assume that the steam just condenses in the process plant.
(Ans. 1.543 and 1.182 kg/s)
Solution: Form Steam Table 35 bar
350°C
6.743  6.582
s1 = = 6.6625 kJ/kg
2
3115.3  3092.5 = 3103.9 kJ/kg
h1 = 2
at 3.5 bar sf = 1.7273 sfg = 5.2119

 if condition of steam is x1
6.6625 = 1.7273 + x1 x 5.2119
x1 = 0.9469
 h2 = 584.3 + 0.9469 × 2147.4 = 2617.7 kJ/kg
At 0.07 bar
sf = 0.559 sfg = 7.717
 6.6625 = 0.559 + x × 7.717  x2 = 0.7909

135 bar 330°C

T
3.5 bar
5 m kg

6 Q0 2 0.7 bar
4 (1 –
(1 – m) kg m)
3

Page 213 of 265

  h3 = 163.4 + 07909 × 2409.1 = 2068.8 kJ/kg
h4 = 163.4 kJ/kg  h6 = 584.3 kJ/kg
WP = 0.001007 (3500 –7) = 3.5 kJ/kg
45

 h5 = h4 + W P = 166.9 kJ/kg
45

WP = 0.001079 (3500 – 350) = 3.4 kJ/kg

67

 h7 = h 6 + W P = 587.7 kJ/kg
67

Let boiler steam generation rate = w kg/s

 WT = w [(h1 – h2) + (1 – m) (h2 – h3)]
Wnet = w [(h1 – h2) + (1 – m) (h2 – h3) – (1 – m) 3.5 – m × 3.4] kW
= w [486.2 + 545.4 – 542 m]
= w [1031.6 – 542 m] kW
Q = mw [h2 – h6] = mw (2033.4) kW
Here w [1031.6 – 542m] = 1000 … (i)
mw × 2033.4 = 1400 ...(ii)
 w = 1.3311 kg/s 
m = 0.51724 kg/kg of steam at H.P
 AT H.P flow 1.3311 kg/s
At L.P flow = (1 – m) w = 0.643 kg/s

Q.12.22 Geothermal energy from a natural geyser can be obtained as a

continuous supply of steam 0.87 dry at 2 bar and at a flow rate of 2700
kg/h. This is utilized in a mixed-pressure cycle to augment the
superheated exhaust from a high pressure turbine of 83% internal
efficiency, which is supplied with 5500 kg/h of steam at 40 bar and 500 c .
The mixing process is adiabatic and the mixture is expanded to a
condenser pressure of 0.10 bar in a low pressure turbine of 78%
internal efficiency. Determine the power output and the thermal
efficiency of the plant.
(Ans. 1745 kW, 35%)
Solution : From Steam Table 40 bar
500°C h1 = 3445.3 kJ/kg
s1 = 7.090 kJ/kg – K

1 HPT  = 83%
5
2 3

1
 = 78%

T 4

6
3
2s
4s
5 4

Page 214 of 265

 S

At 2 bar
hf = 504.7 kJ/kg, hfg = 2201.6 kJ/kg

Page 215 of 265

 Vapour Power Cycles
By: S K Mondal Chapter
sf = 1.5301 kJ/kg, sfg = 5.5967 kJ/kg 12
7.090 = 1.4301 + x1 × 4.5967
 x1 = 0.99342

 h2s = 504.7 + 0.99342 × 2201.6 kJ/kg = 2691.8 kJ/kg

h h
isen. = h1  h2
1 2s

 h2 – h1 – in (h1 – h2s)

= 3445.3 – 0.83 (3445.3 – 2691.8) = 2819.9 kJ/kg

From molier diagram

s2 = 7.31 kJ/kg – K
Adiabatic mixing h5 = 504.7 + 0.87 × 2201.6 = 2420 kJ/kg
 h2 × 5500 + h5 × 2700 = h3 × (5500 + 2700)
 h3 = 2688.3 kJ/kg from molier dia at 2 bar 2688.3 kJ/kg
quality of steam x3
Then 504.7 + x2 × 2201.6 = 2688.3  x3 = 0.9912
 s3 = 1.5301 + 0.9918 × 5.5967 = 7.081 kJ/kg – K

at 0.1
bar
sf = 0.649 + sfg = 7.501
 x4 × 7.501 + 0.649 = 7.081  x4 = 0.8575
 h4s = 191.8 + 0.8575 × 2392.8 = 2243.6 kJ/kg
 W = 5500
(h  h ) = 955.47 kW
TH. P 1 2
3600
W = 8200
L.P
 h4 s )  0.78 = 790 kW 790.08 kW
T
3600 (h 3
 WT = 1745.6 kW
5500
WP =  0.001010  (4000  10) = 6.16 kW
3600

 Wnet = 1739.44 kW
h5 = 191.8 kJ/kg, h6 = h5 + WP = 195.8 kJ/kg

 Heat input = 5500 (h  h ) = 4964.5 kW

1 6
3600

1739.44
 =  100% = 35.04%
4964.5

Q.12.23 In a study for a space projects it is thought that the condensation of a

working fluid might be possible at - 40 C . A binary cycle is proposed,
using Refrigerant 12 as the low temperature fluid, and water as the
high
temperature fluid. Steam is generated at 80 bar, 500°C and expands in a
turbine of 81% isentropic efficiency to 0.06 bar, at which pressure it is
condensed by the generation of dry saturated refrigerant vapour at 30°C
from saturated liquid at -40°C. The isentropic efficiency of the R-12
 Vapour Power Cycles
By: S K Mondal Chapter
turbine is 83%. Determine the mass ratio of R-12 to 12
water and the
efficiency of the cycle. Neglect all losses.
Page 215 of 265 (Ans. 10.86; 44.4%.)
Solution : at 80 bar 500°C
h1 = 3398.3 kJ/kg
s1 = 6.724 kJ/kg – K

80 bar
1
1 kg
0.06 bar
4

T 2 2
a
m
d kg
c b

S
at 0.06 bar if quality is x, then
6.724 = 0.521 + x2 × 7.809
 x2 = 0.79434
 h2s = 151.5 + 0.79434 × 2415.9 = 2070.5 kJ/kg
h3 = 151.5
WP = 0.001006 (8000 – 6) = 8 kJ/kg
 h4 = 159.5 kJ/kg
 WT = (h1 – h2s) ×  = (3398.3 – 2070.5) × 0.81 = 1075.5 kJ/kg

 Wnet = WT – WP = 1067.5 kJ/kg

Q1 = h1 – h4 = 3238.8 kJ/kg
Q2 = h2 – h3 = h1 –  (h1 – h2s) – h3 = 2171.3 kJ/kg

For R-12
at 30°C saturated vapour
ha = 199.6 kJ/kg, p = 7.45 bar sg = 0.6854 kJ/kg – K

at 40°C
sf = 0, sfg = 0.7274,  if dryness xb then
xb × 0.7274 = 0.6854  xb = 0.94226
 sf = 0, hfg = 169.0 kJ/kg
 hb – 0.94226 × 169 = 159.24 kJ/kg
hC = 0 ⎛ 0.66  0.77 ⎞
WP = Vc (p – p ) =  3
10 (745 – 64.77) x = 0.4868 kJ/kg
a c ⎜ ⎟
⎝ 2 ⎠
 hb = hC + WP = 0.4868 kJ/kg
 Heat input = m (ha – hd)
= m (199.6 – 0.4868) = 199.11 m = 2171.3
 m = 10.905 kg of R-12/kg of water

Power output W
R
T
Page 216 of 265
= m (ha – hb) × 
= 10.905 × (199.6 – 159.24) × 0.83 =
365. 3 K

Page 217 of 265

  Wnet = 364.8 kJ/kg of steam
 Woutput = Wnet H2 O + Wnet R12
= (1067.5 + 364.8) = 1432.32 kJ/kg
 = Woutput 1432.32
=  100% = 44.22%
Heat input 3238.8

Q.12.24 Steam is generated at 70 bar, 500°C and expands in a turbine to 30 bar

with an isentropic efficiency of 77%. At this condition it is mixed with
twice its mass of steam at 30 bar, 400°C. The mixture then expands
with an isentropic efficiency of80% to 0.06 bar. At a point in the
expansion where me pressure is 5 bar, steam is bled for feedwater
heating in a direct contact heater, which raises the feed water to the
saturation temperature of the bled steam. Calculate the mass of steam
bled per kg of high pressure steam and the cycle efficiency. Assume
that the L.P. expansion condition line is straight.
(Ans. 0.53 kg; 31.9%)
Solution : From Steam Table 70 bar 500°C
h1 = 3410.3 kJ/kg
s1 = 6.798 kJ/kg – K
s1 at 30 bar 400°C

h 3 = 3230.9 kJ/kg
s 3 = 6.921 kJ/kg

From Molier diagram h2s = 3130 kJ/kg

 h2 = h1 – isentropic  (h1 – h2s)
= 3410.3 – 0.77 (3410.3 – 3130) = 3194.5 kJ/kg
For adiabatic mixing

1 × h2 + 2 × h 3 = 3 × h3
h3 = 3218.8 kJ/kg
s3 = 6.875 kJ/kg (From Molier diagram)
h4 = 2785 kJ/kg
 h5s = 2140 kJ/kg
 h5 = h3 – (h5 – h5s) = 3218.8 – 0.80 (3218.8 – 2140) kJ/kg
1
1kg 70° bar 500°C

3 3 30° bar 900°C

1m 2
2 kg 2s
T
5 bar
7 8 m
(3 – m) 0.06 bar

6 (3 – m) 5s

S
From S.L in H.P. h4 = 2920 kJ/kg
From Heat balance & heater
m × h4 + (3 – m)h7 = 3hg h7 = h6 + WP
 = 151.5 + 0.001006 × (500 – 6)  0.5 kJ/kg
 m × 2920 + (3 – m) × 152 = 3 × 640.1 = 152 kJ/kg
m = 0.529 kg hg = 640.1
WT = 1 × (h1 – h2) = (3410.3 – 3194.5) kJ/kg = 215.8 kJ/kg
H. P

WT = 3 (h3 – h4) + (3 – m) (h4 – h5)

L.P

= 3 (3218.8 – 2920) + (3 – 0.529) (2920 – 2355.8)

= 2290.5 kJ/kg of steam H.P

WP = (3 – m) (h7 – h6) + 2 × 0.001(3000 – 500)

+ 1 × 0.001 (7000 – 500) = 12.74 kJ/kg of H.P

 Wnet = (215.8 + 2290.5 – 12.74) kJ/kg & H.P steam

= 2493.6 kJ/kg of H.P steam

Heat input Q1 = (h1 – h10) + 2 (h3 – h9)

 h10 + h8 + W P = 646.6 kJ/kg
8  10

= (3410.3 – 646.6) + 2 (3230.9 – 642.6) h9 = h8 + W

P 89

= 7940.3 kJ/kg of H.P steam = 642.6 kJ/kg

 cycle 2493.6
=  100% = 31.4%
7940.3

Q.12.25 An ideal steam power plant operates between 70 bar, 550°C and 0.075
bar. It has seven feed water heaters. Find the optimum pressure and
temperature at which each of the heaters operate.
Solution: Try please.

Q.12.26 In a reheat cycle steam at 550°C expands in an h.p. turbine till it is

saturated vapour. It is reheated at constant pressure to 400°C and then
expands in a I.p. turbine to 40°C. If the moisture content at turbine
exhaust is given to be 14.67%, find (a) the reheat pressure, (b) the
pressure of steam at inlet to the h.p. turbine, (c) the net work output
per kg, and (d) the cycle efficiency. Assume all processes to be ideal.
(Ans. (a) 20 bar, (b) 200 bar, (c) 1604 kJ/kg, (d) 43.8%)

Solution: From S.T. at 40°C, 14.67% moisture

 x = 0.8533
1p p2
1
3

T
2
6
p
3

5 4
 S
p3 = 0.0738 bar
hf = 167.6 kJ/kg; hfg = 2406.7 kJ/kg
 h4 =167.6 + 0.85322 × 2406.7
= 2221.2 kJ/kg
sf = 0.573 kJ/kg – K sfg = 7.685 kJ/kg – K
s4 = 0.573 + 0.8533 × 7.685 = 7.1306 kJ/kg
 at 400°C and s4 = 7.1306 From Steam Table
(a) Pr = 20 bar, h3 = 3247.6 kJ/kg
At 20 bar saturation
h2 = 2797.2 kJ/kg  S2 = 6.3366 kJ/kg – K

(b) at 550°C and 6.3366 kJ/kg –

k From Steam Table
Pr = 200 bar
 h1 = 3393.5 kJ/kg
 h5 = 167.6 kJ/kg WP = 0.001 × (20000 – 7.38) kJ/kg
 h6 = h5 + W = 187.6 kJ/kg = 20 kJ/kg

 WT = (h1 – h2) + (h3 – h4) = 1622.7 kJ/kg

(c)  Wnet = WT – WP = 1602.7 kJ/kg

Heat input Q1 = (h1 – h6) + (h3 – h2)

= (3393.5 – 187.6) + (3247.6 – 2797.2) kJ/kg
= 3656.3 kJ/kg

1602.7
(d)  = 
= 43.83 %
100%
3656.3

Q.12.27 In a reheat steam cycle, the maximum steam temperature is limited to

500°C. The condenser pressure is 0.1 bar and the quality at turbine
exhaust is 0.8778. Had there been no reheat, the exhaust quality would
have been 0.7592. Assuming ideal processes, determine (a) reheat
pressure, (b) the boiler pressure, (c) the cycle efficiency, and (d) the
steam rate.
(Ans. (a) 30 bar, (b) 150 bar, (c) 50.51%, (d) l.9412 kg/kWh)
Solution: From 0.1 bar (saturated S.T.)
sf = 0.649 kJ/kg – K
sfg = 7.501 kJ/kg – K

 s4  s3 = 0.649 + 0.8778 × 7.501 = 7.233 kJ/kg – K

"
s  s = 0.649 + 0.7592 × 7.501 = 6.344 kJ/kg – K
4 1

h4 = 191.8 + 0.8778 × 2392.8 = 2292.2 kJ/kg

From super heated steam turbine at 500°C 7.233 kJ/kg
p3 = 30 bar
 h3 = 3456.5 kJ/kg, h2 = 2892.3 kJ/kg
From Molier diagram
 1
3 50°
C

T
2
6 0.1 bar

5 44

At 500°C and 6.344 kJ/kg – K

p1 = 150 bar, h2 = 3308.6 kJ/kg – K
h5 = 191.8 kJ/kg, WP = 0.001010 (15000 – 10) =15.14 kJ/kg
 h6 = 206.94 kJ/kg
 WT =(h1 – h2) + (h3 – h4) = 1580.6 kJ/kg
Wnet = WT – WP = 1565.46 kJ/kg
Q1 = (h1 – h6) + (h3 – h2) = 3665.86 kJ/kg – K
1565.45
 =  42.7%
3665.86

Q.12.28 In a cogeneration plant, steam enters the h.p. stage of a two-stage

turbine at 1 MPa, 200°C and leaves it at 0.3 MPa. At this point some of
the steam is bled off and passed through a heat exchanger which it
leaves as saturated liquid at 0.3 MPa. The remaining steam expands in
the I.p. Stage of the turbine to 40 kPa. The turbine is required to
produce a total power of 1 MW and the heat exchanger to provide a
heating rate of 500 kW. Calculate the required mass flow rate of steam
into the h.p. stage of the turbine. Assume (a) steady condition
throughout the plant, (b) velocity and gravity terms to be negligible, (c)
both turbine stages are adiabatic with isentropic efficiencies of 0.80.
(Ans. 2.457 kg/s)
Solution: From S.T at 1 MPa 200°C
i.e 10 bar 200°C
h1 = 2827.9 kJ/kg
s1 = 6.694 kJ/kg-K
At 3 bar
sf = 1.6716 sfg = 5.3193
 6.694 = 1.6716 + x × 5.3193
 x = 0.9442
 h2s = 561.4 + 0.9242 × 2163 = 2603.9 kJ/kg
 h2 = h1 – (h1 – h2s) = 2827.9 – 0.8 (2827.9 – 2603.0) kJ/kg
= 2648.7 kJ/kg
 Vapour Power Cycles
By: S K Mondal Chapter
1 12
kg
1
T
5
m
(1– 2
m)kg kg (1–
2s
4 m)kg 3
6 Q0
3s
(1–Sm)kg
This is also wet so
s2 = 1.6716 + x2 × 5.319.3 [2648.7 = 561.4 + x2 × 2163.2]
= 6.8042 kJ/kg – K
If at 3s condition of steam is x3 then 40 kPa = 0.4 bar
6.8042 = 1.0261 + x3 × 6.6440  x3 = .8697
 h3s = 317.7 + 0.8697 × 2319.2 = 2334.4 kJ/kg
 h3 = h2 –  (h2 – h3s) = 2397.3 kJ/kg
h4 = 317.7 kJ/kg

WP = 0.001 × (1000 – 40)  1 kJ/kg

4s

 h5 = 318.7 kJ/kg
h6 = 562.1 kJ/kg, W P = 0.001 × (1000 – 300)
67

= 0 0.7 kJ/kg h7 = 562.1 kJ/kg

 WT = (h1 – h2) + (1 – m) (h2 –h3)

 Wnet= (h1 – h2) + (1 – m) (h2 – h3) – (1 – m) 1 – m × 0.7
= (429.6 – 251.1 m) kJ/kg of steam of H.P

Process Heat = m × (h2 – h6) = m × 2087.3

 If mass flow rate of w then
w (429.6 – 251.1 m) = 1000
mw × 2087.3 = 500
 w = 2.4678 kg/s

 required mass flow rate in H.P = 2.4678 kg/s

 Gas Power Cycles
By: S K Mondal Chapter 13

13. Gas Power Cycles

Some Important Notes
1. Compression ratio, (rc)

rc = Volume at the begining of compression (V1 )

2
Volume at the end of compression (V2 ) p
V1
 rc =
V2  bigger term 1
smaller term
V

2. Expansion ratio,( re)

1
Volume at the end of expansion (V2 ) p
re =
Volume at the begining of expansion (V1 )
2
 re = V
2 bigger term
=
V1 smaller term V

3. Cut-off ratio,  = volume after heat addition (v2 )

volume before heat addition (v1 )
(For constant Pressure heating)
V2 Q
bigger term
  = =
p
V 1 smaller term
1 2

Relation rc  re .  V

4. Constant volume pressure ratio,

Pressure after heat addition

 = Pressure before heat addition

[For constant volume heating)

Page 223 of 265

 Gas Power Cycles
By: S K Mondal Chapter
13
p2 2
 bigger term p
  p smaller term
Q
= 1 1

V
5. Pressure
ratio, Pressure after compresion or before expansion ⎛ p2 ⎞
rP = ⎜ ⎟
Pressure before compresion or after expansion p
⎝ 1⎠
Q1
2 3 pV = C
p
p2 4
1
 rP = p1
Q2
V

6. Carnot cycle: The large back work (i.e compressor work) is a big draw back for the
Carnot gas cycle, as in the case of the Carnot Vapour cycle.

7. Stirling Cycle: comparable with Otto.

8. Ericsson Cycle: comparable with Brayton cycle.

9. The regenerative, stirling and Ericsson cycles have the same efficiency as the
carnot cycle, but much less back work.

10. Air standards cycles

a. Otto cycle (1876)

1
=1 1
r
c

3
3
p T 2 V=C
4 4
2 1
1
V S
1
For W c ⎛ Tmax ⎞2(   1)
; r  ⎜
max
T ⎟
⎝ min ⎠
b. Diesel cycle (1892)

2 3 3
p 4 T V=C
2
4
1 1
V S

=1 (  1)
1
rc . (  1)

C. Dual or Limited pressure or mixed cycle

3 4 3 4p=C
2 V=C
p T 2
5
5
1
1
V
S
=1 
(  1)
1
r c [(  1)  (  1)]

p3
Where  =
p2

Comparison of Otto, Diesel and Dual cycle

a. With same compression ratio and heat rejection

4
 otto  Dual  Diesel Q1
5
6
p 3
2
7
Q2
1
V
b. For the Same maximum Pressure and Temperature (also heat rejection same)

Q1

4 5 6

3 5
T
p V=C
4 V=C
2 7 3
Q2 7
2
1
V 1

Diesel  Dual  Otto

11. Brayton cycle

1 1
=1 1
=1 1
rc
rP 
p=C
3 p=C

T 2
4
1
S

 Brayton cycle efficiency depends on either compression ratio ( rc ) or Pressure ratio

rp

* For same compression ratio

⎡⎣Ott  Brayton ⎤⎦
o

a. For Maximum efficiency ( r )



⎛ Tmax ⎞(   1)
=
p max ⎜ ⎟
T ⎝ min ⎠
   =1
Tmin
max Carnot
Tmax

b. For Maximum work


 (i) (r )
⎛ Tmax ⎞2(   1)
=
p opt. ⎜ ⎟
⎝T min ⎠

 cycle = 1  Tmin Tmax and W 2

net, = Cp[  ]
max Tmax Tmin

(ii) If isentropic efficiency of Turbine is T and compressor is then


c
(r) ⎛
=  Tmax ⎞2(   1)
p opt. ⎜ T C ⎟
T
⎝ min ⎠

Question and Solution (P K Nag)

3
Q13.1 In a Stirling cycle the volume varies between 0.03 and 0.06 m , the
maximum pressure is 0.2 MPa, and the temperature varies between
540°C and 270°C. The working fluid is air (an ideal gas). (a) Find the
efficiency and the work done per cycle for the simple cycle. (b) Find the
efficiency and the work done per cycle for the cycle with an ideal
regenerator, and compare with the Carnot cycle having the same
isothermal heat supply process and the same temperature range.
(Ans. (a) 27.7%, 53.7 kJ/kg, (b) 32.2%)

Solution:
Given V1 = 0.06 m3 = V4
V2 = 0.03 m3 = V3
3
p3 = 200 kPa Q1
T1 = T2 = 270°C = 543 K T=C
T3 = T4 = 540°C = 813 K p 4
2 T=C Q2
1
 Heat addition Q1 = Q2 – 3 = mcv (T3 – T2)

p3 V3 200  0.03 = 0.025715 kg

Here m = 0.287 
= R
T3 813
 Q1 = 0.025715 × 0.718 (813 – 543) kJ = 4.985 kJ
⎛ V4 ⎞
W =  4 pdV = m R T ln
3–4 3
3 ⎜ ⎟
⎝ 3V⎠
pV = mRT = C
W =  pdV = m RT
3
⎛ V1 ⎞
ln
1–2 1 1 ⎜ ⎟
V
 mRT ⎝ 2⎠
p= V
⎛ V1 ⎞
m(RT  RT ) ln
3 1 ⎜ ⎟
V
= ⎝ 2⎠ =
4.985
 0.025715  0.287 (813  543) ln 2
4.985 ×100%= 27.7%

Work done = 1.3812 kJ = 53.71

kJ/kg For ideal regeneration

543
=1 = 33.21%
813

Q13.2 An Ericsson cycle operating with an ideal regenerator works between

1100 K and 288 K. The pressure at the beginning of isothermal
compression is 1.013 bar. Determine (a) the compressor and turbine
work per kg of air, and (b) the cycle efficiency.
(Ans. (a) wT = 465 kJ/kg, wC = 121.8 kJ/kg (b) 0.738)
Solution: Given T1 = T2 = 288 K
T3 = T4 = 1100 K
p1 = 1.013 bar = 101.3 kPa

 V1 = RT1 = 0.81595 m3/kg

p1

Q1 S
3
2

p T=C T=C

1 4
Q2

V
⎛ V1 ⎞ ⎛ V4 ⎞
WC = RT1 ln WT = R T3 ln
⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
V V
p3 = p2 ⎝ 2⎠ ⎝ 3⎠
; p1 = p 4
288
=1 p V
= 73.82%  p1 V1 = 2 2
1100 T1 T2
 W =  Q1 =  CP (T1 –T2)
V1 T1 ⎛ p2 ⎞ ⎛ p2 ⎞
 =  =
⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
  

V T p p
2 2 ⎝ 1⎠ ⎝1⎠

= 0.7382 × 1.005 (1100 – 288) kJ/kg = 602.4 kJ/kg

 Q2 – 3 = CP (T3–T2) = Cv (T3 – T2) + p 2 (V3 – V2)

Q13.5 An engine equipped with a cylinder having a bore of 15 cm and a

stroke of 45 cm operates on an Otto cycle. If the clearance volume is
 3
2000 cm , compute the air standard efficiency.
(Ans.47.4%)
Solution:
V2 = 2000 cm3 = 0.002 m3
V1 = V2 + S.V.
3

 0.15
2

= 0.002   0.45 = 0.009952 m3 p 4

4
V 2
1
 rc = = 4.9761 V2 1
V2
V1
1
air std = 1   = 47.4% VCL SV
rc 1

Q13.10 Two engines are to operate on Otto and Diesel cycles with the following
data: Maximum temperature 1400 K, exhaust temperature 700 K. State
of air at the beginning of compression 0.1 MPa, 300 K.
Estimate the compression ratios, the maximum pressures, efficiencies,
and rate of work outputs (for 1 kg/min of air) of the respective cycles.
(Ans. Otto-- rk = 5.656, pmax = 2.64 MPa, W = 2872 kJ/kg,  = 50%
Diesel- r , = 7.456, p = 1.665 MPa, W = 446.45 kJ/kg,  = 60.8%)
k max

Solution: T3 = 1400 K
T4 = 700 K
p1 = 100 kPa
T1 = 300 K
RT1
 v1 = = 0.861 m3/kg
p1
1
T3 ⎛ p3 ⎞  ⎛ v4 ⎞ 1
 = =
⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
 

T p v
4 ⎝ 4⎠ ⎝ 3⎠

V=C
3
3 V=C
T
p Q1 2
4
2 4
Q2
1
1

⎛ 1400 ⎞ ⎛v 1
⎞
 ⎜ ⎟=⎜ ⎟
1

⎝ 700 ⎠ ⎝ v2 ⎠
v 0.861 T ⎛v 1
= = ⎞
 v2 1
1 1 T2 = ⎜ 1v⎟
 2  1 1 ⎝ 2⎠
20.9
= 0.1522 m3/kg = (5.657)0.4 × 300 = 600 K
 Gas Power Cycles
By: S K Mondal Chapter
1

p ⎛ v ⎞
 = 5.657
13
 P2 = 1131.5 kPa
c
v = 2 =⎜1
1
v ⎟
r= 1

2
p1 ⎝ v2 ⎠
p3 p2 T3 1400
=  =  = 2.64 MPa
p= p 1131.5 kPa
2
3
T2 T3 T2 600

 W = Q1 – Q2 = Cv (T3 – T2) – Cv (T4 – T1)

= 0.718 [(1400 – 600) – (700 – 300)] kJ/kg = 287.2 kJ/kg.


Q1  287.2
Q2 = 0.5  50%
0.718 (1400
=  600)
Q1

Diesel T3 = 1400 K
T4
= v1 = 0.861 m3/kg
70
0
K
T1 = 300 K
p
1

1
0
0

k
P
a
T ⎛v
 1400 0.4
⎞
1
⎛v⎞
3
= ⎜ 4⎟  = ⎜1⎟
T 700 ⎝ v2 ⎠
4
1
⎝ v
v3
⎠
 1
= 20.4 = 22.5
v3
 v3 = v
1
= 0.1522 m3/kg

23
.5
 Gas Power Cycles
By: S K Mondal Chapter

R
= 2639.9 kPa
MPa 13
T=0.2 Q1 = Q2 – 3 = CP (T3 – T2) = 1.005 (1400 – 764) kJ/kg
p3 87

= 638.84 kJ/kg
Page 230 of 265
14
V00
3 0.
15
22

23

p
4

V

1

p
1


= T
764
= K
T⎛
⎞
v
1
⎞
⎜
T⎟ ⎜
p ⎟ 2
v
1 ⎝ 1⎠ ⎝ 2⎠
1 1 v
r = 1=
⎛ p2 ⎞
⎛ 
=
2639.9
⎞
1.4 =
⎜ ⎟ 10.36
c 100

v
⎜
2

⎝
1

p1 =
p3 =
2.64
 Q2 = Q4 – 1 = Cv (T4 –T1) = 0.718 (700 – 300) = 287.2 kJ/kg
 W = Q1 – Q2 = 351.64 kJ/kg

W
= 351.64
Q1 = 638.84 = 55%

Q13.11 An air standard limited pressure cycle has a compression ratio of 15 and
compression begins at 0.1 MPa, 40°C. The maximum pressure is limited
to 6 MPa and the heat added is 1.675 MJ/kg. Compute (a) the heat
supplied at constant volume per kg of air, (b) the heat supplied at
constant pressure per kg of air, (c) the work done per kg of air, (d) the
cycle efficiency, (e) the temperature at the end of the constant volume
heating process, (f) the cut-off ratio, and (g) the m.e.p. of the cycle.

(Ans. (a) 235 kJ/kg, (b) 1440 kJ/kg, (c) 1014 kJ/kg,
(d) 60.5%, (e) 1252 K, (f) 2.144 (g) 1.21 MPa)
Solution:
rc = vv1 = 15
2

p1 = 100 kPa
RT1
T1 = 40°C = 313 K  v1 = = 0.89831 m3/kg
p1

3 4

Q34 Q23
5
p
2

p3  p4 = 6000 kPa
Q2 – 4 = 1675 kJ/kg

T ⎛v
 1
⎞ = (15)1.4 – 1  T2 = 924.7 K
 2 1
T1 = ⎜⎝ v2⎟⎠
p ⎛ v ⎞
2 1
= 151.4  p2 = 4431 kPa
p1 = ⎜⎝ v2 ⎟⎠

p2 V2 p3 6000
 p3 V3  T3 T =  924.7 = 1252 K
= =
2
T2 T3 p2 4431
Page 231 of 265
  Q2 – 4 = Cv (T3 – T2) + CP (T4 – T3) = 1675
 T4 = T3 + 1432.8 k = 2684.8 K

RT
 v4 = 4
= 0.12842 m3/kg.
p4

T ⎛v
1 ⎛ v ⎞  1 T
 4
= ⎜ ⎟ 5 ⎞ = ⎜ 1⎟  4 = 2.1773  T5 = 1233 K
T5 ⎝ v4 ⎠ ⎝ v4 ⎠ T5

(a) Heat supplied at constant volume = Cv (T3 – T2) = 235 kJ/kg

(b) Heat supplied at constant Pressure = (1675 – 235) = 1440 kJ/kg

(c) Work done = Q1 – Q2 = 1675 – Cv (T5 – T1) = 1014.44 kJ/kg

(d)Efficiency  = Q1  Q2 = 1014.44  100% = 60. 56%

Q1 1675
(e) Temperature at the end of the heating (T 3) = 1252 K

(f) Cut-off ratio () =

v4 = 0.12842 = 2.1444
0.05988
v3 RT
[ v3 = 3
= 0.059887]
p3
(g)
m  1 2  W
m p V – V
. e. p.


1014.44
p = = 1209.9 kPa = 1.2099 MPa
v
m v1  1
15

Q13.13 Show that the air standard efficiency for a cycle comprising two
constant pressure processes and two isothermal processes (all
reversible) is given by
 1 / 
T  T  ln  r 
  T ⎡1  ln r  1/  T ⎤
1 2 p

 
1 ⎢⎣ p 2 ⎥⎦
Where and T2 are the maximum and minimum temperatures of the
T1
cycle, and rp is the pressure ratio.

Page 232 of 265

Solution:

Q1
1
4
1 2
T Q2 p
Q1
T=C
4
3 T=C

3 Q2 2

p p1
r  S 4= V
W = V
pdV = RT dV
2
= RT ln 2 = RT1ln r
1 1 V

1
P p3 p2 1–2 V P
1

Q1 – 2 = 0 + W1 – 2 ⎛ V4 ⎞ ⎛ V3 ⎞
W = 4 pdV = RT ln =  RT ln = – ln r .
RT
3–4

3
3 ⎜
V
⎟ 3 ⎜
V
⎟ 3 P
⎝ 3⎠ ⎝ 4 ⎠
 Wnet = W1 – 2 + W3 – 4 = ⎛ V2 ⎞
R(T  T ) ln
⎜ ⎟ 1 3
V
⎝ 1⎠
= R (T1 – T2) ln rP .
Constant pressure heat addition = CP (T1 – T4)
R
= (T  T ) T1 = Tmax
1 4
2
R
= (T  T ) T2 = Tmin.
1 2
1

Total heat addition (Q1) = Q12 + const Pr.

R
= RT1 ln r + (T
 T)
P 1 2
1
R (T1  T2 ) ln
 = ⎤
⎡ rP

R ⎣⎢(T1 ln rP  (T1  T2 )⎥⎦
1
1 
Multiply ,D ,

N

⎛   1) ⎞  T ) ln r
⎜ ⎟ (T1 2 p

⎝ ⎠
= 1
(T  T )  T ln r
 1 2 1 p

⎛ 1⎞
⎜ ⎟

(T1  T2 ) ln r ⎝ ⎠

 p
⎛ 1⎞
⎜ ⎟

T1 [1  ln r ⎝
p
⎠
]T 2
Q13.14 Obtain an expression for the specific work done by an engine working
on the Otto cycle in terms of the maximum and minimum

Temperatures of the cycle, the compression ratio k , and constants of the r

working fluid (assumed to be an ideal gas).
Hence show that the compression ratio for maximum specific work
output is given by

1/ 21 
⎛T ⎞
rk  ⎜ T min ⎟
⎝ max ⎠
Solution:
Tmin = T1
Tmax = T3

Q1 = Cv (T3 – T2)
Q2 = Cv (T4 – T1)
 W = Q1 – Q2
= Cv [(T3 – T2) – (T4 – T1)]

T ⎛v 1
HenceT2 ⎞ = r  1
= ⎜ 1v⎟ c
1 ⎝ 2⎠
1
 T2 = T1rc
T ⎛v
1 1
And 4
⎞ ⎛v⎞
=⎜ ⎟ 3
= ⎜ 2⎟ = r(c   1) Let r  c 1
T3 ⎝ v4 ⎠ ⎝ v1 ⎠
=x
 T4 = T . r
(r  1) 3
T
3 c = x3
p
Then
⎡ T3 ⎤ Q1
4
W = C v ⎢ T3  T1 x   T1 ⎥
x Q2
⎣ ⎦ 2
dW
For maximum W, =0 1
dx
⎡ T3 ⎤

C v ⎢ 0  T1  2  0 ⎥ = 0
⎣ x ⎦
T
 x2 = 3

T1
  1 T3 T1 Tmax Tmin
 rc = =
1 1
Proved.
⎛ Tmax ⎞2(   1) ⎛ Tmin ⎞2(1  )
r= ⎜ ⎟
=
⎜ ⎟
c
T T
 ⎝ min ⎠ ⎝ max ⎠
Q13.15 A dual combustion cycle operates with a volumetric compression ratio rk
= 12, and with a cut-off ratio 1.615. The maximum pressure is given by
pmax = 54 p1 ' where p1 is the pressure before compression. Assuming
 indices of compression and expansion of 1.35, show that the m.e.p. of the
cycle
pm  10 p1
Hence evaluate (a) temperatures at cardinal points with T1 = 335 K, and (b
Cycle efficiency.
(Ans. (a) T2 = 805 K, p2 = 29.2 p1 ' T3 = 1490 K,
T4 = 2410 K, T5 = 1200 K, (b)  = 0.67)
Solution:
v1
Here = rc = 12
v2
v4
=  = 1.615 pv1.35 = C, n = 1.35
v3
pmax  p3  p4  54 p1

4
3 3 4

T 2 5
p
2 5

1 1
S V
T ⎛v n1 1.35 – 1
⎞
 2  T2 = T1 × = 2.3862 T1
T1 = ⎜ v1 ⎟
⎝ 2⎠ 12
p ⎛ v ⎞n
2
And 1  p2 = p1 × (12)1.35 = 28.635 p1
p1 = ⎜⎝ v2⎟⎠
p2 p3 p3
=  T3 T = 54p1  2.3862 = 4.5 T1
= T
T2 T3 2 1
T2 28.635p1
vv ⎛ v1 ⎞
= ⎜ ⎟
3 2
⎝ 12 ⎠
1.615
 v=v= v = 0.13458 v1
4 3 1
12
Pv
p4 v4 = 3 3 p  p

T4 T 3 4
3

T4 = T3  v
v4 = 1.615 T3 = 1.615 × 4.5 T1 = 7.2675 T1
3

T ⎛v n 1 n 1

 = 4 ⎞
5
= ⎜⎛ v4 ⎟ ⎞
T4 ⎜ ⎝ v⎟5 ⎠ ⎝ v1 ⎠
 T5 = 3.6019 T1
 W = [Cv (T3 – T2) + CP (T4 – T3) – Cv (T5 – T1) = 2.4308 T1 kJ/kg.
 pm (v1 – v2) = W
 p = 2.4308 p1 = 9.25 p
2.4308
=
T1
v 11
m v 1 1 R 1
12
12
(b)   = 2.4308 T1  100 % = 56.54%
T1
4.299

(a) T1 = 335 K, T2 = 799.4 K, T3 = 1507.5 K, T4 = 2434.6 K,

T5 = 1206.6 K.
Q13.16 Recalculate (a) the temperatures at the cardinal points, (b) the m.e.p.,
and (c) the cycle efficiency when the cycle of Problem 13.15 is a Diesel
cycle with the same compression ratio and a cut-off ratio such as to give
an expansion curve coincident with the lower part of that of the dual
cycle of Problem 13.15.
(Ans. (a) T2 = 805 K, T3 = 1970 K, T4 = 1142 K
(b) 6.82 p1 , (c)  = 0.513)
Solution:
v
Given 1 = 12 = r
c
v2
v3
=  = 1.615
v2 2 3

v3
 T3 = T p
= 1.615 × 799.4 = 1291 K
2
v2 4
T ⎛v n 1
Then 2 ⎞ 1
1
T1 = ⎜⎝ v2⎟⎠ V
1.35– 1

 T2 T1 12 1= 799.4 K
=
p ⎛ v ⎞n
2
But 1
p1 = ⎜⎝ v2⎟⎠
Continue to try…..

Q13.19 In a gas turbine plant working on the Brayton cycle the air at the inlet is
at 27°C, 0.1 MPa. The pressure ratio is 6.25 and the maximum
temperature is 800°C. The turbi- ne and compressor efficiencies are each
80%. Find (a) the compressor work per kg of air, (b) the turbine work per
kg of air, (c) the heat supplied per kg of air, (d) the cycle efficiency, and
(e) the turbine exhaust temperature.
(Ans. (a) 259.4 kJ/kg, (b) 351.68 kJ/kg, (c) 569.43 kJ/kg,
(d) 16.2%, (e) 723 K)
Solution: Maximum Temperature
T1 = 800° C = 1073 K
p3 = 100 kPa
T3 = 300 K
rP = 6.25
p4
= 6.25
p3

1 4 1
4s
4 p
4s
T
2
2s

3 3 2s

S V

 p4 = 625 kPa p2 = 100 kPa

p1  p4
 v3 = RT
3
= 0.861 v3 = 0.861
p3 1

p4 ⎛ v3 ⎞ v4 ⎛ p3 ⎞ T = 300 K
=  =
⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ 3


p v v p
3 ⎝ 4 ⎠ 3 ⎝4⎠
1
v=v ⎛ p3 ⎞ 4
p p

4 3 ⎜ ⎟ 2 3
p
T ⎛v
⎝ 4⎠
1
⎞
4
=⎜
⎟
3
T3 ⎝ v4 ⎠
p4 = 625 kPa  T4 = T3 × (3.70243)0.4 v =
4s 0.23255

T4s  T3
 0.8 =  T4 = 558
T4  T 3
T4s = 506.4 K T2s = 635.6 K

1
T1 ⎛ p1 ⎞  ⎛ p4 ⎞ 1
= =  = 1.68808
⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
 

T p p
2s ⎝ 2⎠ ⎝ 3⎠

T4 = 558 K T2 = 723 K

T1  T2 T1  T2s
=
  T1 – T2 = 350
 T2 = T1 – 350 = 723 K

(a) Compressor work (Wc) = (h4 – h3) = Cp(T4 – T3) = 259.3 kJ/kg
 Gas Power Cycles
By: S K Mondal Chapter 13
(b) Turbine work  WT  = (h1 – h2) = Cp(T1 – T2) = 351.75 kJ/kg

(c) Heat supplied (Q1) = Cp(T1– T4) = 517.6 kJ/kg

WT 
(d) Cycle efficiency () = = 17.86%
WC
Q1

(e) Turbine exhaust temperature (T2) = 723 K

Q13.27 A simple gas turbine plant operating on the Brayton cycle has air inlet
temperature 27°C, pressure ratio 9, and maximum cycle temperature
727°C. What will be the improvement in cycle efficiency and output if the
turbine process Is divided into two stages each of pressure ratio 3, with
intermediate reheating to 727°C?
(Ans. - 18.3%, 30.6%)
Solution:

p2
3 1000 K

p1

T 2
562 K

4 533.8 K

300 K 1

S
(a)
For (a) T1 = 300 K
p2
=9
p1
T3 = 1000 K
⎛ p2 ⎞   1
 T=   T = 562 k
2 ⎜ ⎟ 1
p

T 4 ⎛ p4 ⎞ ⎝ 1 ⎠
=
 1


 1
 ⎛ p1 ⎞ 1 ⎛1⎞  T = = 533.8 K
=  =
T3
⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ 4
 1
T p p 9
3 ⎝ 3⎠ ⎝ 2⎠ ⎝ ⎠
9
Page 238 of 265
 Gas Power Cycles
By: S K Mondal Chapter
p2 13
pi
1000 K
1000K 3
5
p1

T 562 K 2 4 730.6 K 6730.6 K

300 K
1
S
(b)

1 1
For (b) T4 ⎛ pi ⎞  T=T ⎛1  = 730.6 K
= 
⎞
⎜ ⎟ 4 3⎜ ⎟
T p 3
3 ⎝ 2⎠ ⎝⎠
 1  1
T6 ⎛ p1 ⎞  T=T ⎛1⎞ = 730.6 K
= 



3
⎜ ⎟ 6 5 ⎜⎟
T5 ⎝p i ⎠ ⎝⎠

 For (a) W = (h3 – h4) – (h2 – h1)

= Cp [T3 – T4) – (T2 – T1)] = 205.22 kJ/kg
Q = h3 – h2 = CP (T3 – T2) = 440.19 kJ/kg
  = 46.62 %

For (b) W = (h3 – h4) + (h5 – h6) – (h2 – h1)

= CP [(T3 – T4) + (T5 – T6) – (T2 – T1)] = 278.18 kJ/kg

Q = h3 – h2 + h5 – h4 = CP [(T3 – T2) + (T5 – T4)] = 710.94 kJ/kg

  = 39.13 %

39.13  46.62
 Efficiency change =  100% = –16.07 %
46.62

278.18  205.22
Work output change =  100 = 35.6%
205.22

Q13.28 Obtain an expression for the specific work output of a gas turbine unit
in terms of pressure ratio, isentropic efficiencies of the compressor and
turbine, and the maximum and minimum temperatures, T3 and T1 •
Hence show that the pressure ratio rp for maximum power is given by
 / 2 1
⎛ T ⎞
 Gas Power Cycles
By: S K Mondal Chapter
r p  ⎜ T C 3 ⎟
T1 ⎠
13
⎝
If T3 = 1073 K, T1 = 300 K, C = 0.8, T = 0.8 and  = 1.4 compute the
optimum
Value of pressure ratio, the maximum net work output per kg of air, and
corresponding cycle efficiency.
(Ans. 4.263, 100 kJ/kg, 17.2%)
Solution:

T1 = Tmin T3 = Tmax p2
3
Hence
⎛ p2 ⎞ 2 p1
T =T  1
2s

2s 1 ⎜ ⎟ T
p 4
⎝ 1⎠
4s
 1

= T1  rP  1

 1

Let rp  = x

 T2s = x T1

 If isentropic efficiency and compressor is c

T T
c = T2s  T 1
2 1

 T=T  T2s  T1 ⎡ x  1⎤

2 1
= T1 ⎢1 ⎥
 
C ⎣ C ⎦

1  1
Similarly T ⎛ p4 ⎞  ⎛ p1 ⎞  T3
=T =T =
4s 3⎜ ⎟ 3 ⎜ ⎟
p x
⎝ p3 ⎠ ⎝ 2⎠

 If isentropic efficiency of turbine is T

Then  =
T3   – T3 + T4 =  (T4s – T3)
T T4
T T T
3 4S

⎛ T3 ⎞
T4 = T   T
 Gas Power Cycles
By: S K Mondal Chapter
⎜ ⎟
3 T

⎝
x
3

⎠
13
⎡ ⎛1 ⎞⎤
 1
= T3 ⎢1 T⎜ ⎟⎥
⎣ ⎝x ⎠⎦
 Specific work output

W = (h3 – h4) – (h2 – h1)

= CP [(T3 – T4) – (T2 – T1)]

⎡ ⎛ T ⎞ xT  T1 ⎤
=C  T 3  1 kJ/kg
P⎢ T⎜ 3 ⎟ ⎥
x 
⎣ ⎝ ⎠ C ⎦

⎡ ⎛ ⎞
⎢ ⎜ ⎤
=C T 1 1 ⎟ T ⎛  1
⎞
 min ⎜ r 1⎟⎥kJ/ kg


P⎢ max ⎜  1 ⎟  ⎜ p
⎟⎥


T
⎢ ⎜  ⎟ C ⎝ ⎠⎥
⎣ ⎝ r ⎠ ⎦
p
dW
For maximum Sp. Work =0
dx
dW
 = C
⎡TT3 T1 ⎤
P ⎢ 2  ⎥= 0
dx x 
⎣ C⎦

T3
 x2 =  T C
TT1

  Tmax
 x=
TCT
min

⎛ Tmax ⎞2(  1) Proved.

 rP = ⎜ T C ⎟
T
⎝ min ⎠

 If T3 = 1073 K, T1 = 300K, 1  0.8,   0.8,  = 1.4 then

7

r 
p
⎛ 1073 ⎞ 1.4

= 0.8  0.8  2(1.4 = 4.26

⎜ ⎟
– 1)
opt.
⎝ 300 ⎠
 1

(rp) opt = x = 1.513
⎡
 Wmax = C  ⎛ 1 ⎞ T1(x  1) ⎤
T 1 
p⎢ T 3⎜ ⎟ ⎥


⎡
⎣ ⎝ x⎠ c ⎦
1 ⎞ 300 ⎤
= 1.005 ⎢0.8  1073 ⎜1  ⎟ (1.513  1)⎥ kJ/kg
⎣ ⎝ 1.513⎠ 0.08 ⎦
= 99.18 kJ/kg
Heat input Q1 = h3 – h2 = Cp (T3 – T2) T2 =
⎡ x  1⎤
T 1+ 
1⎢ ⎥
⎣ c ⎦

= 1.005 (1073 – 492.4) = 492.4 K

= 583.5 kJ/kg
 Gas Power Cycles
By: S K Mondal Chapter
13
99.18
= 
= 17%
100%
583.5

Q13.29 A gas turbine plant draws in air at 1.013 bar, 10°C and has a pressure
ratio of 5.5. The maximum temperature in the cycle is limited to 750°C.
Compression is conducted in an uncooled rotary compressor having an
isentropic efficiency of 82%, and expansion takes place in a turbine with
an isentropic efficiency of 85%. A heat exchanger with an efficiency of
70% is fitted between the compressor outlet and combustion chamber.
For an air flow of 40 kg/s, find (a) the overall cycle efficiency, (b) the
turbine output, and (c) the air-fuel ratio if the calorific value of the fuel
used is 45.22 MJ/kg.
(Ans. (a) 30.4%, (b) 4272 kW, (c) 115)

Solution: p1 = 101.3 kPa

T1 = 283 K
p2
= 5.5 kPa
p1
T4 = 750°C = 1023 K
1
T
 2s = ⎛ p2 ⎞  T = 460.6 K


⎜ ⎟ 2s
T1 ⎝ 1p⎠
T T
ηc = 2s 1  T2 = T 1  T2s  T1
T T 
2 1 c

= 499.6K
 1  1  1
T5s⎛p ⎞  ⎛p ⎞  ⎛1⎞
 = 5 = ⎜ 1⎟ = ⎜ ⎟
⎜ ⎟ p 5.5
T p
4 ⎝ 4⎠ ⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎝ ⎠
p2
1023 K
4

3 (1 + m) kg
T p1
2
2s
499.6 K 687.7 K
1 kg 5
5s
628.6 K

283 K 1
S
⎛1
 T =T 1.4 
1 = 628.6K
⎞ 1. 4
5s 4 ⎜ ⎟
⎝ 5.5 ⎠
 Gas Power Cycles
By: S K Mondal Chapter
η =
T4  T5 13
T  T4 – T5 = η T (T4 – T5s) = 335.3 K
T T
4 5s
Page 242 of 265
  T5 = 687.K

Maximum possible heat from heat exchanger = C p (T5 – T2)

 Actual heat from = 0.7Cp (T5 – T2) = 132.33 kJ/kg of air
 Cp (T3 – T2) = (1 + m) 132.33 and

CpT3 = 132.33 +132.33 m + CpT2 = 634.43 +132.33 m

Heat addition (Q1) = Cp (T4 – T3) = CpT4 – CpT3
= 393.7 –132.33m = m × 45.22×103
 m = 8.68 × 10–3 kJ/kg of air
 Q1 = 392.6 kJ/kg of air
WT = (1 + m) (h4 –h5) = (1 + m) Cp (T4 – T5)
= 1.00868 × 1.005 × (1023 – 687.7) kJ/kg of air 340 kJ/kg

Wc = (h2 – h1) = Cp (T2 – T1) = 1.005 × (499.6 – 283)

= 217.7 kJ/kg of air

 Wnet = WT - Wc = 122.32 kJ/kg

122.32
(a) =  100% =
31.16%
392.6
(b) Turbine output = (WT) = 122.32 kJ/kg of air
= 4893 kW

1 kg air
(c) Air fuel ratio =
0.00868 kg of fuel = 115.2 kg of air/kg of fuel
Q13.30 A gas turbine for use as an automotive engine is shown in Fig. 13.43. In
the first turbine, the gas expands to just a low enough pressure p5 , for
the turbine to drive the compressor. The gas is then expanded through
a second turbine connected to the drive wheels. Consider air as the
working fluid, and assume that all processes are ideal. Determine (a)
pressure p5 (b) the net work per kg and mass flow rate, (c) temperature
T3 and cycle thermal efficiency, and (d) the T  S diagram for the cycle.

Page 243 of 265

Solution : Try please.

Q13.31 Repeat Problem 13.30 assuming that the compressor has an efficiency of
80%, both the turbines have efficiencies of 85%, and the regenerator has
an efficiency of 72%.
Solution: Try please.

Q13.32 An ideal air cycle consists of isentropic compression, constant volume

heat transfer, isothermal expansion to the original pressure, and
constant pressure heat transfer to the original temperature. Deduce an
expression for the cycle efficiency in terms of volumetric compression
ratio rk , and isothermal expansion ratio, rk In such a cycle, the pressure
and temperature at the start of compression are 1 bar and 40°C, the
compression ratio is 8, and the maximum pressure is 100 bar.
Determine the cycle efficiency and the m.e.p.
(Ans. 51.5%, 3.45 bar)
Solution:

V=C
3
Q1  T p=C
Q1 Q1 
3 4
2 =C

p Q1
T=C T
2 Q2
r S=C
pV = C
1 Q2 4 1
S
V
 Compression ratio, V1
rc =
V2
Expansion ratio, V V
re = V43 = V42
Heat addition Q1 = Q1 + Q1
= constant volume heat addition
(Q1 + constant temperature heat addition Q1 )
Heat rejection, Q2 = Cp (T4 – T1)
T
Hence 2 1
⎛ p2 ⎞  ⎛ v ⎞  1
= = 1 1 =r
⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ c
T p v
1 ⎝ 1⎠ ⎝ 2⎠
1
 T2 – T . r v 
and v 2= 1 and p = p r
1 c
r 2 1 c
c

T3 = T 4
p1 v3 p3
p v v4 p3 = =r
 = 4 4  =
 T3 T4 re
 p3  p1 . v3 p4 p1 e

p p p3 re re
 2= 3 or T3 = T= ×T . r
 -1
=T = T4
T2 T3 2  1 c 1
p2 rc rc
  = 1Q
 Cp(T4  T1 )
=1
2
Cv (T3  T2 )  RT3 In re
Q
1
⎛ re ⎞

= 1 ⎝ ⎛ re
Tr
c  1 ⎞⎠
R.T
re
In r
Cv ⎜ T1 . 1c ⎟ 1 e
rc r
⎝ ⎠ c

⎛ re ⎞
1 
⎜r ⎟
 ⎝ ⎠
= 1  ⎛ re  r   1 ⎞  (  1) re In r
c

⎜r c ⎟
r e

⎝ c ⎠ c

(re  rc )
=1
(r  r )  (  1) l rn


r
 =1 e c e e

[re  rc ]

(r  r )  (  1) r l n r
e c e e

Given p1 = 1 bar = 100 kPa

T1 = 40°C = 313 K
rc =8 and p3 = 100 bar = 10000 kPa
pp p
. re  re = 3 = 100
3 1
p1
=1 1.4 (100  8)
(100  8 )  (1.4 – 1  In 100
1.4

128.8
=1
265.83
= 0.51548 = 51.548 %
re 313  100
 T3 = T  = = 3912.5 K
1
rc 8
1
T2 = T1  r c = 719 K

 Heat addition, Q = Cv ( T3 –T2) + R T3 In re

= 0.718 (3912.5 – 719) + 0.287 × 3912.5 × ln 100
= 7464 kJ/kg
  Work, W = Q  = 3847.5 kJ/kg

p (V4 – V2) = W  v = 100 v v1

v=
m 4 2 2
rc
 pm (100 –1) v2 = W
v
 p (99)  1 = W
m
8
 pm = 8W RT
= 346.1 kPa v1 = = 0.89831 kJ/kg
99  1

v1 p1
= 3.461 bar
 pm ( v – V3) = 40 58
4

p =
4058 = 365 bar
m
v4
v4 
100

Q13.37 Show that the mean effective pressure,

pm ' for the Otto cycle is
Given by ⎛ 1⎞
p3 p 1rγ k ⎜1  γ-1 ⎟
pM = ⎝ rk ⎠
 γ  1 rk 1
Where p3 = pmax ' p1 = pmin and is the compression ratio.
Solution: rk
Intake p1 , v1 , T1
 -1

T ⎛p ⎞ ⎛v ⎞ 1
3
 T2 = ⎜ 2⎟ = ⎜ 1⎟ = rc  1 
1 ⎝p1 ⎠ ⎝ v2 ⎠ PV = C
1
 T2 = T1 . rc p Q1
  4
p = p r
2 1 c 2 Q2
pv C
=V 1
v
v2 = 1
rc
p3 p2
T3 =

T2
 1
p p r  p3 T ×p
 T3 = T2  3 = T2 3 = T1 c  = r1 p 3
p p r p r
 T3 2 1 c 1 c c 1
⎛ v4 ⎛ v1   1
= 1
= ⎞ = r 1
⎞ ⎜ ⎟
⎜ v⎟ c
T4 ⎝3 ⎠ ⎝ v2 ⎠
T3
 T4 = = T1 p3  -1 T p
1 r p × r = r 1 p3
rc c 1 c c 1

W = Q1 – Q2
= Cv (T3 – T2) – Cv (T4 – T1)
 pm (V1 – V2) =W
 p =
m
Cv [(T3  T2 )  (T4  T1 )]
VV
1 2
 ⎡ T1 p 3 T p ⎤
c  T r -1  1 3  T
v⎢ 1 c 1⎥
r p r p
= ⎣ c 1 c 1 ⎦
v1  v1
rc
⎡
p  p r p3 ⎤
 pr
cT 3 ⎢ 1c⎥
V 1 ⎢  c
1 c
r  1
= ⎥
V1 p1 ⎢⎣ (rc  1)
⎡ R
⎥⎦ ⎢cV   1
⎢
⎢⎣∵ p1 V1  RT1
 p3 
[( p  p r )   ( p – p r )]
3 1 c
rc  1 3 1 c
RT1
=
V 1 p1 (  1) (rc  1)
 ⎛ 1 ⎞
(p p r ) 1
1 c ⎜
r  1 ⎟
3

= ⎝ c ⎠
Proved
(  1)(rc  1)

Q13.38 A gas turbine plant operates on the Bray ton cycle using an optimum
pressure ratio for maximum net work output and a regenerator of 100%
effectiveness. Derive expressions for net work output per kg of air and
corresponding efficiency of the cycle in terms of the maximum and the
minimum temperatures.
If the maximum and minimum temperatures are 800°C and 30°C
respectively, compute the optimum value of pressure ratio, the
maximum net work output per kg and the corresponding cycle
efficiency.

Wnet 

(Ans.
  , r
Tmax Tmin Tmin Tmax
 Cp 1  9.14

max 2 cycl max opt
 e 

Wnet max  236.97 kJ/kg;cycle  0.469 )

Solution: T1  Tmin
T4  Tmax
 1  1

T2 ⎛ p2 ⎞  = r  = x (say)
 =
⎜ ⎟


p
T p
1 ⎝ 1⎠
 T2 = T 1 x
1 1
T5 ⎛ p5 ⎞  ⎛ p1 ⎞  = 1
= =
⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟


T p p x
4 ⎝ 4⎠ ⎝ 2⎠
T
 T5 = 4
x
For regeneration 100% effective number
 Cp (T5 – T2) = Cp (T3 – T2)
T
 T3 = T 5 = 4
x
WT = ⎛h4 – h5 = Cp (T4 – T5)
= C T T4 ⎞

p
⎜ 4
⎟
⎝ x ⎠

p2
4

Q1

3
T p1
2

Q2
1

S
⎛ 1⎞
And Wc = h 2 – h 1 =C T 1
p 4⎜ ⎟
⎝ x⎠
= Cp (T2 – T1)
= Cp T1 (x – 1)
⎡ ⎛ 1⎞ ⎤

Wnet = WT – WC = Cp ⎢T4 ⎜1  ⎟  T1 (x  1)⎥
⎣ ⎝ x⎠ ⎦
For Maximum Net work done
 Wnet 1
=0T T=0
4 1
x x2
 x2 =T T
4
= Tmax
min
T
1

 x= Tmax
Tmin

Heat addition  ( r )
⎛ Tmax ⎞2(   1)
=
p opt. ⎜ ⎟
T⎝ min ⎠
⎛
Q1 = h4 – h3 = Cp (T4 – T3) = C T T ⎞
 4
p
⎜ 4 ⎟
⎝ x ⎠
⎛ 1⎞
=CT 1
p 4⎜ ⎟
⎝ x⎠
 = ⎡ ⎤
CpT4 ⎢1  T1 T4 ⎥
⎢⎣ ⎛ ⎥⎦ 1 ⎞
T 1  T (x  1)
4⎜ ⎟ 1
W
⎝ x⎠
 η opt. = net
= 1⎞
Q1 ⎛
T ⎜1  ⎟
4
⎝ x⎠
T
= 1  1 x T
T4 = 1  1  T4 T1 = 1  Tmin Tmax
T4
 Wopt. = Cp[T4  T1T4  T1T4  T1 ]

= Cp
[ T4  ] = Cp  ]
2

2 T1 [ Tmax Tmin

If Tmax = 800°C = 1073 K; Tmin = 30°C = 303K

1.4
⎛ 1073 ⎞ 2(1.4–1) = 9.14
 r =
⎜ ⎟
⎝ 303 ⎠
p,opt

Tmin Tmax
ηopt. = 1  = 46.9%

Wopt. = 1.005 ( 1073  303) = 236.8 kJ/kg

2

Q13.40 Show that for the Sterling cycle with all the processes occurring
reversibly but where the heat rejected is not used for regenerative
heating, the efficiency
⎛ Tis giver:
⎞ by
1
 1    1ln r
⎜ ⎟
T
⎛ ⎝T1 2 ⎞ ⎠ T
1  1    1 1 ln r
⎜ ⎟
T T
⎝ 2 ⎠ 2

Where r is the compression ratio and T1 / the maximum to minimum

temperature ratio. T2
Determine the efficiency of this cycle using hydrogen (R = 4.307 kJ/kg K,
cp =. 14.50 kJ/kg K) with a pressure and temperature prior to isothermal.
Compression of 1 bar and 300 K respectively, a maximum pressure
of2.55 MPa and heat supplied during the constant volume heating of
9300 kJ/kg. If the heat rejected during the constant volume cooling can
be utilized to provide the constant volume heating, what will be the
cycle efficiency? Without altering the temperature ratio, can the
efficiency be further improved in the cycle?
Solution:
Minimum temperature
(T2) = Tmin
4
Q2
Maximum temperature T=C
(T1) = Tmax p Q1
1
3Q2
 Compression ratio
v T=C 2
( r c ) = 2 = v1
v v 3 4

 T1 – T4 and T3 = T2
v1
WT = RT1 ln = RT1 ln rc
⎛ vv24 ⎞
WC = RT2 ln = RT2 ln r
v
 ⎜ ⎟ c
⎝ 3⎠
 Wnet =R ln ( rc ) × [T1 – T2]
 Constant volume Heat addition (Q1) = Cv (T1 – T2)
R
= (T  T )
1 2
1
Constant temperature heat addition Q2 = RT2 ln rc
⎡ (T1  T2 ) ⎤

Total heat addition Q = Q1 + Q2 = R ⎢T1 ln rc (  1) ⎥
⎣ ⎦
W (  1) ln rc (T1  T2  1  1
 = Qnet = ⎡ ln rc [T1  T2 ] )=
T ln r T2  T1 ⎤ (  1) T1 ln rc  (T2  T1 )
⎢ 1 c 
r1 ⎥
⎡
=1 ⎣ ⎦
(  1) ln rc (T1  T2 ) ⎤
⎢1  ⎥
(  1) ln r  (T  T )
⎣ c 2 1⎦

(  1) T1 ln rc  (T2  T1 )  (  1) ln rc T1  (  1) T2 ln rc
=1 (  1) ln rc  (T2  T1 )
(T  T )  (  1) T ln
= 1  rc 1(T1 2T2 )  (  1)2T1
ln r
⎛ T1 c ⎞
 1  (  1) ln r
⎜T ⎟ c

=1 ⎝ 2 ⎠ Proved
⎛ T1 ⎞ T1
 1  (  1) ln r
⎜T ⎟ T
c

⎝ 2 ⎠ 2

Q13.41 Helium is used as the working fluid in an ideal Brayton cycle. Gas enters
the compressor at 27 C and 20 bar and is discharged at 60 bar. The
gas is heated to l000 C before entering the turbine. The cooler returns
the hot turbine exhaust to the temperature of the compressor inlet.
Determine:
(a) the temperatures at the end of compression and expansion, (b) the
heat supplied, the heat rejected and the net work per kg of He, and (c)
the
cycle efficiency and the heat rate. Take = 5.1926 kJ/kg K.
cp
(Ans. (a) 4 65.5, 820.2 K, (b) 4192.5, 2701.2, 1491.3 kJ/kg,
(c) 0.3557, 10,121kJ/kWh)

Solution: T 2 ⎛ p2 ⎞ 1 60
= ⎜ ⎟ =
T p 20


1 ⎝ 1⎠

Cp = 5.1926, R = 2.0786
 cv  cp – R = 3.114
cp 5.1926
= = = 1.6675  
1
= 0.4
cv 3.114 
 S
⎛ 60 ⎞
 T=T 1
 = 465.7 K
2
1
⎜ ⎟
⎝ 20 ⎠

T4 ⎛ p4 ⎞   1 ⎛ 20 ⎞   1  T = T  1 = 820 K
 = =
⎜ ⎟


T p ⎜ ⎟ 4 3  1
60 3
3 ⎝ 3 ⎠ ⎝ ⎠ 

(a) End of compressor temperature T2 =

465.7K End of expansion temperature T4 =
820K

(b) Heat supplied (Q1) = h3 – h2 = CP (T3 –T2) = 4192

kJ/kg Heat rejected (Q2) = h4 – h1 = CP (T4 –T1) = 2700
kJ/kg Work, W = Q1 – Q2 = 1492 kJ/kg

W
(c) = 1492
Q1 =  100% = 35.6%
4192
3600
Heat rate = 3600 = 10112 kJ/kWh
 = 0.356

Q13.42 An air standard cycle for a gas turbine jet propulsion unit, the
pressure and temperature entering the compressor are 100 kPa and
290 K, respectively. The pressure ratio across the compressor is 6 to 1
and the temperature at the turbine inlet is 1400 K. On leaving the
turbine the air enters the nozzle and expands to 100 kPa. Assuming
that the efficiency of the compressor and turbine are both 85% and
that the nozzle efficiency is 95%, determine the pressure at the nozzle
inlet and the velocity of the air leaving the nozzle.
 (Ans. 285 kPa, 760 m / s)
p2 p2
Solution: =6  p2 = 600 kPa 3
p1
1273 K

Q1
T
465.7 K
2 p1
820 K
4

Q2
1 300 K
 p2
3 pi

5
p1
2
T 2s 4s 6

1
290 K, 100 kPa

T ⎛p 1

2s
⎞ 1.4  1

T1 = ⎜⎝ p1⎟⎠
2 = 6 1.4

T2s = 483.9 K

T T
C = T2s  T 1
2 1

T  T1
 T2 – T1 = 2s = 228 K
c
T2 = 518 K
T3 = 1400 K
WC = CP (T2 – T1) = 1.005 (518 – 290) = 229.14 kJ/kg
1
T4s ⎛ p ⎞ 
i
=
⎜ ⎟
T p
3 ⎝ 2⎠
WC
 WT =
= 269.9 kJ/kg = CP (T3 – T4s)
T
 T3 – T4s = 268.24  T4s = 1131.8 K
1.4
⎛ 1131.8 ⎞1.4 1 pi

 ⎜ ⎟ =
1400 p
⎝ ⎠ 2
1.4
 p p
⎛ 1131.8 ⎞1.4  1 = 285 kPa
i 2 × ⎜ ⎟
1400
⎝ ⎠

Δh = h5 – h6 = CP (T5 – T6)

T3  T 5
= T  T3 – T5 = 227.97  T5 = 1172 K
T T
3 4s ⎛ 285 ⎞
1 1.4  1
T5 ⎛ p5 ⎞  1.4
= =
 
T
= =
86
8.
9
K
T
⎜ ⎟
⎜ ⎟ 100 6 5
T p
6 ⎝ 6⎠ ⎝ ⎠

 Δh = CP (1172 – 868.9) = 304.6 kJ/kg

  V = 2000 ×  × Δ h = 2000  0.95  304.6 m/s = 760.8 m/s

Q13.43 A stationary gas turbine power plant operates on the Brayton cycle and
delivers 20 MW to an electric generator. The maximum temperature is
1200 K and the minimum temperature is 290 K. The minimum pressure is
95 kPa and the maximum pressure is 380 kPa. If the isentropic
efficiencies of the turbine and compressor are 0.85 and 0.80
respectively, find (a) the mass flow rate of air to the compressor, (b)
the volume flow rate of air to the compressor, (c) the fraction of the
turbine work output needed to drive the compressor, (d) the cycle
efficiency.
If a regenerator of 75% effectiveness is added to the plant, what would
be the changes in the cycle efficiency and the net work output?
3
(Ans. (a) 126.37 kg/s, (b) 110.71 m /s, (c) 0.528,
(d) 0.2146, = 0.148 ΔWnet = 0)
 1 Δ
Solution: T2 ⎛ p2 ⎞   T = 431K
=
⎜ ⎟ 2


T p
1 ⎝ 1⎠
1 1
T 4 ⎛ p4 ⎞  ⎛p ⎞ 
= = 1 4 ; T = 807.5 K
⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟


T p p
3 ⎝ 3⎠ ⎝ 2⎠

 Wnet = (h3 – h4) – (h2 – h1)

= CP [(T3 – T4) – (T2 – T1)]
= 252.76 kJ/kg
20000
 Mass flow rate (m ) = = 79.13 kg/s
252.76
p2
3 380 kPa
1200 K

431 K
T 2 p1

807.5 K
4

1 95 kPa, 290 K

(a) Turbine output (WT) =

m c (T3 – T4) = 31.234 MW
P
(b)  = T T
WC = T2  1 = 0.3592
3
T4
WT
(c) (m ) = 79.13 kg/s

(d) v1 = 
RT
1
= 0.8761 m3/kg V = 1 = 69.33 m3/s
m
p1
v
 Refrigeration Cycles
By: S K Mondal Chapter 14

14. Refrigeration Cycles

Some Important Notes

Heat Engine, Heat Pump

Heat engines, Refrigerators, Heat pumps:
 A heat engine may be defined as a device that operates in a thermodynamic cycle and
does a certain amount of net positive work through the transfer of heat from a high
temperature body to a low temperature body. A steam power plant is an example of
a heat engine.
 A refrigerator may be defined as a device that operates in a thermodynamic cycle and
transfers a certain amount of heat from a body at a lower temperature to a body at a
higher temperature by consuming certain amount of external work. Domestic
refrigerators and room air conditioners are the examples. In a refrigerator, the required
output is the heat extracted from the low temperature body.
 A heat pump is similar to a refrigerator, however, here the required output is the heat
rejected to the high temperature body.

Fig. (a) Heat Engine (b) Refrigeration and heat pump cycles

Page 255 of 265

 Refrigeration Cycles
By: S K Mondal Chapter
14

Fig. Comparison of heat engine, heat pump and refrigerating machine

QH QH TH
COP Carnot,HP  cycle  
W Q
H Q C T
H T C

QC QC TC
COP Carnot,R  cycle  
W QH Q C T
H T C
Where
Wcycle = work input to the reversible heat pump and refrigerator
QH = heat transferred between the system and the hot reservoir
QC = heat transferred between the system and cold reservoir
TH = temperature of the hot reservoir.
TC = temperature of the cold reservoir.
 Question and Solution (P K Nag)
Q14.1 A refrigerator using R–134a operates on an ideal vapour compression
cycle between 0.12 and 0.7 MPa. The mass flow of refrigerant is 0.05 kg/s.
Determine
(a) The rate of heat removal from the refrigerated space
(b) The power input to the compressor
(c) The heat rejection to the environment
(d) The COP
(Ans. (a) 7.35 kW, (b) 1.85 kW, (c) 9.20 kW, (d) 3.97)
Solution: Try please.

Q14.2 A Refrigerant-12 vapour compression cycle has a refrigeration load of 3

tonnes. The evaporator and condenser temperatures are – 20°C and 40°C
respectively. Find
(a) The refrigerant flow rate in kg/s
(b) The volume flow rate handled by the compressor in m3/s
(c) The work input to the compressor in kW
(d)The heat rejected in the condenser in kW
(e) The isentropic discharge temperature.
o
If there is 5 C of superheating of vapour before it enters the
o
compressor, and 5 C sub cooling of liquid before it flows through the
expansion valve, determine the above quantities.
Solution: As 50°C temperature difference in evaporate so evaporate temperature = – 20°C and
Condenser temperature is 30°C.
 p1 = 1.589 bar
43 2
p2 = 7.450 bar
h7 = 178.7 kJ/kg, h3 = 64.6 kJ/kg
5
h1 = 178.7 + (190.8 – 178.7) p
20 56 71
Δh = 3.025 kJ/kg
5
s1 = 0.7088 + (0.7546 – 0.7088)
20 h
= 0.7203 kJ/kg– K [Data from CP Arora]
 h3 – h4 = Δh = h1 – h7 = 3.025
 h4 = h3 – Δh = 61.6 kJ/kg i.e. 25°C hg = 59.7
30°C hg = 64.6  0.98/vc
 Degree of sub cooling = 3.06°C
0.7203 – 0.6854
(a) Degree of super heat is discharge =  = 15°C
20
0.7321 – 0.6854
 Discharge temperature = 15 + 30 = 45° C
15
 h2 = 199.6  (214.3  199.6) = 210.63 kJ/kg
20
 Compressor work (W) = h2 – h1 = 210.63 – 181.73 = 28.9 kJ/kg
 Refrigerating effect (Q0) = h7 – h5 = h7 – h4 = (178.7 – 61.6) kJ/kg = 117.1
kJ/kg
Q
(b)  COP = o = 117.1 = 4.052
W
28.9
v = 0.108 m /kg
3
 m v = 0.014361 m3/s
1 D N V1 = 1
2L n 
 L = 1.2
= V1


4 60 vol
D
L = 1.2 D
 D 900
2  1.2 D  1 = 0.014361
0.95
4 60

 D = 0.1023 m = 10.23 cm
L = 0.1227 m = 12.27 cm

Q14.4 A vapour compression refrigeration system uses R-12 and operates

between pressure limits of 0.745 and 0.15 MPa. The vapour entering the
compressor has a temperature of – 10°C and the liquid leaving the
condenser is at 28°C. A refrigerating load of 2 kW is required. Determine
the COP and the swept volume of the compressor if it has a volumetric
efficiency of 76% and runs at 600 rpm.
(Ans. 4.15, 243 cm3)

Solution: p1 = 150 kPa: Constant saturated temperature (–

20°C)
p2 = 745 kPa: Constant saturated temperature (30°C)

3
4 2

5 6 7 1

10°C superheated

h
h7 = 178.7 kJ/kg
h3 = 64.6 kJ/kg
 3
h4 = h4-5 = 59.7  (64.6 – 59.7) = 62.64 kJ/kg = h5
5
h1 = h 10
 (190.8 – h ) = 184.8 kJ/kg
7 7
20
10
s = 0.7088  (0.7546 – 0.7088) = 0.7317 kJ/kg-K
1
20
⎛ 0.7317 – 0.6854 ⎞
h2 = 199.6  (214.3 – 199.6) = 214.2 kJ/kg
⎜ ⎟
⎝ 0.7321 – 0.6854 ⎠
 Compressor work (W) = h2 – h1 = 29. 374 kJ/kg
Refrigeration effect = (h1 – h5) = (184.8 – 62.64) = 122.16
kJ/kg
122.16
 COP = 29.374 = 4.16
v1 = 0.1166m3 /kg
Mass flow ratio m × 122.16 = 2
 m = 0.016372 kg/s
 m v 3 3
600


V1 = 1 = 1.90897 × 10 m /s = Vs × 0.76 ×
60
 Vs = 251.2 cm3

Q14.6 A R-12 vapour compression refrigeration system is operating at a

condenser pressure of 9.6 bar and an evaporator pressure of 2.19 bar.
Its refrigeration capacity is 15 tonnes. The values of enthalpy at the
inlet and outlet of the evaporator are 64.6 and 195.7 kJ/kg. The
specific volume at inlet to the reciprocating compressor is 0.082
m3/kg. The index of compression for the compressor is 1.13
Determine:
(a) The power input in kW required for the compressor
(b) The COP. Take 1 tonnes of refrigeration as equivalent to heat
removal at the rate of 3.517 kW.
Refrigeration
Solution: T1 = – 10°C T3 = 40°C effect (195.7 –
h4 = 646 kJ/kg h1 = 1057 kJ/kg 64.6) kJ/kg =
v1 = 0.082 m / kg
3
n = 1.13 131.1 kJ/kg
m Qo = 15 ×
3 2 3.517
2 0.4024 kg/s

4 1 1

h
(Ans. (a) 11.57 kW, (b) 4.56)
1 1
v2 ⎛ p1 ⎞ n ⎛ 2.19 ⎞1.3 = v = 0.022173 m3/kg
= =⎜ ⎟ 2
⎜ ⎟ 9.6
v p
1 ⎝ 2⎠ ⎝ ⎠
 WC = n
( pV  p V ) = 28.93 kJ/kg
n1 1 1 2 2

(a) Wcompressor = 11.64 KW

 15 
(b)
3.517 COP = = 4532
11.64

Q14.12 Determine the ideal COP of an absorption refrigerating system in

which the heating, cooling, and refrigeration take place at 197°C,
17°C, and –3°C respectively.

Desired effort (Ans. 5.16)

Solution :  COP =
input Th
Qh
HE (Qh–W) W
Refregerating effect (Qo+W) R1
= heat input Qo
Ta
Qo
= W
Qh
Q W
= Wo × Q To
h

= (COP) R × H.E.
For ideal process

To
(COP)R =
Ta 
To
And ⎛ T ⎞
 =  = 1 a
H.E Carnot ⎜ ⎟
T
⎝ h⎠

 (COP) ideal
= To ⎛ Ta ⎞
 1 ⎜ ⎟
T T T


a o ⎝ h⎠

To [Th  Ta ]
= 
Th [Ta  To ]

Given To = 270 K, Ta = 290 K, Th = 470 K

270 [470  290]
 (COP) ideal =  = 5.17
470 [290  270]

Q14.22 Derive an expression for the COP of an ideal gas refrigeration cycle
with a regenerative heat exchanger. Express the result in terms of the
minimum gas temperature during heat rejection (Th) maximum gas
temperature during heat absorption (T1) and pressure ratio for the
cycle
⎜⎛
 p2 p1  . Ans. COP 
T1
(  1)/  ⎟
⎞
Tr T
 ⎝ h p 1 ⎠
1 1
Solution:
T  ⎛ p2 ⎞  = r 
2
=
⎜p ⎟ P
T
1 ⎝ 1⎠
1


 T2 = T1 rP
T4 ⎛ p4 ⎞   1 1
=  ⎛ p2 ⎞  =r
1

= 


⎜p ⎟ ⎜p ⎟ P
T
5 ⎝ 5⎠ ⎝ 1⎠

 T5 = T4 Tn
1
= 1

rP  rP
For Regeneration ideal
CP (T3 – T4) = p (T1 – T6)
 T3 – Th = T1 – T6
 Work input (W) = (h2 – h1) – (h4 – h5)
= CP [(T2 – T1) – (Th – Ts)
Heat rejection (Q1) = Q2 + W = CP (T2 – T3)
Heat absorption (Q2) = CP (T6 – T5)

p2
2

Q1
WC p1

T Th 3
6T1
4 1

WE
QX
5 QX Q2

Q2 T6  T5 1
 COP = = =
Q1  Q2 (T2  T3 )  (T6  T5 ) T2  T3
T6  T5  1
 1 1
 
T2 – T3 = T1 rP  T1 = T1 (rP  1)
T 1
T1
T–T=T (r 
 1) T or COP 
=T =
6 5 h h P h
1 h 1
T r ( 1)/  T
1

r 
r  Tr T h p 1
 P P 1 P h

Q14.23 Large quantities of electrical power can be transmitted with relatively

little loss when the transmission cable is cooled to a superconducting
temperature. A regenerated gas refrigeration cycle operating with
helium is used to maintain an electrical cable at 15 K. If the pressure
ratio is 10 and heat is rejected directly to the atmosphere at 300 K,
determine the COP and the performance ratio with respect to the
Carnot cycle.
(Ans. 0.02, 0.38)
 1
Solution: T 2 ⎛ p2 ⎞  = 10   1
=
⎜ ⎟


T p
1 ⎝ 1⎠
1.6667.1

 T2 = 300 × 10 1.6667 = 754 K

1 1 0.4
T5 ⎛ p5 ⎞  ⎛ p ⎞  ⎛1⎞
= = =
⎜ ⎟ 

⎜p ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
T p 10
4 ⎝ 4⎠ ⎝ 2⎠ ⎝ ⎠

2
Q1

3
T 300 K 1
46
15 K

5 Q2

 T5 = 5.9716 K
Refrigerating effect (Q 2) = CP (T6 – T5) = 9.0284 CP
Work input (W) =CP [(T2 – T1) – (T4 – T5)] = 444. 97
CP

0.0284
 COP = = 0.0203
CP
444.97
CP

And (COP ) carnet =

T6 T6  T5 15
300  = 0.05263
= 15

COP actual
0.0203
COPcarnot = 0.05263 = 0. 3857

Q14.25 A heat pump installation is proposed for a home heating unit with an
output rated at 30 kW. The evaporator temperature is 10°C and the
condenser pressure is 0.5 bar. Using an ideal vapour compression
cycle, estimate the power required to drive the compressor if
steam/water mixture is used as the working fluid, the COP and the
mass flow rate of the fluid. Assume saturated vapour at compressor
inlet and saturated liquid at condenser outlet.
(Ans. 8.0 kW, 3.77, 0.001012 kg/s)
Solution: h1 = 2519.8 kJ/kg
s1 = 8.9008 kJ/kg-K
v1 = 106.38 m3/kg

3 81.33°C 50 kPa
2 0.5 bar
hf = 340. 5 kJ/kg
p

4 1
10°C
1.2266 kPa

400°C 50 kPa s = 8.88642, h = 3278.9

500°C 50 kPa s = 9.1546, h = 3488.7
⎛ 8.9008  8.8642 ⎞
 h2 = (3488.7 – 3278.9) × ⎜  3278.9 = 3305.3 kJ/kg
⎝  ⎠
 ⎟
Compressor work (W) = h2 – h1 = (3305.3
9.1546 – 2519.8)
= 785.5 kJ/kg

Heating (Q) = h2 – hf3 = (3305.3 – 340.5) kJ/kg = 2964.8 kJ/kg

m × Q = 30
 30
= m = 2964.8 = 0.0101187 kg/s
2964.8
 COP = 785.5 = 3.77

Compressor power =
m W = 7.95 KW

Q14.26 A 100 tonne low temperature R-12 system is to operate on a 2-stage

vapour compression refrigeration cycle with a flash chamber, with the
refrigerant evaporating at – 40°C, an intermediate pressure of 2.1912
bar, and condensation at 30°C. Saturated vapour enters both the
compressors and saturated liquid enters each expansion valve.
Consider both stages of compression to be isentropic. Determine:
(a) The flow rate of refrigerant handled by each compressor
(b) The total power required to drive the compressor
(c) The piston displacement of each compressor, if the clearance is
2.5% for each machine
(d) The COP of the system
(e) What would have been the refrigerant flow rate, the total work of
compression, the piston displacement in each compressor and the
compressor and the COP, if the compression had occurred in a
single stage? .
(Ans. (a) 2.464, 3.387 kg/s, (b) 123 kW, (c) 0.6274, 0.314 m3/s, (d) 2.86,
(e) 3.349 kg/s, 144.54 kW, 1.0236 m3/s, 2.433)
Solution: h1 = 169 kJ/kg
h3 = 183.2 kJ/kg
h5 = 64.6 kJ/kg = h6
h7 = h8 = 26.9 kJ/kg

5 7.45 ba r
30°C. 4 2 p2
m1
7
6 –10° .C 3 2.1912 ba r p
p i
m2

8 p1 = 0.6417 bar
9 1
–90°C

S1 = S2 = 0.7274 kJ/kg – K
S3 = S4 = 0.7020 kJ/kg – K
 From P.H chart of
R12 h2 = 190 kJ/kg
h4 = 206 kJ/kg
m 2 2h  m
5
 1h 7= m 32h  m 1h

 m 22 (h 7 h ) = m3 2 (h
5
h )
m 1
 h h 190  26.9
m = h 2  h 7 = 183.2 
2 = 1.3752
3 5
64.6
100  14000
m 2 (h1 – h8) =
3600

(a)  m 2 = 2.7367 kg/s

m 1 = m2 × 1.3752 = 3.7635 kg/s

(b) Power of compressor (P) = m 2 (h  h )  m 1 (h  h )

2 1 4 3

= 14328 kW

(d) Refrigeration efficiency 100  14000

COP = = = 2.7142
Compressor 3600  143.28

(e) For single storage

From R12 chart ha = 2154 kJ/kg, hg = hs = 64.6 kJ/kg
 100  14000  m = 3.725 kg/s
h)=
m (h
 1 9
3600
Compressor power (P) = m (h4 – h1) = 3.725 × 46
= 171.35 kW
100  14000
COP = 3600 = 2.27
171.35