ANTI-DIFFERENTIATION

Anti-derivatives are opposite of derivatives. An anti-derivative is a function that

reverses what the derivative does. One function has many anti-derivatives, but they all take
the form of a function plus an arbitrary constant. Anti-derivatives are a key part of
indefinite integrals.

PROBLEM 1: PROBLEM 6:
2 x 4− √❑
f ( x )=3 cosx+
❑
❑ ❑ ❑
¿ ∫ 2 x 3 dx +4 ∫ xdx −3∫ dx
❑ ❑ ❑
−1
3 2
¿ 3 cosx +2 x −x

x4 x2
¿2 ( ) ( )
4
+4
2
−3 x +c

1
¿ 3 sinx + x 4−2 √ ❑
2

PROBLEM 2:

x 7 +c

PROBLEM 3:
 3 x −2
¿ +c
−4

PROBLEM 4:
2 x 4− √❑
f ( x )=3 cosx+
❑
2 x 4 √❑
¿ 3 cosx + −
x ❑
−1
¿ 3 cosx +2 x3 −x 2

1
x4 x 2
f ( x )=3 sinx+2 − +c
4 1
2
1 4
¿ 3 sinx + x −2 √ ❑
2

PROBLEM 5:
x2
sin sin
2 ( )
'
a d ∎ ( f ( g ( x ) ) g ( x ) )=f (g ( x ) )
f =sin
x2
g=
2
f =−cos
2x
g' = =x
2
x2 x2
( ( ))
a d ∎ sin sin
2
x =−cos cos
2 ( )
 CHAIN RULE OF ANTIDIFFERENTIATION

Integration by substitution ( also called “ The Reverse Chain Rule” ) is

a method to find an integral, but only when it can be set up in a
special way.
We proceed by first extracting a factor of 4 from the denominator:

This is very close to the standard result in the previous keypoint except that the term is not really

wanted. Let us observe the effect of making the substitution , so that . Then

and the integral becomes

This can be finished off using the standard result, to give .

PROBLEM 1:

=
 =

PROBLEM 2:

Substitution of :

Problem 3:

 Substitution of  :

=
PROBLEM 4:

= =

SEPARABLE DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS

Separation of variables is a common method for solving differential
equations.
Let's see how it's done by solving the differential equation
dy 2x
=
dx 3 y ²
dy 2x
1) =
dx 3 y ²
dx
2) 3 y ² =2 x
dy
Multiply by 3y²
3) 3 y ² dy=2 x dx Multiply by dx
4) ∫ 3 y ² dy= ∫ 2 x dx Take integral
5) y ³=x ²+ c Integrate
6) y= √3 x ²+c Isolate y

Example 1
We can bring this equation to the form f(y)dy=g(x)dx.

dy −1
= 3 x³
dx
−3 dy=x ³ dx
∫ −3 dy= ∫ x ³ dx
x⁴
−3 y= +c
4
 −x ⁴
y=¿ +c
12

Example 2 Solve and find a general solution to the differential equation.

sinx
y '=
( ycosy)
y cos y dy=sin x dx
❑ ❑

∫ y cos y dy=∫ sin x dx

❑ ❑

y sin y - ∫ sin y dy = - cos x

y= ( - cos x - cos y + c ) / sin y

SEPARABLE DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS

Separation of variables is a common method for solving differential
equations.
Let's see how it's done by solving the differential equation
dy 2x
=
dx 3 y ²
dy 2x
1) =
dx 3 y ²
dx
2) 3 y ² =2 x
dy
Multiply by 3y²
3) 3 y ² dy=2 x dx Multiply by dx
4) ∫ 3 y ² dy= ∫ 2 x dx Take integral
5) y ³=x ²+ c Integrate
6) y= √3 x ²+c Isolate y

Example 1
We can bring this equation to the form f(y)dy=g(x)dx.

dy −1
= 3 x³
dx
−3 dy=x ³ dx
∫ −3 dy= ∫ x ³ dx
x⁴
−3 y= +c
4
 −x ⁴
y=¿ +c
12

Example 2 Solve and find a general solution to the differential equation.

sinx
y '=
( ycosy)
y cos y dy=sin x dx
❑ ❑

∫ y cos y dy=∫ sin x dx

❑ ❑

y sin y - ∫ sin y dy = - cos x

y= ( - cos x - cos y + c ) / sin y
Partitions and the Definite Integral
The definite integral of a function is closely related to the antiderivative and indefinite
integral of a function. The primary difference is that the indefinite integral, if it exists, is a
real number value, while the latter two represent an infinite number of functions that differ
only by a constant. The relationship between these concepts is will be discussed in the
section of the Fundamental Theorem of Calculus, and you will see that the definite integral
will have applications to many problems in calculus.

The development of the definition of the definite integral begins with a function f(x), which
is continuous on a closed interval [a, b]. The given interval is partitioned into “n”
subintervals that, although not necessary, can be taken to be equal lengths ( x). An
arbitrary domain value, x i, is chosen in each subinterval, and its subsequent function value,
f(x i), is determined. The product of each function value times the corresponding
subinterval length is determined, and these “n” products are added to determine their sum.
This sum is referred to as a Riemann sum and may be positive, the closed interval. For
example, if f(x) > 0 on [a, b], then the Riemann sum will be a positive real number. If f(x) <
0 on [a, b], then the Riemann sum will be a negative real number. The Riemann sum of the
function f(x) on [a, b] is expressed as
S∎=f ( x 1) x +f ( x2 ) x +f ( x3 ) x +…+ f ( x n) x
n
orS∎=∑ f ( x i ) x
i =1

A Riemann sum may, therefore, be through of a “sum of n products”

Example 1: Evaluate the Riemann sum for f ( x )=x 2 on [1,3] using the four subintervals of
equal length, where x, is the right endpoint in the/th subinterval (see Figure 1).
Figure 1. A Riemann sum with four subintervals.

Because the subintervals are to be of equal lengths, you find that

b−α
x¿
n
3−1
¿
4
1
¿
2

The Riemann sum for four subintervals is

n
S∎=∑ f ( x i ) x
i =1
¿ f ( x 1) x +f ( x2 ) x +f ( x3 ) x +f ( x 4) x
¿ [f ( x1 ) + f ( x 2) + f ( x 3 ) +f ( x 4 ) ] x
3 5 1
¿ f
[( )2
+ f (2)+ f ()2 ]+ f (3 ) ∙
2
9 25 1
[
¿ + 4+ +9 ∙
4 4 ] 2
86 1
¿ [ ]
4 2
∙
43
S∎=
4

If the number of subintervals is increased repeatedly, the effect would be that the length of
each subinterval would get smaller and smaller. This may be restarted as follows. If the
number of subintervals increases without bound (n →+∞ ¿ ,then the length of each
subinterval approaches zero
( x →+ ∞ ¿ .This limit of a Riemann sum, if it exists, is used to define the definite integral of
a function on [a, b]. If f(x) is defined on the closed interval [a, b] then the definite integral of
f(x) from a to b is defined as
b

∫ f ( x ) dx=S∎
a

n
¿ ∑ f ( x i ) dx
i=0
n
¿ ∑ f ( x i ) dx
i=0
PROBLEM 1:
 4

∫ √❑
1

PROBLEM 2:
2
x 3−2+4 x−2
∫ dx
1 x

2 2
x 3−2+4 x−2 2
∫
1 x
dx=∫ x 2−2 x+ 4− dx
1 x ( )
x3
¿
3(−x 2+ 4 x−2∈|x| ∨2 1 )
8 1
(
¿ −4+ 8−2∈2 −( −1+ 4−0)
3 3 )
10
¿ −2∈2
3
PROBLEM 3:
1
2

∫ √dx❑
0

PROBLEM 4:
2

∫ ( 3 x 2 +2 x +5 ) dx
0
2
3 x3 2 x2
(
0
2
∫ 3 x +2 x +5 dx = + +5 x ∨2 0
) [ 3 2 ]
¿ [ 23 +22+ 5.21 ] −[0]
¿ [8+ 4+10 ]
¿ 22

PROBLEM 5:
2

∫ (2 x 2 +1)dx
1
2
2 x3
∫ (2 x 2 +1)dx =
1
[ 3
+ x ∨21 ]
2.23 2. 13
¿ [3
+2 −
3
+1 ][ ]
2.8 2
¿ [
3
+ 2 − +1
3 ][ ]
16 2
¿ +2+ +1
3 3
 14 2 2
¿ + 3=4 +3=7
3 3 3

PROBLEM 6:
9
2 x2 + x 2 √❑
∫ ❑
1
9 2 2
∫ 2 x +❑x
√❑
1
3
x 2 x−1
¿ 2 x+ − ∨9 1
3 −1
2
3
2 1
¿ 2 x+ x 2 + ∨9 1
3 x
¿¿
1 2 4
¿ 18+18+ −2− −1=32
9 3 9

AREA OF A REGION BOUNED BY CURVES

The area under a curve between two points can be found by doing a definite integral
between the two points.
To find the area under the curve y = f(x) between x = a and x = b, integrate y = f(x) between
the limits of a and b.

In the first case we want to determine the area

between y=f(x)y=f(x) and y=g(x)y=g(x) on the interval [a,b][a,b]. We are also
going to assume that f(x)≥g(x)f(x)≥g(x). Take a look at the following sketch to
kget an idea of what we’re initially going to look at.
In the Area and Volume Formulas section of the Extras chapter we derived
the following formula for the area in this case.

The second case is almost identical to the first case. Here we are going to
determine the area between x=f(y)x=f(y) and x=g(y)x=g(y) on the interval [c,d]
[c,d] with f(y)≥g(y)f(y)≥g(y).

In this case the formula is,

Now (1)(1) and (2)(2) are perfectly serviceable formulas, however, it is

sometimes easy to forget that these always require the first function to be the
larger of the two functions. So, instead of these formulas we will instead use
the following “word” formulas to make sure that we remember that the area is
always the “larger” function minus the “smaller” function.

In the first case we will use,

In the second case we will use,

Examples:

1. Determine the area of the region enclosed by

First of all, just what do we mean by “area enclosed by”. This means
that the region we’re interested in must have one of the two curves on
every boundary of the region. So, here is a graph of the two functions
with the enclosed region shaded.

Note that we don’t take any part of the region to the right of the intersection
point of these two graphs. In this region there is no boundary on the right
side and so is not part of the enclosed area. Remember that one of the given
functions must be on the each boundary of the enclosed region.

Also, from this graph it’s clear that the upper function will be dependent on
the range of xx’s that we use. Because of this you should always sketch of a
graph of the region. Without a sketch it’s often easy to mistake which of the
two functions is the larger. In this case most would probably say
that y=x2y=x2 is the upper function and they would be right for the vast
majority of the xx’s. However, in this case it is the lower of the two functions.

The limits of integration for this will be the intersection points of the two
curves. In this case it’s pretty easy to see that they will intersect
at x=0x=0 and x=1x=1 so these are the limits of integration.

So, the integral that we’ll need to compute to find the area is,

2. Determine the area of the region bounded by

In this case the last two pieces of information, x=2x=2 and the yy-axis,

tell us the right and left boundaries of the region. Also, recall that
the yy-axis is given by the line x=0x=0. Here is the graph with the
enclosed region shaded in.
Here, unlike the first example, the two curves don’t meet. Instead we rely on
two vertical lines to bound the left and right sides of the region as we noted
above
Here is the integral that will give the area.

3. Determine the area of the region bounded by

In this case the intersection points (which we’ll need eventually) are not
going to be easily identified from the graph so let’s go ahead and get
them now. Note that for most of these problems you’ll not be able to
accurately identify the intersection points from the graph and so you’ll
need to be able to determine them by hand. In this case we can get the
intersection points by setting the two equations equal.
So, it looks like the two curves will intersect at x=−1 and x=3. If we need them
we can get the yy values corresponding to each of these by plugging the
values back into either of the equations. We’ll leave it to you to verify that the
coordinates of the two intersection points on the graph are (−1,12)and (3,28).

Note as well that if you aren’t good at graphing knowing the intersection
points can help in at least getting the graph started. Here is a graph of the
region.

With the graph we can now identify the upper and lower function and so we
can now find the enclosed area.
4. Determine the area of the region bounded by

So, the functions used in this problem are identical to the functions
from the first problem. The difference is that we’ve extended the
bounded region out from the intersection points. Since these are the
same functions we used in the previous example we won’t bother
finding the intersection points again.
Here is a graph of this region.
Okay, we have a small problem here. Our formula requires that one function
always be the upper function and the other function always be the lower
function and we clearly do not have that here. However, this actually isn’t the
problem that it might at first appear to be. There are three regions in which
one function is always the upper function and the other is always the lower
function. So, all that we need to do is find the area of each of the three
regions, which we can do, and then add them all up.
Here is the area.