FM Global

Property Loss Prevention Data Sheets 1-28

October 2015
Interim Revision February 2020
Page 1 of 100

WIND DESIGN
INSUREDS OF FM GLOBAL SHOULD CONTACT THEIR LOCAL FM GLOBAL OFFICE BEFORE BEGINNING
ANY ROOFING WORK.

Table of Contents
Page

1.0 SCOPE ..................................................................................................................................................... 5

1.1 Changes ............................................................................................................................................ 5
1.2 Hazard ............................................................................................................................................. 5
2.0 LOSS PREVENTION RECOMMENDATIONS ....................................................................................... 6
2.1 Design Wind Pressures .................................................................................................................... 6
2.2 Exterior Walls ................................................................................................................................... 8
2.3 Section Reserved for Future Use ..................................................................................................... 8
2.4 Opening Protectives in Exterior Walls ............................................................................................... 8
2.4.1 Exterior Doors ........................................................................................................................ 8
2.4.2 Windows in Exterior Walls ....................................................................................................... 9
2.4.3 Louvers in Exterior Walls ..................................................................................................... 10
2.6 Roof-Level Equipment and Surfacing .............................................................................................. 11
2.7 Wind Tunnel Tests ........................................................................................................................... 12
2.8 Use of the Eurocode ...................................................................................................................... 13
2.9 Emergency Power Systems ........................................................................................................... 13
2.10 Wind Emergency Procedures ........................................................................................................ 14
3.0 SUPPORT FOR RECOMMENDATIONS ............................................................................................... 14
3.1 Wind Forces ................................................................................................................................... 14
3.1.2 Design Wind Speeds ............................................................................................................. 15
3.1.3 Enhanced Designs for Regions Prone to Tropical Storms Including Hurricanes,
Typhoons and Cyclones ........................................................................................................ 15
3.2 Wind Pressure Determination .......................................................................................................... 16
3.2.1 Calculating Basic Wind Pressure ......................................................................................... 16
3.2.2 Wind Zones of Buildings ....................................................................................................... 17
3.2.3 Determining Surface Roughness Exposure .......................................................................... 25
3.2.4 Building Enclosure Classification .......................................................................................... 26
3.2.5 Topographic Factor (KZT) ..................................................................................................... 29
3.2.6 Velocity Pressure Coefficient (KZ) ........................................................................................ 29
3.2.7 Importance Factor ................................................................................................................. 29
3.3 Section Reserved for Future Use .................................................................................................... 29
3.4 Wind Design Pressures for Less-Common Roof Shapes ............................................................... 29
3.4.1 Steep-Slope, Mono-Slope, and Shed Roofs ........................................................................ 29
3.4.2 Steep-Slope Saw-Tooth Roofs ............................................................................................. 32
3.4.3 Arched Roofs ........................................................................................................................ 33
3.4.4 Domed Roofs ....................................................................................................................... 37
3.4.5 Steep-Slope Multi-Span Gabled Roofs ................................................................................ 37
3.4.6 Gabled Roofs with Slopes Greater than 45° ........................................................................ 38
3.5 Wind Ratings for FM Approved Roof and Wall Assemblies ............................................................ 40
3.5.1 FM Approved Roof Assemblies ............................................................................................. 40
3.5.2 FM Approved Exterior Wall Assemblies ................................................................................ 40
3.5.3 Windborne Debris Ratings .................................................................................................... 41
3.6 FM Approved Exterior Wall and Roof Hail Ratings ......................................................................... 41
3.7 Designing for Windborne Debris ..................................................................................................... 41
3.7.1 Designing for Small Windborne Debris ................................................................................. 41

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3.7.2 Design for Large Windborne Debris .................................................................................... 42

3.8 Roof-Mounted Equipment ................................................................................................................ 42
3.8.1 Anchorage of Roof-Mounted Equipment ............................................................................... 42
3.8.2 Design of HVACR Equipment Exposed to Wind ................................................................... 42
3.9 Wind Tunnel Tests ........................................................................................................................... 42
3.10 Eurocode ....................................................................................................................................... 43
4.0 REFERENCES ..................................................................................................................................... 43
4.1 FM Global ...................................................................................................................................... 43
4.2 Other ................................................................................................................................................ 43
4.3 Bibliography ..................................................................................................................................... 45
4.3.1 FM Global .............................................................................................................................. 45
4.3.2 Other ...................................................................................................................................... 45
APPENDIX A GLOSSARY OF TERMS ...................................................................................................... 45
APPENDIX B DOCUMENT REVISION HISTORY ..................................................................................... 47
APPENDIX C WIND SPEED MAPS AND TABLES ................................................................................... 49
C.1 Wind Speed .................................................................................................................................... 49
C.1.1 Regions Prone to Tropical Cyclones ................................................................................... 50
C.1.2 Wind Design for Australia and New Zealand ...................................................................... 63
APPENDIX D OPTIONAL GUIDANCE FOR TORNADO-RESISTANT DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION . 91
D.1 Scope .............................................................................................................................................. 91
D.1.2 Tornado Shelters .......................................................................................................................... 93
D.2 Recommendations .......................................................................................................................... 93
D.3 Support for Recommendations ....................................................................................................... 96
D.3.1 General Design Considerations ............................................................................................ 96
D.3.2 Building Envelope Concerns ................................................................................................ 96
D.4 References ...................................................................................................................................... 99

List of Figures
Fig. 2.4.1.2-1. Sectional dock door ................................................................................................................ 9
Fig. 2.6.1 Anchorage of roof-mounted equipment ....................................................................................... 12
Fig. 3.1 Section view, wind acting on a roof ............................................................................................... 14
Fig. 3.2.2a Roof zones for roof slopes ≤7° ................................................................................................. 18
Fig. 3.2.2d Roof Zones for Roof Slopes >7° ............................................................................................... 19
Fig. 3.2.2e. Wall zones for buildings ≤60 ft (18 m) high, or Buildings <90 ft (27 m) where h/w ≤ 1 ......... 20
Fig. 3.2.2f. Roof and wall zones for buildings ≥90 ft (27 m) high, or buildings >60 ft (18 m) where h/w > 1 . 22
Fig. 3.2.2b. Adjoining low-sloped roofs where height of building 2 is greater than or equal to 10 ft (3 m) higher
than Building 1 (NOTE: For roof slopes ≤7, Zone 3 is L-shaped.) ............................................................. 23
Fig. 3.2.2c. Adjoining low-sloped roofs where height of building 2 is less than 10 ft (3 m) higher than building
1 (NOTE: For roof slopes ≤7, Zone 3 is L-shaped.) ................................................................................... 24
Fig. 3.2.3.3 Exposure D requirements .......................................................................................................... 26
Flow Chart A. Enclosed building vs. partially enclosed building ................................................................. 28
Fig. 3.4.1a. Zone 2 and 3 dimensions for mono-slope or shed-type roofs with slopes of more than 3° but not
more than 10º (top: plan view; bottom: elevation view) ............................................................................... 30
Fig. 3.4.1b. Zone 2 and 3 dimensions for mono-slope or shed-type roofs with slopes of more than 10° but not
more than 30° (top: plan view; bottom: elevation view) .............................................................................. 31
Fig. 3.4.2a. Zone 2 and 3 dimensions for saw-tooth roofs with slopes of more than 10° ......................... 32
Fig. 3.4.2b. Elevation view for saw-tooth roofs with slopes of more than 10° ........................................... 33
Fig. 3.4.3a. Elevation view of arched roof showing two different types and springline slope (provided by
designer) ...................................................................................................................................................... 34
Fig. 3.4.3b. Elevation view of arched roof showing various wind zones (see Fig. 3.4.3c for a plan view) . 34
Fig. 3.4.3c. Plan view for arched roof example ........................................................................................... 36
Fig. 3.4.4a. Elevation view of a domed roof ................................................................................................ 37
Fig. 3.4.5a. Zone dimensions for steep-slope multi-span gabled roofs ...................................................... 38
Fig. 3.4.6a. Gabled roofs with slopes >45.° ................................................................................................ 39
Fig. 3.4.6b. Gabled roofs with slopes >45°. ................................................................................................ 39
Fig. 3.7.1. Exposure from small windborne debris ...................................................................................... 41
Fig. 1a. Circular cupola roof; Fig. 1b. Hip-shaped cupola roof .................................................................... 45
Fig. 2. Steep sloped mansard roof .............................................................................................................. 46

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Fig. 3 (Part 1).

Basic wind speeds: Western United States ....................................................................... 51
Fig. 3 (Part 2).
Basic wind speeds: Central and Eastern United States .................................................... 52
Fig. 3 (Part 3).
Basic wind speeds: Western Gulf of Mexico Coastline of United States .......................... 53
Fig. 3 (Part 4).
Basic wind speeds: Eastern Gulf of Mexico and Southern Atlantic Coastline
of United States .................................................................................................................. 54
Fig. 3 (Part 5). Basic wind speeds: Mid-Atlantic and Northern Atlantic Coastline of United States .......... 55
Fig. 4. Basic wind speeds: Alaska .............................................................................................................. 56
Fig. C-1a. 100-year MRI wind speeds for Oahu, HI, with topographic effects included ............................ 57
Fig. C-1b. 100-year MRI wind speeds for Kauai, HI, with topographic effects included ............................ 58
Fig. C-1c. 100-year MRI wind speeds for Hawaii, HI, with topographic effects included ........................... 59
Fig. C-1d. 100-year MRI wind speeds for Maui, HI, with topographic effects included ............................. 60
Fig. C-1e. 100-year MRI wind speeds for Molokai, HI, with topographic effects included ......................... 61
Fig. C-1f. 100-year MRI wind speeds for Lanai, HI, with topographic effects included ............................. 62
Fig. 5. Basic wind speeds: Australia, 3-sec gust in miles per hour ........................................................... 64
Fig. 6. Basic wind speeds: New Zealand, 3-sec gust in miles per hour .................................................... 65
Fig. 7 (Part 1). Basic wind speeds: Western Mexico, 3-sec gust in miles per hour .................................. 66
Fig. 7 (Part 2). Basic wind speeds: Eastern Mexico, 3-sec gust in miles per hour ................................... 67
Fig. 8 (Part 1). Basic wind speeds: Western China, 3-sec gust in miles per hour .................................... 68
Fig. 8 (Part 2). Basic wind speeds: Eastern China, 3-sec gust in miles per hour ..................................... 69
Fig. 8 (Part 3). Basic wind speeds for selected cities in China ................................................................. 70
Fig. 9. Basic wind speeds: Taiwan, 3-sec gust in miles per hour .............................................................. 71
Fig. 10. Basic wind speeds: Brazil, 3-sec gust in miles per hour (m/s) ...................................................... 72
Fig. 11. Basic Wind Speeds for Selected Cities: Canada, 3-sec gust in miles per hour (m/s) (8/2001) .... 73
Fig. 12. Basic wind speeds - Japan and South Korea, 3-sec gust in miles per hour ............................... 85
Fig. 13. Basic wind speeds - Philippines, 3-sec gust in miles per hour .................................................... 86
Fig. 14. Basic wind speeds - cyclone-prone exposures from the Indian Ocean, 3-sec gust in
miles per hour ................................................................................................................................ 87
Fig. 15. Recommended basic wind speeds - India, in m/s (mph) .............................................................. 88
Fig. 16. Basic wind speeds - Indonesia, 3-sec gust in m/s (mph) ............................................................. 89
Fig. 17. Basic wind speeds in miles per hour for Europe. Annual extreme-mile 30 ft (9 m)
above-ground, 100-year mean recurrence interval. ...................................................................... 90
Fig. D-1. Average annual tornado counts per state and per 10,000 square miles between 1991 and 2010 . 92
Fig. D-2. Areas covered by Tornado Alley (shown in red) and Dixie Alley (shown in green) ..................... 93
Fig. D-3. Recommended Property Protection Tornado Wind Speed Zones for the Mainland USA
Based on a 10-4 Probability or 10,000-Year Mean Recurrence Interval (MRI) .............................. 95

List of Tables
Table 3.1.3.1 Optional Building Wind Design - Enhanced Design I and II ................................................. 16
Table 3.1.3.2 Wind Speeds Associated with Various Hurricane Categories as Used by the U.S.
National Weather Service ....................................................................................................... 16
Table 3.2.2a. GCp for Roof Slopes ≤7°* ....................................................................................................... 18
Table 3.2.2b. GCp for Roof Slopes >7°, ≤ 20° ............................................................................................. 19
Table 3.2.2c. GCp for Roof Slopes >20°, ≤27° ............................................................................................. 19
Table 3.2.2d. GCp for Roof Slopes >27°, ≤45° ............................................................................................. 19
Table 3.2.2e. Values of GCP for Wall Zones 4 and 5 ................................................................................... 21
Table 3.2.2f. Values of GCP for Roofs (Θ ≤ 7°) on Tall Buildings ................................................................ 21
Table 3.2.2g. Velocity Pressure Coefficient, KZ ............................................................................................ 21
Table 3.2.2h. Ground Elevation Factor (KE) ................................................................................................. 22
Table 3.2.2i. Summary for Example 3.2.2 .................................................................................................... 25
Table 3.4.1a. External Pressure Coefficients (GCp) for Mono-Slope Roofs with Slopes of More
Than 3º but Not More Than 10º ............................................................................................. 29
Table 3.4.2a. External Pressure Coefficients (GCp) for Saw-Tooth Roofs with Slopes of More Than 10° . 32
Table 3.4.3a. External Pressure Coefficients (GCp) for Arched Roofs ......................................................... 33
Table 3.4.3b. Arched Roof Example: Pressure Coefficients and Design Pressures .................................. 37
Table 3.4.5a. External Pressure Coefficients for Steep-Slope, Multi-Gable Roofs ...................................... 38
Table 3.5.2.2 Wind Categories and Ratings for FM Approved Wall Assemblies ......................................... 40
Table AC1.1. Design Wind Speeds for US Territories .................................................................................. 50
Table AC1.1.1. Design Wind Speeds for Australian and Pacific Islands ..................................................... 63

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Table AC1.2. Location and Size of New Zealand Lee Zones ...................................................................... 63
Table AC1.3. Wind Speed Conversions ....................................................................................................... 73
Table AC1.4. Basic Wind Speed for Selected Countries and Cities ........................................................... 73
Table AC1.5. Design Wind Speeds for Vietnam ........................................................................................... 73
Table D-1. Potential Damage and Wind Speeds Corresponding to the Enhanced Fujita Scale ................. 91
Table D-2. Tornado Frequency Based on Enhanced Fujita Scale ............................................................... 93
Table D-3. Test Criteria for Large Windborne Debris Tests .......................................................................... 96
Table D-4. Values of KZ for Exposure C* Tornado Design for Buildings Up To 200 ft (61 m) High ............ 98
Table D-5. Values of External Pressure Coefficient (GCP) for Low-Slope (Θ ≤ 7°) Gabled
Roofs ≤ 60 ft (18 m) High ........................................................................................................... 98
Table D-6. Summary for Example D-1 .......................................................................................................... 99

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1.0 SCOPE
This data sheet provides general guidance to building designers regarding wind considerations with regard
to property protection at highly protected buildings. This includes recommended wind pressures for common
building shapes for the following:
A. Building components and cladding (e.g., roofs and walls), and the securement to their immediate
supports. The design of the supports themselves, such as girts, studs, mullions (unless part of a tested
window assembly), joists, purlins and their primary supports, are not included.
B. Opening protection (doors, windows, skylights, etc.).
C. Wind forces for anchorage of roof-mounted equipment (for equipment other than roof-mounted solar
panels). For securement of roof-mounted solar panels, see DS 1-15..
For main wind force-resisting systems (MWFRS) and other structures, such as chimneys, tanks, signs, and
open frameworks, refer to the American Society of Civil Engineers (ASCE) standard ASCE 7, Minimum
Design Loads for Buildings and Other Structures (2005, 2010, or 2016 as required by local code), or other
local code.
Optional guidance for tornado-resistant design can be found in Appendix D.
Open buildings are not covered by this data sheet. However, a conservative approach for these roof pressures
can be achieved by following the guidelines in this data sheet for enclosed buildings.
Only enclosed buildings are recommended for new construction; however, guidance is also provided for
partially enclosed buildings because they may be encountered during renovations of existing structures.
Guidance in determining proper construction to resist the recommended loads in this document is included
in other documents listed in Section 4.0.
Guidance related to other types of loads; such as snow, ice and rain,can be found in Data Sheet 1-54.

1.1 Changes
February 2020. Interim revision. Significant changes include the following:
A. Revised design wind guidance to reflect changes in pressure coefficients and zone dimensions in ASCE
7-16. In some cases, roof wind pressures have increased considerably based on an updated review of
boundary layer wind tunnel (BLWT) test data. This document uses allowable strength design (ASD) for wind
design guidance. More specific changes are noted below.
B. The basic design wind speed maps for the continental United States and Alaska remain unchanged.
They are still based on ASCE 7-05. Optional design wind guidance for tornadoes is contained in Appendix
D.
Instead of using wind isolines subject to interpolation, wind zones (polygons) are provided. For locations
that fall anywhere within a given zone, the wind speed for that zone should be used without interpolation.
C. A separate 100-year MRI wind map is provided for each of the islands of Hawaii, instead of using one
wind speed for all the islands. Also, because of the steep terrain on much of the islands, wind speeds
on the map increase with elevation to reflect the topographic effect. So a determination of KZT, which can
be somewhat complicated, is not needed for Hawaii (assume 1.0).
D. Deleted wind pressure tables for walls and roofs. Roof pressures can be determined using Ratings
Calculator in RoofNav. Also, pressure equations with various pressure coefficients are provided in Section
3.0 of this document.
E. Incorporated relevant content from DS 1-28R/1-29R into this document (DS 1-28) or DS 1-29. DS
1-28R/1-29R has been made obsolete.

1.2 Hazard
Buildings are constructed with the purpose of protecting their contents from the elements. The goal of this
data sheet is to prevent any breach of the building envelope that could let rain, wind-driven rain, or debris
enter. The envelope can be breached for many reasons, including the following:

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• Windows, doors, and lightweight wall cladding can be broken by windborne debris, such as tree branches,
parts of wood-framed structures, and roof tiles or gravel from nearby roofs.
• Windows and doors and lightweight wall cladding can be blown in or out by the pressures exerted on the
building.
• Roofing and roof deck materials can be torn and/or peeled off structures.
• Inadequately secured roof-mounted equipment can be blown out of place, damaging the roof cover.
The total wind load (exterior and interior) acts on components and cladding, creating load paths through
the various components and back to the supporting members (beams, joists, purlins, girts, studs, etc.). The
ability of the components and cladding to resist this wind load is based on the “weakest link” in this load
path. Determining the proper design load is critical before the process of selecting an adequate roof assembly,
doors, window protection, wall cladding, etc.
Several factors need to be considered, including the following:
A. Water infiltration into the building can and often does affect production operations negatively. Operations
downtime results in loss of business revenue and adds to the total loss. Other facilities that depend on
product flow from an affected facility may also suffer business interruption.
B. Failure of a roof system (or portion of a roof system) from wind uplift forces eliminates the remainder
of its expected life span and necessitates immediate repairs and/or replacement.
C. Wind events that can cause roof or wall failure are typically concurrent with rainfall, which can cause
extensive water damage to the building and contents. If rainfall does not occur during the failure, the
possibility of such damage remains until the roof system is repaired or replaced.
D. It is more economical (over the expected life span of a roof system) to construct a roof and wall cladding
system that will withstand anticipated wind forces than to build something less expensive that may require
future repair or replacement of building components and contents.

2.0 LOSS PREVENTION RECOMMENDATIONS

2.1 Design Wind Pressures

Ratings Calculator in RoofNav calculates the roof wind pressures and the corresponding roof uplift ratings
needed for various roof zones for the following conditions:
A. Gabled roofs for roof slopes up to 22.6° (5 per 12)
B. Other common roof shapes (as described in Section 3.2)
Ratings Calculator assumes a directionality factor (KD) = 0.85, which is appropriate for most building shapes
(for exceptions see Section 2.1.8), and an elevation factor (Ke) of 1.0.
When using Ratings Calculator, ensure the proper variables are input as described below including; the design
wind speed (see Appendix C), surface roughness exposure (see Section 2.1.2 and Section 3.0), and potential
exposure to windborne debris (see Section 2.4). For additional guidance regarding input required for internal
and external fire ratings, see DS 1-29. For additional guidance regarding input required for hail ratings, see
DS 1-34.
2.1.1 Select the design wind speed from the respective map or table in Appendix C. This wind speed is a
3-second gust wind speed representative of an open terrain (Surface Roughness Exposure C, see Section
3.2.2) at an elevation of 33 ft (10 m). Factors within this document are applied to adjust for other building
heights and terrains.
For enhanced design for locations in regions that are prone to tropical cyclones (see Appendix A) including
hurricanes, typhoons, and cyclones, consider guidance in 3.1.3 and Tables 3.1.3.1 and 3.1.3.2, before
selecting the design wind speed.
For locations where the building owner or occupant is concerned about potential tornado exposure,
see Appendix D for optional guidance.
2.1.2 Determine the Surface Roughness Exposure using guidance in Section 3.2.3.
2.1.3 Determine the roof height as follows:

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FM Global Property Loss Prevention Data Sheets Page 7

A. Use the eave height for roof slopes ≤ 10°.

B. Use the mean roof height for roof slopes >10°.
C. Use guidance in Section 3.4 for less common roof shapes.
2.1.4 Design new buildings in their entirety to be enclosed. For existing buildings where cladding is to be
replaced, determine the enclosure classification as either “enclosed,” “partially enclosed,” or “open” using
guidance in Section 3.2.3.
For new construction, before the roof assembly is designed, the building designer should verify that:
A. All walls are adequate for the design wind pressure (see 2.2, 3.2 and 3.5), and
B. All wall opening protectives (e.g., dock and personnel doors, windows, louvers) are adequate for the
design wind pressures and windborne debris, if applicable (see Section 2.4), and
C. Openings in exterior walls are limited, protected or distributed such that the criteria in 3.2.4 is met for
an enclosed building.
2.1.5 Use a topographic factor (KZT) of 1.0 for ground slopes < 10% (6°). For steeper ground slopes, refer
to DS 1-8. For locations in Hawaii, a topographic factor of 1.0 may be assumed for all installations as this is
already considered in the Hawaii wind speed maps in this document. This exception applies only to Hawaii
wind maps in this document. For other locations, a KZT greater than 1.0 may be required.
2.1.6 As an alternative to using Ratings Calculator, the ultimate pressure ratings for walls and roofs can be
calculated using guidance in Section 3.2.
The pressure coefficients in Table 3.2.2a for low-slope (≤7º), gabled roofs should also be used for mono-slope
roofs, with slopes ≤3º and saw-tooth roofs with slopes ≤10º.
NOTE: The pressure coefficients in Section 3.2 are intended for the design of components and cladding
such as roof decks and their securement, above-deck roof components and wall panels, and assume an
effective wind area (EWA) of ≤10 ft2 (1 m2).
For roof joists or purlins, or wall studs or girts, these design pressures may be reduced to account for their
larger EWAs and lower wind pressure coefficients in accordance with ASCE 7 or similar standard outside
the U.S. The primary building framing or MWFRS (main wind force resisting system) may be designed to
ASCE 7 or other locally accepted code outside of the United States.
2.1.7 Use guidance in ASCE 7 or Section 3.4 to determine the design wind pressure for the following roofs:
A. Multi-gable roofs with slopes greater than 10°
B. Mono-slope roofs with slopes greater than 3°
C. Saw-tooth roofs with slopes greater than 10°
D. Arched roofs
2.1.8 Use a minimum directionality factor (KD) of 0.85 for most commonly shaped buildings.
For circular domes and octagonal buildings, the building designer should use a minimum directionality factor
(KD) = 1.0 and calculate wind design pressures using wind speeds from this document and pressure
coefficients from ASCE 7.
2.1.9 For roofs sloped greater than 45°(see Figures 3.4.6 A and B), including but not limited to mansard roofs
(see Figure A2), use wind design pressures for the walls and roof as follows:
A. Use the external pressure coefficients for wall Zones 4 and 5 per Table 3.2.2e or Table 3.2.2f.
B. Use the peak roof height to determine qz.
2.1.10 Use wind design pressures for circular cupola roofs (see Figures A1a. and A1b) based on wall Zone
4 per Table 3.2.2e or Table 3.2.2f. For other cupola roof shapes, such as hip-shaped, treat as a gabled roof.
2.1.11 For roof overhangs, do the following:
A. Design roof decks and above-deck components using ordinary roof design criteria.
B. Design soffits beneath the overhang using positive pressure criteria for walls.

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C. Design the ends of the joists or purlins supporting the overhang for the combined loads per A and B,
acting upward.
2.1.12 Multiply the wind pressure by an importance factor (I) of 1.15.
2.1.13 Multiply the design or allowable strength wind pressure by a safety factor of 2.0 to obtain the minimum
ultimate wind rating for the assembly, except where noted with regard to use of the Eurocode. The intent
is not to apply a safety factor of 2.0 to an ultimate wind pressure.

2.2 Exterior Walls

2.2.1 Design wall panels for wind pressures in accordance with section 3.0. Pressure coefficients used in
this data sheet assume an effective wind area (EWA) of 10 ft2 (1 m2). Pressure coefficients may be reduced
in accordance with ASCE 7-16, if a larger EWA can be substantiated.
2.2.2 When using panel walls, select FM Approved exterior wall panels listed in the Approval Guide for natural
hazards exposure (FM 4881), where available. Select panels with wind pressure ratings that meet or exceed
that needed based on Section 3.5, including a minimum safety factor of 2.0 and importance factor of 1.15
times the design wind pressures in accordance with this document. Refer to Sections 3.5.3, Windborne Debris
Rating to identify the needed natural hazard ratings (NTC,TC, and TCM) and D.S. 1-34 for FM Approved
Exterior Wall and Roof Hail Ratings.
In regions subject to windborne debris, provide panels that are also resistant to windborne debris.

2.3 Section Reserved for Future Use

2.4 Opening Protectives in Exterior Walls

2.4.1 Exterior Doors

2.4.1.1 Use Zone 4 or 5 wall pressures for exterior personnel doors and their hardware as recommended
in this document, depending on the door location, using effective wind areas (EWA)as follows:
A. For walls ≤ 60 ft (18 m) high, use an EWAs = 10 ft2 (1 m2), or
B. For walls > 60 ft (18 m) high, use an EWA = 20 ft2 (2 m2).
Reductions for larger dock doors (not hardware) with larger EWA may be used as outlined in 2.4.1.2.
2.4.1.2 Use design pressures for dock doors based on the following:
A. For rolling steel dock doors, use a maximum EWA equal to the door width (up to a maximum of 20 ft
[6.1 m]), times the door height (up to a maximum of 10 ft [3.05 m]). For larger doors, use ASCE 7.
B. For sectional dock doors (see Figure 2.4.1.2-1), use a maximum EWA = the door span (l) times the
width of an individual door panel (w). For example, if the door has a span (l) of 8 ft (2.4 m), and the individual
door panels have a width (w) of 2 ft (0.6 m), use an EWA = 16 ft2 (1.8 m2) for new construction.
EXCEPTION: If the door was satisfactorily tested as outlined in 2.4.1.3, the EWA may be based on
guidance in 2.4.1.2A.

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Fig. 2.4.1.2-1. Sectional dock door

2.4.1.3 Ensure sectional or rolling dock doors to be used in the following locations have been cycle pressure
tested in accordance with the Florida Building Code Testing Application Standards (TAS) 201 and 203, ASTM
standards E1886 and E1996, or ANSI/DASMA 115 where the design wind speed is at least 100 mph (45
m/s).
In addition conduct impact testing for the following locations:
• Where the design wind speed is at least 110 mph (49 m/s) within one mile of the coast
• Where the design wind speed is at least 120 mph (54 m/s)
2.4.1.4 For locations not in tropical cyclone-prone regions, use dock doors that have either met the above
criteria or passed uniform pressure tests using TAS 202, ASTM E330, ANSI/DASMA 108, or equivalent local
test standard, if available.
2.4.1.5 Do not use sliding exterior doors in tropical cyclone-prone locations unless they have been
satisfactorily tested for wind-driven rain in accordance with Section 2.4.2.4. Install sliding door latch
mechanisms to release in an upward direction. Latches that release in a downward direction are prone to
self-release from severe door vibrations during high wind pressure cyclic loading.
2.4.1.6 If existing dock doors are replaced with wind-rated doors, have the securement to and strength of
the existing building framework analyzed by a licensed professional engineer practicing structural engineering
(P.E. or S.E.), and have reinforcement provided as needed. If the original door was not properly wind rated,
it is possible the framework it was secured to was not appropriate either.

2.4.2 Windows in Exterior Walls

2.4.2.1 Use ASTM E 1300 (or other comparable code or standard outside the United States) to ensure glass
and glazing are resistant to the recommended allowable wind design pressures per this document. NOTE:
This standard cannot analyze the effects of windborne debris, which must be determined by test as noted in
Section 2.4.2.3.
2.4.2.2 Determine ultimate wind design pressures for windows based on the following:

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A. For windows supported on only two opposite sides, determine the pressure based on an EWA = the
window span between supports times the lesser of (a) the window width, or (b) 1/3 times the window span.
For example, if a 3 ft (0.9 m) wide window spans 6 ft (1.8 m) to supports at its top and bottom, the EWA
= 6 ft (1.8 m) times 2 ft (0.6 m) = 12 ft2 (1.1 m2).
B. For windows supported on all four sides determine the pressure based on an EWA = the total window
area.
NOTE: ASTM E1300 determines the allowable wind pressure (AWP)for the glass, not the ultimate
wind pressure (UWP). Aluminum mullions may be designed in accordance with Aluminum Design
Manual (see Section 4.2), which requires a safety factor of 1.65 based on yield stress.
2.4.2.3 In the following locations, protect glazed openings exposed to potential windborne debris (small or
large) with impact-resistant glazing system that has been satisfactorily tested per Florida Building Code
Testing Application Standards (TAS) 201, 202, and 203, or ASTM standards E1886 and E1996 (for additional
information, see Section 3.7).
A. For new installations in locations prone to tropical storms and where the design wind speed is ≥100
mph (45 m/s) on the wind maps or tables in Appendix C, and window openings are exposed to small
windborne debris (such as roof aggregate including pea gravel or larger stone ballast), ensure the height
of protection is in accordance with Section 3.7.
B. For new installations at locations prone to tropical storms where the design wind speed is ≥110 mph
(49 m/s) on the wind maps or tables in Appendix C, and within 1 mile (1.6 km) from the coast or anywhere
where the design wind speed is ≥120 mph (54 m/s) on the wind maps or tables in Appendix C, perform
testing for large windborne debris:
1. within 30 ft (9.1 m) above grade, or
2. within 30 ft (9.1 m) above inadequately secured roofing materials or roof-mounted equipment on
buildings within 100 ft (30 m) horizontally.
For more information, see the definitions of “small windborne debris” and “large windborne debris”
in Appendix A.
Regardless of what design level is chosen for enhanced designs, use the guidance immediately above
to determine the need for opening protection.
2.4.2.4 Use windows and related sealing systems for windows and wall penetrating air-conditioning units
that meet the following criteria:
A. For non-tropical cyclone-prone regions, use systems that have been tested in accordance with ASTM
E331 or ASTM E2268 (or other comparable test standard outside the United States).
B. For tropical cyclone-prone regions (A, B, and C), use systems that have been tested using the ASTM
E2268 method, but using pressure levels in accordance with AAMA 520-12, where available. The pressure
level listed in AAMA 520-12 to which the system should be tested is at least 85% of the allowable windward
wall pressure, but need not exceed 42 psf (2.01 kPa). Also see Section 4.2, ASCE Pre-Standard for
Performance-Based Wind Design.

2.4.3 Louvers in Exterior Walls

2.4.3.1 For exterior walls in locations in Tropical Cyclone Region A (based on applicable wind maps or tables
in Appendix C)), use louvers tested to resist wind-driven rain in accordance with ANSI/AMCA 550-15 at the
needed wind pressures based on this document.
2.4.3.2 In locations in Tropical Cyclone Region B (based on the applicable wind maps or tables in Appendix
C) and within 1 mile of the coast; or in Tropical Cyclone Region C (based on the applicable wind maps or
tables in Appendix C) where louvers are within 30 ft (9.1 m) above grade or within 30 ft (9.1 m) above
inadequately secured roofing materials or roof-mounted equipment on buildings within 100 ft (30 m)
horizontally, use louvers tested to resist large windborne debris in accordance with AMCA 540-13 or FBC
PA 201; and cyclic pressure tested in accordance with FBC PA 203.
2.5 Width of Various Roof and Wall Corner Zones

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2.5.1 Determine the plan dimensions for all of the roof and wall zones in accordance with Section 3.2. In
addition, do the following:
A. Use Zone 3 for roof corners where the interior angle between exterior walls is <135º, such as for a
pentagonal or hexagonal shaped building.
B. Use Zone 2 for roof corners where the interior angle between exterior walls is ≥135º, such as for an
octagonal shaped building.
C. Use Zone 2 pressures for gabled roofs that would otherwise be in Zone 3, only if a minimum 3 ft (0.3
m) high parapet is provided throughout the entire perimeter of the roof. Partial parapets, such as those
located at the corner areas only or those that are lower than 3 ft (0.3 m) in portions of the roof, do not qualify
for this reduction.
D. Where roof elevation differences exist between abutting roofs, see Figures 3.2.2b and 3.2.2c.

2.6 Roof-Level Equipment and Surfacing

2.6.1 Have a licensed professional engineer practicing structural engineering (P.E. or S.E.) design anchorage
and resistance to overturning for large roof-mounted equipment (e.g., HVAC unit) to withstand the wind
speeds according to this data sheet acting on all exposed surfaces using the following equations for horizontal
and vertical forces:
A. Horizontal forces: FH = qH(GCr)Af (lb, N)
Where:
FH = lateral force (lb, N) on rooftop structures and equipment located on buildings of any height and
acting at the centroid of the equipment.
qH = velocity pressure evaluated at mean roof height of the building per Equation 3.2.1a, psf (N/m2).
See Section 3.2.1.
(GCr) = 1.9 for rooftop structures and equipment with Af < (0.1BH) for rooftop equipment Otherwise,
GCr may be reduced linearly from 1.9 to 1.0 as the value of Af is increased from (0.1 BH) to (BH).
B = width of the building (in the direction perpendicular to the wind direction) that equipment is on, ft
or m.
H = height of the building roof, ft or m.
Af = vertical projected area (wall area) of the rooftop structure or equipment on a plane normal to the
wind direction, ft2 (m2).
B. Vertical forces: FV = qH(GCr)Ar (lb, N)
Where:
FV = vertical uplift force on rooftop structures and equipment, lb (N).
qH = velocity pressure evaluated at mean roof height of the building per Equation 3.2.1a, psf (N/m2),
see section 3.2.1.
(GCr) = 1.5 for rooftop structures and equipment that are mounted flush with the roof surface, and
0.8 for equipment elevated above the roof between 0.5 and 1.5 times the height of the equipment with
Ar < (0.1BL). GCr may be reduced linearly from 1.5 to 1.0 as the value of Ar is increased from (0.1BL)
to (BL).
Ar = horizontal projected area (roof area) of the rooftop structure or equipment, ft2 (m2).
L = horizontal dimension of the building measured parallel to the wind direction, ft, m.
Exception for elevated equipment meeting the following criteria:
When 0.5S ≤ X ≤1.5S, use GCr = 0.8
Where:
X = the height of a clear opening between the top of the roof and the underside of the equipment (ft, m).

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S = the height of the equipment as measured from the bottom face of the equipment to the top face of
the equipment (ft, m).
Ar = horizontal projected area (roof area) of the rooftop structure or equipment, ft2 (m2).
L = horizontal dimension of the building measured parallel to the wind direction, ft, m.

Roof mounted
equipment

Roof

Fig. 2.6.1 Anchorage of roof-mounted equipment

2.6.2 Do not use gravel surfacing of any type on installations in Tropical Cyclone Regions A, B, or C (see
Appendix A and the coastal portions of relevant wind maps in Appendix C) or where prohibited by Data Sheet
1-29. Use FM Approved roof covers that do not require gravel in these areas.
2.6.3 Use FM Approved skylights (see the Approval Guide). FM Approved skylights are rated in a similar
manner as FM Approved roof systems. Ensure the rating of the skylight matches the rating required for the
specific zone of the roof in which it will be installed. Do not install skylights where the uplift resistance of
the skylight is less than the needed uplift pressure of the roof. Also, select FM Approved skylights that are
rated for the needed hail exposure in accordance with Data Sheet 1-34.
2.6.4 For all new installations of piping and conduit located on top of a roof, have a licensed professional
engineer practicing structural engineering (P.E. or S.E.) verify that adequate securement to the roof deck or
framing is provided for wind resistance.
2.6.5 Secure appurtenances for roof-mounted equipment (e.g., intake and exhaust hoods, cowlings) in
accordance with US Federal Emergency Management Association guidance (FEMA 549). For additional
information, follow the link below or see Section 4.2:
https://www.fema.gov/
2.6.6 When maintenance is provided on roof-mounted equipment that requires removal of components, such
as hoods and related fasteners, install all fasteners that were provided in the original installation after the
work has been completed.

2.7 Wind Tunnel Tests

2.7.1 Use wind design pressures or pressure coefficients for tall (over 656 ft [200 m]) or unusually shaped
buildings (those not covered in this document, ASCE 7, the Eurocode, or other local code or standard) based
on atmospheric Boundary Layer Wind Tunnel (BLWT) tests in accordance with ASCE 49 or other similar
local standard. Use other related design assumptions in this document. Aerospace wind tunnels should not
be used. Design pressures based on BLWT tests should not be reduced below the following percentage
of prescriptive pressures:
A. The design pressure for all roof zones should be at least 80% of the Zone 1 prescriptive required
pressure using pressure coefficients and wind speeds from this document.

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B. The design pressure for all wall zones should be at least 80% of the Zone 4 prescriptive required
pressure using pressure coefficients and wind speeds from this document.
Where specific criteria in ASCE 7 has been met, the 80% minimum in A and B may be reduced to 65%.
Existing tests based on ASCE 7 may also be accepted.

2.8 Use of the Eurocode

Locations within European Committee for Standardization (CEN) member nations that have adopted and
follow the Eurocode as their national standard may use Eurocode 1, Actions on Structures, Parts 1-4: General
Actions-Wind Actions, in lieu of this data sheet to determine wind loads, with the following exceptions:
2.8.1 Do not use Eurocode Terrain IV. Conduct atmospheric boundary layer wind tunnel tests (BLWT) for
tall buildings (>200 m, 656 ft high) in urban areas of Europe, or for buildings with irregular shapes.
For buildings less than 200 m or 656 ft high, use either a prescriptive design using whatever terrain (other
than Eurocode Terrain IV) is appropriate, or wind tunnel modeling.
2.8.2 Use the external pressure coefficients for 1 m2 (10 ft2) for components and cladding (cPE, 1).
2.8.3 Do not use a 10-minute mean wind speed of less than 22.5 m/s (50 mph), when using the EuroCode.
Use an actual design wind speed reflecting a 10 minute mean wind speed, effective at 10 m (33 ft) in height,
in open terrain with a minimum mean recurrence interval (MRI) of 50 years. The source for this information
can be one of the following:
A. The Annex to the Eurocode for the country in question, if it is available, or
B. The wind map for Europe in this document represents fastest mile wind speeds as adjusted to a
10-minute mean wind speed using Table AC1.3.
2.8.4 Use a minimum resultant safety factor (or net load factor, ultimate resistance divided by the design
pressure) of 2.0 for the securement of the deck and above-deck roof components. Use a minimum safety
factor or net load factor of 2.0 for failure modes related to the securement of metal wall panels.
2.8.5 One of the following may be done to account for the higher wind pressures in the perimeter and corner
areas:
A. Use wind design pressures for the field, perimeter and corner areas based on the Eurocode, or
B. Use wind design pressures for the field-of-roof as determined by the Eurocode and provide prescriptive
enhancements for the securement of above-deck roof components and metal deck securement for the
perimeter and corner areas per DS 1-29 or DS 1-31.
2.8.6 Do not credit parapets for reducing roof design uplift pressures unless the parapet height (hP) is at
least 3 ft (0.9 m). In addition, use design pressures based on the Eurocode that are at least equal to that
required for an hP/h ratio of 0.025, regardless of the actual ratio.
2.8.7 Use Figure 30.3-7 of ASCE 7-16 for external pressure coefficients (GCP) for domed roofs with an EWA
of 10 ft2 or 1 m2 (CPE,1).
2.8.8 Design all structural framing, including beams, columns, trusses, purlins, and girts, using load factors
and capacity-reduction factors specified in the Eurocode.
2.8.9 Use Eurocode factors that are modified by National Annexes only if they make the design more
conservative.

2.9 Emergency Power Systems

2.9.1 Provide emergency power systems and fuel supplies in tropical cyclone-prone areas adequate to fully
power both of the following:
A. All equipment required for refrigeration or climate control of valuable perishable items, and
B. All equipment important for vital operations.
For details regarding the design and installation of generators and fuel supplies, see DS 5-23.

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2.9.2 Design the equipment or structures housing emergency power systems to resist wind pressures in
accordance with this document.
2.9.3 Ensure emergency power systems can provide service for the extent of the power loss. Size diesel
fuel tanks assuming one pint per horsepower (1/3 L per kW) per hour of expected operation.
2.9.4 Follow guidance in Data Sheet 5-23 with regard to the following:
A. The operation and protection of emergency power systems
B. The arrangement and protection of fuel supplies feeding emergency power systems
2.9.5 Provide protection and fire separation for equipment and fuel supplies in accordance with DS 7-88,
Ignitable Liquid Storage Tanks.

2.10 Wind Emergency Procedures

2.10.1 Develop a wind emergency response plan (WERP) in accordance with DS 10-2.

3.0 SUPPORT FOR RECOMMENDATIONS

3.1 Wind Forces

The wind uplift forces on roofs and walls vary, depending on many factors, including wind speed, building
geometry, surrounding ground terrain, topographic effects and enclosure classification. These factors are
considered in this document.
When the wind strikes a building, the resultant uplift force acting on the roof system is the sum of the negative
pressure above the roof and the positive internal building pressure (Figure 3.1). For buildings with large or
inadequately protected openings, the internal pressure is considerably higher. For a given building and wind
speed, the internal pressure is considered constant across the entire roof. External pressure components
vary significantly for different areas of the roof or wall.

Fig. 3.1 Section view, wind acting on a roof

The wind exerts varying negative (suction) forces on different areas of the roof (Figures 3.2.2a through f).
For simplicity, the roof can be divided into three areas: corners, perimeter, and roof field. The perimeter and
corners are exposed to higher uplift forces than the roof field. The maximum uplift force occurs at the corners
when the wind blows at an angle of about 45° to the roof. The maximum uplift force at the windward roof
perimeter occurs when the wind blows at 90° to the perimeter. Actual pressure coefficients for the corners
and perimeter vary depending opening protection and building geometry. The reason for the higher forces in
these areas is the wind speed increases at the building edge as the wind flows over the structure.

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To compensate for the increased pressures at the roof corners and perimeter, additional roof component
fastening over the FM Approval requirements is recommended in these areas.
Wind can damage roofs in a number of ways. Types of damage include the following:
• perimeter flashing removed or loosened
• roof covering and/or insulation removed
• roof covering and/or insulation lifted and dropped back into place
• structural roof deck panels dislodged or lifted
• roof covering damaged by impact from wind blown objects
• dislodged roof protrusions, such as vents, skylights and pipes
• roof deck delamination within itself such as can occur with improperly installed lightweight insulating
concrete.
Uplift damage to the roof deck usually results in significant additional damage to above-deck components.
This damage can spread a considerable distance beyond the damaged deck even if the above-deck
components are properly secured. After a small area of deck becomes dislodged, wind can act on the loose
edges of the roof cover and insulation. The wind can then peel the cover from the deck.
Other damage that can result are windows, doors, wall cladding blown in or out, and windows broken from
windborne debris. When wall openings exist or are created during the windstorm, higher internal building
pressures can result. Rain infiltration into the building also occurs. Any or all of these kinds of damage can
occur in one windstorm. Even if windows remain intact, wind-driven rain around windows can cause
extensive damage to the building’s interior and contents. This is particularly true with sliding patio doors found
in hotels, apartments, and condominiums.
Damage to the structural frame of a building seldom occurs during a windstorm. Yet, a very small breach
in the building envelope can destroy a large area of the interior. For this reason, keeping the building
envelopesealed is one of the most effective ways of preventing windstorm damage to a facility.

3.1.2 Design Wind Speeds

The design wind speed used should be based on the greater of that from the applicable wind map or table
in Appendix C, or selected from Section 3.1.3 considering Table 3.1.3.1 or Table 3.1.3.2. When using the
wind maps, use the exact wind speed for the band within which the building is located; do not interpolate.
The use of safety factors and importance factors helps account for the following:
• Actual wind speeds in excess of the design wind speeds
• Design errors
• Defects in material or workmanship
• Adverse effects due to aging of cladding materials
The basic wind speed has been increased over neighboring regions by approximately 10% (4.5 m/s) in areas
exposed to extreme local winds. In the United States and Canada this would include such effects as the
Santa Ana, Chinook, Columbia River Gorge, and Wasatch Mountain winds. Applicable areas include the
Special Wind Regions shown on some of the wind speed maps. Where local jurisdictions require higher design
wind speeds, use those. Make appropriate increases for other areas exposed by high local winds if justified
by local records.

3.1.3 Enhanced Designs for Regions Prone to Tropical Storms Including Hurricanes, Typhoons and
Cyclones
Select a building design level in Table 3.1.3.1 that reflects the importance of the building. Consider the value
of the building and its contents and the value of preventing an interruption to activities inside the building.
Consider using an Enhanced Design I or II for buildings in hurricane, tropical cyclone or typhoon-prone
regions. These designs can greatly reduce damage allowing earlier resumption of operations, often as soon
as employees return and utilities are restored.

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Table 3.1.3.1 Optional Building Wind Design - Enhanced Design I and II

Design Level Design Criteria Expected Hurricane Damage
Minimum Acceptable Design the entire building1 and important Negligible damage from winds that do not
Design structures for the basic wind speeds and exceed the basic wind speed. Extensive
other related guidance per this document. damage and delay before building is
functional from winds that considerably
exceed the basic wind speed.
Enhanced Design I Enhance the components that are more Negligible damage from winds that do not
vulnerable to wind damage2 to resist design exceed the basic wind speed. Moderate to
pressures that are higher than the basic severe damage to components that are
wind design. See Table 2. Ensure other unimproved, or supported by unimproved
components meet local code. components, and moderate to severe delay
before building is functional from winds that
do not exceed the actual design wind
speed.
Enchanced Design II Design the entire building1 and important Negligible damage from winds that do not
structures for wind pressures that are exceed the basic wind speed. Minimal
higher than the basic wind pressures. See damage and delay before building is
Table 2. functional from winds that do not exceed
the actual design wind speed.
1
This includes above-deck roof components, perimeter flashing, roof deck span and securement, wall cladding and opening protectives,and
roof mounted equipment. All framing and foundations should be designed per local code, but using wind speeds from this document. Refer
to D.S 1-29 for additional information on roof design.
2
This includes above-deck roof components, perimeter flashing, roof deck span and securement, wall claddings, opening protectives.

Wind maps in Appendix C provide the minimum acceptable wind design criteria. Those for the United States
are based on the American Society of Civil Engineers (ASCE) 7-05, Minimum Design Loads for Buildings
and Structures. These minimum wind speeds as elsewhere in the world, provide a basic level of protection
to all buildings and have protected most buildings from collapse and major structural damage.
However, the wind speeds of some historical hurricanes have exceeded these minimum design wind speeds
in some areas, leading to severely damaged buildings that are not useable for many months. Typically,
observed damages are failures of the building envelope: roof flashings and coverings, roof decks, wall
claddings, doors, and windows.

Table 3.1.3.2 Wind Speeds Associated with Various Hurricane Categories as Used by the U.S. National Weather Service
Saffir-Simpson Hurricane One Minute Sustained Wind Basic 3 – sec gust wind Average or Recommended
Category Speed,1mph (m/s) speed,2 mph (m/s) Design Speed, mph (m/s)
Category 1 74-95 (33.1-42.5) 82-108 (37-48) 108 (48)
Category 2 96-110 (42.6-49.2) 108-130 (48-58) 120 (54)
Category 3 111-130 (49.3-58.1) 130-156 (56-70) 145 (65)
Category 4 131-155 (58.2-69.3) 156-191 (70-85) 170 (78)
Category 5 > 155 (> 69.3) > 191 (> 85) 200 (90)
1
Over open water.
2
Over land.

3.2 Wind Pressure Determination

3.2.1 Calculating Basic Wind Pressure

The roof perimeter and corners are exposed to higher uplift forces than the field of the roof. The maximum
uplift force occurs at the corners when the wind blows at an angle of about 45° to the roof (roughly along
the diagonal). The maximum uplift force along the windward roof perimeter occurs when the wind blows at
90° to the perimeter. Actual pressure coefficients for the corners and perimeter vary depending on the building
height, parapet height, roof slope, etc.
Use Equation 3.2.1a to determine the basic wind velocity pressure at a given height.
qh = 0.00256KZKZTKDKEV2I (Eqn. 3.2.1a)
qh = 0.613KZKZTKDKEV2I (Eqn. 3.2.1a, metric)

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Where:
qh = the basic velocity pressure calculated at height h, psf (N/m2).
KZ = velocity pressure coefficient (see Table 3.2.2g or ASCE 7) for Exposure C (unless Exposure D
applies), even if the terrain is considered B now.
KZT = topographic factor, use 1.0 for all flat terrains with ground slopes <10°. For steeper terrains, use
DS 1-8 or ASCE 7.
KD = directionality factor, use 0.85, except use 1.0 for cylindrical structures.
KE = elevation factor, use 1.0 for locations near sea level, or conservatively use 1.0 for other locations.
For higher elevations, see Table 3.2.2h or ASCE 7-16.
V = design wind speed per the respective wind map in Appendix C at 33 ft (10 m) above grade in Exposure
C (open terrain), mph (m/s).
I = importance factor of 1.15.
Use Equation 3.2.1b to determine the design pressure for the specific zone of the building.
p = [(GCP) - GCPi] qh (Eqn. 3.2.1b)
pu = p(SF)
Where:
GCP = external pressure coefficient. This value will vary depending on the roof area in question and its
slope, the wall area in question and the height. For values, see Section 3.2.2 and referenced tables and
figures.
GCPi = internal pressure coefficient = +/- 0.18 for enclosed buildings and +/- 0.55 for partially enclosed
buildings. For differentiation, see Section 3.2.4.
pu = the nominal ultimate rating of the cladding (round up for assembly selection) considering the
importance factor and safety factor.
SF = safety factor of 2.0.
NOTE: The +/-signs for GCPi are directional. The values are summed so as to result in the largest
numerical value.

3.2.2 Wind Zones of Buildings

This document provides calculation methods for wind loads on roofs and walls. It is extremely important to
recognize that wind blowing over a roof exerts varying uplift forces on different areas of the roof and walls.
For low-slope roofs (≤7° and h ≤ 60 ft (18 m), or h < 90 ft (27 m) and h/w ≤1.0), the roof can be divided into
four zones as a function of h, where h = the mean roof height. See Figure 3.2.2a and Table 3.2.2a for
dimensions and coefficients.
Zone 3: The roof corners, with L-shaped dimension = 0.6h by 0.6h by 0.2h.
Zone 2: The roof perimeter, between the corners, with rectangular dimension and width = 0.6h from roof
edges.
Zone 1: The field-of-roof (area inside corners and perimeter corners) up to a distance of 1.2h from the
edge of the roof.
Zone 1’: Applies to relatively wide buildings (>2.4h) and covers the remaining roof area inward from Zone
1.
NOTE: Where the difference in roof elevations between abutting buildings or building sections is greater
than or equal to 10 ft (3.0 m), treat abutting areas of the higher building as perimeter and corner areas in
accordance with Figure 3.2.2b. If the difference in roof elevations between abutting buildings is less than 10
ft (3.0 m), follow guidance in Figure 3.2.2c. The buildings have to be abutting for Figure 3.2.2c to apply, and
they do not abut if there is any horizontal separation.
Walls are divided into two zones:

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Zone 5: Wall corner strips.

Zone 4: The wall area between corner strips.
See Figure 3.2.2e and Table 3.2.2e, for pressure coefficients, which depend on roof height and height to
width ratio.
For roof slopes >7°, see Figure 3.2.2d and Tables 3.2.2b, 3.2.2c, or 3.2.2d, depending on the slope. The
width (a) of the various perimeter and corner zones for these steeper sloped roofs equals the lesser of 10%
of the building width or 0.4h, but not less than 4% of the width or 3 ft (0.9 m).

Fig. 3.2.2a Roof zones for roof slopes ≤7°

Table 3.2.2a. GCp for Roof Slopes ≤7° 1, 2

Zone GCP
3 - 3.2
2 - 2.3
1 - 1.7
1’ - 0.9
1. For all roofs ≤60ft (18 m) high, or roofs <90 ft (27 m) high where h/w ≤1

2. If a parapet with a minimum height of 3 ft (0.9 m) is provided around the entire perimeter, Zone 2 values for GCP may be used in Zone
3.

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Fig. 3.2.2d Roof Zones for Roof Slopes >7°

Table 3.2.2b. GCp for Roof Slopes >7°, ≤ 20°

Zone GCp
3r - 3.6
2n,2r,3e -3
1,2e - 2.0

Table 3.2.2c. GCp for Roof Slopes >20°, ≤27°

Zone GCp
3r* - 2.75
2n,2r,3e - 2.5
1,2e - 1.5
* GCp = - 3.6 @ EWA = 4 ft2. For Zone 3r.
For EWA = 10 ft2., GCp = - 2.75.

Table 3.2.2d. GCp for Roof Slopes >27°, ≤45°

Zone GCp
3e* - 2.5
2n,3r -2
1,2e,2r - 1.8
* For Zone 3e, GCp = - 3.2 for EWA = 2 ft2. For EWA = 10 ft2, GCp = -2.5. These larger GCp values should be used for steep sloped roofing
materials such as concrete or clay tile, asphalt shingles, or slate.

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3.2.2.1 Determining Wall Pressures

Determine wall pressures for buildings as follows:
A. Determine the individual internal pressure coefficient based on the enclosure classification.
B. Determine the external pressure coefficient from Table 3.2.2e and Table 3.2.2f, using the building height,
plan dimensions (if applicable), and roof slope.
C. Multiply the sum of those coefficients by the basic pressure (qh). The signs for the coefficients should
result in the highest possible total value. A negative sign means the force is outward. A positive sign means
the force is inward.
D. Note that negative wall pressure (also known as outward or suction pressure) is a function of the mean
roof height of the building. Negative pressures will always be higher than positive pressures.
E. Positive or inward pressure increases with building height, although for design simplicity the mean
roof height is typically used. For buildings that are partially enclosed, the height of the highest opening
will influence the internal pressure component.

5 h

a
0 4
4
a
5 5
a
a

Elevation

Fig. 3.2.2e. Wall zones for buildings ≤60 ft (18 m) high, or Buildings <90 ft (27 m) where h/w ≤ 1

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Table 3.2.2e. Values of GCP for Wall Zones 4 and 5

Building Height Roof Slope Zone 4 Zone 5
H ≤ 60 ft (18 m); or ≤10° -0.99 -1.26
60 ft <H <90 ft (27.4 m) for +0.9 +0.9
h/w ≤ 1.0 >10° -1.1 -1.4
+1.0 +1.0
H > 60 ft (18 m) for h/w All slopes -0.9 -1.8
>1.0; or +0.9 +0.9
H ≥ 90 ft (27.4 m) for h/w
≤1.0
Note: The width (a) of Zone 5 is the lesser of 10% of the lesser plan dimension, or 0.4h, but not less than 4% of the lesser plan dimension
or 3 ft (0.9 m).

Table 3.2.2f. Values of GCP for Roofs (Θ ≤ 7°) on Tall Buildings

Building Height Zone 1 Zone 2 Zone 3
H > 60 ft (18 m) for h/w > -1.4 -2.3 -3.2
1.0;
or H ≥ 90 ft (27.4 m) for h/w
≤ 1.0
1. For roofs with greater slopes, use GCP values for low or mid-rise buildings in Tables 3.2.2a through d. Zone 3 dimensions = 2a x 2a x
a, where a = 10% of the lesser plan dimension, but not less than 3 ft (0.9 m). Zone 2 width = a.
2. If a parapet with a minimum height of 3 ft (0.9 m) is provided around the entire perimeter, Zone 2 values for GCP may be used in Zone
3.

Table 3.2.2g. Velocity Pressure Coefficient, KZ

Height Above Ground
Level, z Exposure
ft m B C D
0-15 0-4.6 0.57 0.85 1.03
20 6.1 0.62 0.90 1.08
25 7.6 0.66 0.94 1.12
30 9.1 0.70 0.98 1.16
40 12.2 0.76 1.04 1.22
50 15.2 0.81 1.09 1.27
60 18 0.85 1.13 1.31
70 21.3 0.89 1.17 1.34
80 24.4 0.93 1.21 1.38
90 27.4 0.96 1.24 1.40
120 36.6 1.04 1.31 1.48
140 42.7 1.09 1.36 1.52
160 48.8 1.13 1.39 1.55
180 54.9 1.17 1.43 1.58
200 61 1.20 1.46 1.61
250 76.2 1.28 1.53 1.68
300 91.4 1.35 1.59 1.73
400 121.9 1.47 1.69 1.82
450 137.2 1.52 1.73 1.86
500 152.4 1.56 1.77 1.89

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Table 3.2.2h. Ground Elevation Factor (KE)

Elevation of Ground Above Mean Sea Elevation of Ground Above Mean Sea
Level, ft Level, m KE
≤0 ≤0 1.0
1000 305 0.96
2000 610 0.93
3000 014 0.90
4000 1219 0.86
5000 1524 0.83
≥6000 ≥1829 0.80
Note: KE can be interpolated for intermediate elevations or can be determined using the formulae in ASCE 7-16.

Fig. 3.2.2f. Roof and wall zones for buildings ≥90 ft (27 m) high, or buildings >60 ft (18 m) where h/w > 1

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Fig. 3.2.2b. Adjoining low-sloped roofs where height of building 2 is greater than or equal to 10 ft (3 m) higher than Building
1 (NOTE: For roof slopes ≤7, Zone 3 is L-shaped.)

Example 3.2.2
A proposed building in the United States is to have a 1.2° roof slope and is to be 200 ft by 300 ft by 30 ft
high. The building is to be located near sea level, on flat terrain (<6° ground slope) in Exposure C. This
location is in a tropical cyclone-prone region (TC). All wall panels, doors, and windows will be protected
against all recommended wind exposures to this site, so the building can be considered “enclosed.” This
area has a design wind speed of 110 mph (49 m/s). Determine the ultimate pressure ratings needed for all
four roof zones and the two wall zones, as well as the dimensions for each zone.
Solution 3.2.2
First, determine the basic wind pressure, qh, using Equation 3.2.1a.
qh = 0.00256KZKZTKDKEV2I
Where:
KZ = 0.98 (from Table 3.2.2g, Exposure C), KZT = 1.0 (flat terrain), KD = 0.85 (rectangular building), KE
= 1.0 (near sea level), V = 110 mph, I = 1.15.
qh = 0.00256(0.98)(1.0)(0.85)(1.0)(110)2(1.15) = 29.7 psf.
GCpi = +/-0.18 (enclosed, same throughout all zones). NOTE: this is added to GCP to create maximum
inward or outward load conditions.
GCp (roof areas from Table 3.2.2a) = -3.2 (Zone 3), -2.3 (Zone 2), -1.7 (Zone 1), -0.9 (Zone 1’).

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Fig. 3.2.2c. Adjoining low-sloped roofs where height of building 2 is less than 10 ft (3 m) higher than building 1 (NOTE:
For roof slopes ≤7, Zone 3 is L-shaped.)

GCp (wall areas from Table 3.2.2e) = -1.1(Zone 4) and -1.4 (Zone 5).
Using Equation 3.2.1b, determine the maximum negative (upward or outward) pressures for each zone.
Answers are summarized in Table 3.2.2i; needed wind ratings are rounded up based on rated pressure levels
available.
RNA ≥ RNR nominal ultimate resistance, which is RNR rounded up to the next highest 15 psf for roofs and 5
psf for walls, for comparison to wind-rated assemblies in RoofNav (for roofs) or the Approval Guide (for walls).

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Table 3.2.2i. Summary for Example 3.2.2

(GCp − Zone Dimensions from
Zone qh, psf GCPi GCp GCPi) SF p, psf RNA, psf1 edge, ft (m)
3 29.7 +0.18 −3.2 −3.38 2.0 201 210 18 x 18 x 6 ft
(5.5 x 5.5 x 1.8)
2 29.7 +0.18 −2.3 −2.48 2.0 147 150 0 − 18 (0 − 5.5)
1 29.7 +0.18 −1.7 −1.88 2.0 112 120 18 − 36 (5.5 − 11)
1’ 29.7 +0.18 −0.9 −1.08 2.0 64 75 > 36 (> 11)
5 29.7 +0.18 −1.4 −1.58 2.0 94 95 0 − 12 (0 − 3.7)
4 29.7 +0.18 −1.1 −1.28 2.0 76 80 >12 (>3.7)
1
RNA = p rounded up to the next highest 15 psf for roofs and 5 psf for walls, for comparison to wind rated assemblies in RoofNav or the
Approval Guide, for roofs and walls, respectively.

3.2.3 Determining Surface Roughness Exposure

The descriptions below are based on information in ASCE 7. While information on this subject in the
“Provisions” of ASCE 7 is relatively brief, the designer must refer to the additional information provided in
the “Commentary” of that document. This is particularly important when the localized exposure is not obvious
or may be interpreted as more than one of the following exposure categories (such as B or C).

3.2.3.1 Exposure Category B

For Exposure Category B to be used:
A. The exposing terrain should include urban and suburban areas, wooded areas, or other terrain with
numerous closely spaced obstructions having the size of single-family dwellings or larger.
B. Use of this exposure category should be limited to those areas for which the above terrain prevails in
all directions for a distance of at least 2600 ft (800 m) or 20 times the height of the building or other
structure, whichever is greater.
C. Limited openings in this terrain, such as small parking lots, roads, road intersections, playing fields,
underdeveloped lots, and tree clearings can be tolerated. For openings that exceed 600 ft (180 m) in total
length measured radially from the building and 165 ft [50 m] in width, use surface roughness exposure
C.
D. For buildings whose height is less than or equal to 30 ft (9.1 m), the prevailing exposure B distance
may be reduced to 1500 ft (460 m).
E. In cases where the difference between exposures B and C is not obvious, use exposure C.

3.2.3.2 Exposure Category C

NOTE: In cases where the difference between exposure B and C is not obvious, use exposure C.
For Exposure Category C to be used:
A. The exposing terrain should be open with scattered obstructions having heights generally less than
30 ft (9 m), such as flat, open country and grasslands, and in all cases where exposures B and D do not
apply.
B. This also includes where surface roughness exposure B terrain is interrupted by clearings (parking
lots, wide roads, road intersections, playing fields, underdeveloped lots, tree clearings, etc.) of greater than
600 ft (180 m) in total length measured radially from the building and exceeding 165 ft (50 m) in width.

3.2.3.3 Exposure Category D

For Exposure Category D to be used in determining the design wind pressure, all of the following must be
met:
A. The terrain upwind of the structure must be flat, unobstructed areas or water surfaces including smooth
mud flats, salt flats, and unbroken ice and is present in the upwind direction for a distance greater than
approximately 5000 ft (1500 m) or 20 times the building height, and

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B. The building must be within the greater of 600 ft (180 m) or 20 times the building or structure height
from the terrain, even if the terrain between the building and the terrain described in 2. above would
otherwise be considered B or C.
Some examples of D exposures include inland waterways, the Great Lakes, and coastal areas.

Exposure D Plan View

Building H = Roof height

< 600 ft (180 m) or 20 H (whichever is greater)

Shoreline
at high tide

Open water, mud flats, salt flats or unbroken ice for the
greater of 5000 ft (1,500 m) or 20 H in upwind direction.

Fig. 3.2.3.3 Exposure D requirements

3.2.4 Building Enclosure Classification

Wind loads on a building are a result of internal and external pressure. In all cases, the external pressure
component is larger and some minimal internal pressure component is always considered. Roof design loads
cannot be considered in isolation from the walls. Failure of walls or opening protectives from pressure or
windborne debris (where applicable) leads to a significant increase in internal pressurization and can result
in direct water damage to building contents as well as an increase in design loads for the roof and remaining
walls. Consequently, the design of new buildings should include adequate resistance of walls and wall opening
protectives to wind pressure and windborne debris (where applicable) such that it need not be designed
as a partially enclosed building. In cases where renovations are being made on an existing building that is
partially enclosed, and it is not practical to make changes that would allow it to be considered enclosed, the
new components should be designed for partially enclosed wind pressures.
The following criteria is in accordance with ASCE 7 and should be considered in new building designs:
A building that complies with both of the following conditions is considered a partially enclosed building:
1. The total area of openings in a wall that receives positive external pressure exceeds the sum of the area
of openings in the balance of the building envelope (walls and roof) by more than 10%, and
2. The total area of openings in a wall that receives positive external pressure exceeds 4 ft2 (0.37 m2)
or 1% of the area of that wall, whichever is smaller, and the percentage of openings in the balance of the
building envelope does not exceed 20%.
Buildings in a tropical storm-prone region that either meet criteria 1 and 2 above, or have wall cladding, or
wall opening protectives that are inadequate for design wind pressures or windborne debris exposure (if
applicable), are also considered partially enclosed.
For new construction, the building designer should verify that:

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• All walls are adequate for the design wind pressure, and
• All opening protectives are adequate for the design wind pressures and windborne debris, if applicable,
and
• Openings in exterior walls are limited, protected, or distributed so the criteria for an enclosed building is
met.
To summarize all considerations for the determination of the enclosure type, see Flowchart A.

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Start

Small
No or large Yes
wind borne
debris?

Yes Protection
adequate?

Wall
design No
No
adequate for wind
pressure?

Yes

Windows
& doors adequate No
for wind
pressure?

Yes

Wall
openings limited No
or evenly distributed
per 3.2.4?

Yes Treat as partially

enclosed
Treat as
enclosed

Flow Chart A. Enclosed building vs. partially enclosed building

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3.2.5 Topographic Factor (KZT)

The topographic factor is used to quantify the effects of wind speed up over hills, ridges and escarpments.
This factor is multiplied by the wind velocity pressure, and has a minimum value of 1.0 for relatively flat (<6°
or 10% ground slope) terrain. Additional information can be found in ASCE 7 or FM Global Data Sheet 1-8
(which includes tables that help simplify the quantification of this factor).
Wind maps for Hawaii reflect the wind speed-up effect over the steeply inclined inland terrain. Consequently,
assume KZT = 1.0 for all locations in Hawaii. Other wind maps do not include this and the actual KZT value
must be determined for ground slopes ≥6° or 10%.

3.2.6 Velocity Pressure Coefficient (KZ)

The velocity pressure coefficient (KZ) is multiplied by the basic wind pressure and quantifies how the pressure
changes for various building heights and ground terrain exposures, as compared to the wind maps, which
are effective at 33 ft (10 m) and open terrain (Exposure C). This variable factor may be determined from Table
3.2.2g.

3.2.7 Importance Factor

An importance factor (I) of 1.15 is recommended in this document and is multiplied by the basic velocity
pressure. This reflects that buildings being designed are highly protected risks and are important from a
property loss prevention standpoint.

3.3 Section Reserved for Future Use

3.4 Wind Design Pressures for Less-Common Roof Shapes

3.4.1 Steep-Slope, Mono-Slope, and Shed Roofs

A. Mono-slope roofs with slopes of 3º or less should be treated the same as low-slope gable roofs.
B. For mono-slope roofs with slopes of more than 3º but not more than 30º, use the external pressure
coefficients (GCp) in Table 3.4.1a. See Figure 3.4.1a for zone dimensions for slopes of more than 3º but
not more than 10º. See Figure 3.4.1b for zone dimensions for slopes of more than 10º but not more than
30º.
Define “a” as the lesser of 10% of the lesser plan dimension or 40% of the roof height, but not less than
4% of the least horizontal dimension or 3 ft (0.9 m). As the roof slope is not more than 10°, use h = the eave
height.
For example, for a mono-slope roof of more than 3º but not more than 10º, and the roof area is Zone 3,
GCP = -1.8. If the building is partially enclosed (GCPI = 0.55), the total value of (GCP - GCPi) is -1.8 - 0.55
= −2.35.

Table 3.4.1a. External Pressure Coefficients (GCp) for Mono-Slope Roofs with Slopes of More Than 3º but Not More Than
10º
Roof Zone (see Fig. 3.10.1a) GCp, Roof Slope > 3º but ≤ 10º GCp, Roof Slope > 10º but ≤ 30º
1 -1.1 -1.3
2 -1.3 -1.6
2’ -1.6 DNA
3 -1.8 -2.9
3’ -2.6 DNA

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2a 2a

2a
2’ 3
4a

3’

2’ 1 2

a
4a

3’
2a

2’ 3

Fig. 3.4.1a. Zone 2 and 3 dimensions for mono-slope or shed-type roofs with slopes of more than 3° but not more than
10º (top: plan view; bottom: elevation view)

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2a a

a
4a

2 1 2
4a

2
a


h

Fig. 3.4.1b. Zone 2 and 3 dimensions for mono-slope or shed-type roofs with slopes of more than 10° but not more than
30° (top: plan view; bottom: elevation view)

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3.4.2 Steep-Slope Saw-Tooth Roofs

A. Saw-tooth roofs with roof slopes of 10º or less should be treated as low-slope gable roofs.
B. For saw-tooth roofs with roof slopes of more than 10°, use the external pressure coefficients GCp in
Table 3.4.2a. See Figures 3.4.2a and 3.4.2b for zone dimensions. Define “a” as the lesser of 10% of the
lesser plan dimension or 40% of the roof height, but not less than 4% of the least horizontal dimension or
3 ft (0.9 m). As the roof slope is more than 10°, use h = the mean roof height.
Note that Zone 3, where the peak occurs, is rectangular with dimensions 2a x a, with the long dimension
running along the roof peak, and that the Zone 3 pressures are higher for the first saw-tooth (span A) than
for the remaining ones (spans B, C, D, etc.).

Table 3.4.2a. External Pressure Coefficients (GCp) for Saw-Tooth Roofs with Slopes of More Than 10°
Zone GCp
1 (all spans) -2.2
2 (all spans) -3.2
3 (spans B, C, D, etc.) -2.6
3 (span A only) -4.1

a a

2 3

a
2a

2 1 2
2a

3
2 3
a

Fig. 3.4.2a. Zone 2 and 3 dimensions for saw-tooth roofs with slopes of more than 10°

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A B C D

Elevation of building
(2 or more spans)

Fig. 3.4.2b. Elevation view for saw-tooth roofs with slopes of more than 10°

3.4.3 Arched Roofs

Arched roofs curve in one direction between parallel eaves (see Figure 3.4.3a), which provides somewhat
favorable wind flow characteristics as represented in Figure 3.4.3b. Those areas are divided into 3 wind zones,
two outer and one inner zone.
On the other two ends that resemble a gabled end, treat them as a gabled roof to determine wind pressure
coefficients when the wind is parallel to the peak of the arch and perpendicular to the gabled ends. All
together, this results in 4 wind zones for the entire roof.
To determine the wind loads on the roof:
A. Calculate the rise-to-span ratio, r (see Figure 3.4.3b.). The rise is measured from the top of the wall
to the peak of the roof (for roofs on elevated structures) or from grade level to the peak of the roof (for roofs
springing from ground level). The span is the building width from eave to eave.
B. Calculate the external pressure coefficient (CP) based on r and Table 3.4.3a for each respective roof
section. Since one must consider wind from all directions, the outer two zones (windward and leeward
quarter) should be both be designed for the same worst case. For simplicity, consider the windward and
leeward quarters to end at a distance equal to 25% of the building width in from the respective eave (see
Figure 3.4.3b).
C. Add the pressure coefficients in Table 3.4.3a to the internal pressure coefficient. Multiply the sum of
the external and internal pressure coefficient by the basic wind pressure (q).
D. The building designer should provide the spring line slope (see Figure 3.4.3 A). That equals the angle
between the horizontal and a line tangent to the curve near the roof eave. Use that angle as if it were
a gabled roof to determine the pressures near the gabled end.

Table 3.4.3a. External Pressure Coefficients (GCp) for Arched Roofs

RisetoSpan Ratio, r CP
Roof Configuration WindwardQuarter CenterHalf Leeward Quarter
Roof on elevated 0 < r < 0.2 -1.08 -0.84 - 1.2r -0.6
structure 0.2 ≤ r < 0.3 Greater of 1.8r - 0.36, -0.84 - 1.2r -0.6
or 7.2r - 2.52
0.3 ≤ r ≤ 0.6 3.3r - 0.84 -0.84 - 1.2r -0.6
Roof springing from 0 < r ≤ 0.6 1.68r -0.84 - 1.2r -0.6
ground level
Note: Minus sign indicates wind force away from surface, or uplift on roof.

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Roof on elevated Roof springing

structure from ground level

O Rise

Span

O = Springline slope for

determining wind pressure
near gabled ends.
Fig. 3.4.3a. Elevation view of arched roof showing two different types and springline slope (provided by designer)

Wind Center half

direction
Windward Leeward
quarter quarter
S S
r=
L

L/4 L/2 L/4

L

Fig. 3.4.3b. Elevation view of arched roof showing various wind zones (see Fig. 3.4.3c for a plan view)

3.4.3.1 Example Problem

An arched roof is to be constructed near sea level and have a spring-line slope of <7º. The roof eave height
is 60 ft (18 m). The design wind speed is 130 mph (58 m/s). The location is prone to tropical cyclones. The
exposure is C. The terrain is flat (<10º, so KZT = 1.0). The building is to be 230 ft (70 m) wide, walls and
opening protectives will be designed for all expected exposures, and the building is considered enclosed.
1. Determine the rise-to-span ratio (r). The span is 230 ft (70 m) and the rise is 10 ft (3.0 m), so r = 0.04.
2. Use the external pressure coefficients (GCP) from Table 3.4.3a for 0 < r < 0.2. As the building is “enclosed,”
use an internal pressure coefficient of 0.18.
3. Windward quarter = -1.08 (Zone 2E of Example Plan Drawing).

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4. Since the windward quarter governs, use the same design for the leeward quarter = -1.08 (Zone 2E of
Example Plan Drawing).
5. Center half = [-0.84- 1.2(0.04)] = -0.89 (Zone 1 of Example Plan Drawing).
6. Treat the spring-line slope of <7º as a gable roof slope to determine the external pressure coefficient from
Table 3.2.2a of Section 3.3. GCp = -3.2 and -2.3 for Zones 3 and 2, respectively.
7. Determine the basic wind pressure (q) using Equation 3.2.1a, a roof height of 60 ft (18 m)and a 125 mph
(56 m/s) wind speed. That pressure is 44.2 psf (1.84 kPa).
qh = 0.00256KZKZTKDKEV2I
qh = (0.00256)(1.13)(1.0)(0.85)(1.0)(125)2(1.15) = 44.2 psf (2.12 kPa)
8. Multiply qh by the sum of the external and internal pressure coefficients by a safety factor of 2.0. Round
up to the next highest 15 psf for selection of RoofNav listings.
Table 3.4.3b summarizes various pressures, including those needed if the building were partially enclosed.
Figure 3.4.3c denotes the dimensions of the various zones. Zone 3 is L-shaped (36 by 36 by 12 ft; 11 by
11 by 3.7 m), Zone 2 is 36 ft (11 m) wide.

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Fig. 3.4.3c. Plan view for arched roof example

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Table 3.4.3b. Arched Roof Example: Pressure Coefficients and Design Pressures
Factored Wind
Pressure Coefficients1 Pressure(2)x(3)(2.0), Recommended
Zone(1) (2) qh, psf (kPa)(3) psf (kPa) Ratings,2 psf (kPa)
1 -1.07 44.2 psf (2.12 kPa) 94.5 (4.5) 105 (5.0)
2E -1.26 44.2 psf (2.12 kPa) 112.3 (5.3) 120 (5.7)
2 -2.48 44.2 psf (2.12 kPa) 219 (10.5) 225 (10.8)
3 -3.38 44.2 psf (2.12 kPa) 299 (14.3) 300(14.4)
1
Includes internal and external effects.
2
Ratings are rounded up to next highest 15 psf (0.7 kPa) increment.

3.4.4 Domed Roofs

Domed roofs are typically used on buildings with circular or approximately circular plan dimensions, and
are curved in all directions. See Figure 3.4.4a.
Key variables:
f = height of the dome from the top of the wall to the roof peak, ft (m)
hD = height of the wall from grade level to the roof eave, ft (m)
D = the diameter of the dome, ft (m)

Wind
f

hD

Fig. 3.4.4a. Elevation view of a domed roof

A maximum uplift or negative pressure coefficient of -0.9 should be used for building dimension ratios of:
0 ≤ hD/D ≤ 0.5, and 0.2 ≤ f/D ≤ 0.5
Using the same units for the three variables, these ratios become dimensionless.
The external wind pressure coefficients will vary at different areas on the roof, depending on the ratio of the
wall height to the dome diameter. As such structures are not that common (typically used for stadiums and
arenas), and their design is beyond the scope of this document, the designer should refer to ASCE 7, the
EuroCode, or other local standard for additional guidance.

3.4.5 Steep-Slope Multi-Span Gabled Roofs

A. Multi-span gabled roofs with roof slopes of 10º or less should be treated as low-slope gabled roofs.
B. For multi-span gabled roofs with roof slopes >10° and ≤45°, multiply qh by the sum of the external
pressure coefficient in Table 3.4.5a (for the specific roof slope) and the internal pressure coefficient. See
Figure 3.4.5a for zone dimensions. Define “a” as the lesser of 10% of the lesser plan dimension of the
individual span or 40% of the roof height, but not less than 4% of the least horizontal dimension or 3 ft
(0.9 m). As the roof slope is >10°, use h = the mean roof height.

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Table 3.4.5a. External Pressure Coefficients for Steep-Slope, Multi-Gable Roofs

Zone 10° Θ ≤ 30° 30° Θ ≤ 45°
1 -1.6 -2.0
2 -2.2 -2.5
3 -2.7 -2.6

3 2 3 3 2 2 3 3 2 2 3 3 2 3

2 1 2 2 1 1 2 2 1 1 2 2 1 2

3 2 3 3 2 2 3 3 2 2 3 3 2 3

Plan

Elevation

For Ɵ > 10°

Fig. 3.4.5a. Zone dimensions for steep-slope multi-span gabled roofs

3.4.6 Gabled Roofs with Slopes Greater than 45°

For gabled roofs with slopes greater than 45°, see Figures 3.4.5a and 3.4.6b. Treat the areas shown as either
Zone 4 or 5 wall construction as noted in the figures.

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FM Global Property Loss Prevention Data Sheets Page 39

Fig. 3.4.6a. Gabled roofs with slopes >45.°

Fig. 3.4.6b. Gabled roofs with slopes >45°.

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3.5 Wind Ratings for FM Approved Roof and Wall Assemblies

3.5.1 FM Approved Roof Assemblies

FM Approved roof assemblies and their wind ratings can be found using RoofNav. The minimum pressure
rating available for roofs is 60 psf. Higher rated assemblies are listed in 15 psf intervals. Depending on specific
construction details, assemblies are available that are rated for up to several hundred psf.
For non-tropical cyclone prone regions, Zone 1 may be limited to a 90 psf wind rating provided:
• H< 90 ft, h/w ≤ 1.0
• Enclosed building
• V ≤ 90 mph, Exposure C or B
• Low sloped ground (< 6° or 10%), KZT = 1.0

3.5.2 FM Approved Exterior Wall Assemblies

3.5.2.1 Fire Rating

Wall panels can be FM Approved for interior use only (per FM 4880) or exterior use (per FM 4881). FM 4880
is for fire classification only and must be passed before being tested to FM 4881. The Approval height
limitations are dependent on fire rating and are not related to wind rating.

3.5.2.2 Wind Pressure

FM Approved exterior wall assemblies and their wind ratings can be found in the Approval Guide. The
minimum and maximum wind ratings and descriptions are noted in Table 3.5.2.2.

Table 3.5.2.2 Wind Categories and Ratings for FM Approved Wall Assemblies
Minimum Wind Pressure Rating*, +P, Maximum Wind Pressure Rating*, +P,
Wind Zone Category* -P (psf) -P (psf)
NTC +40/-40 +75/-75
TC +45/-45 No limit
TCM +60/-60 No limit
*
NTC = Non-tropical cyclone-prone region.
TC = Tropical cyclone-prone region, but not exposed to windborne debris.
TCM = Tropical cyclone prone region exposed to windborne debris (missiles).

The maximum spacing and minimum thickness of supporting steel (girts and studs) are dependent on wind
rating and are not related to fire rating. The thickness of the supporting steel affects the pullout resistance
of the screws. The listed panel width should not be exceeded. The minimum number and size of screws, and
clip type if applicable, are critical with regard to wind rating.
Use this document to determine the minimum wind load ratings needed based on the building’s geometry
and geographic location. All FM Approved Class 1 exterior wall assemblies have a wind load rating. The rating
describes inward and outward acting pressures (Pinward and Poutward) using a static pressure test and a cyclic
pressure test. The FM Approval rating provided should be adequate for the maximum ultimate inward and
outward pressures needed per this document. The ratings are usually given in increments of 5 lb/ft2 (0.25 kPa)
based on the inward pressure.
The outward magnitude of the pressure on the leeward side is equal to or higher than the pressure on the
windward side. Depending on the building height and enclosure classification, and panel location (Zone 4 vs.
5), the design pressure will vary. The total outward pressure can be about one-third higher in Zone 5 than
in Zone 4 for buildings less than 60 ft (18 m) high, and about twice as high in Zone 5 than Zone 4 for buildings
over 60 ft (18 m). The positive sign is used to signify the fact that Pinward applies forces toward the wall.
The negative sign is used to signify that Poutward draws forces away from the wall (suction). An importance
factor of 1.15 and a safety factor of 2.0 should be applied to the inward and outward design pressures
obtained from this document prior to selecting the rated panel.

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As the outward pressures in Zone 5 are always considerably higher than for Zone 4, and the building owner
will desire to use the same type panel (thickness, panel width), it may be most practical to use the same
FM Approved panel, but one that has a higher wind rating for a shorter span. In that way, the spacing between
studs or girts at exterior walls may be reduced in Zone 5, depending on whether the wall panels span
horizontally or vertically.

3.5.3 Windborne Debris Ratings

Use exterior wall assemblies rated for Zone TCM for sites located in tropical-cyclone-prone regions and
subject to impact from windborne debris (see Section 2.4 and 3.7). The ratings are determined from static
and cyclic pressure tests and the debris impact test(s). Such assemblies may meet the requirements of either
the large missile (LM) or the small debris (SM) impact test.
Use exterior wall assemblies rated for Zone TC for sites located in tropical cyclone-prone regions, but
not subject to impact from windborne debris. The ratings are determined from static and cyclic pressure tests.
Use exterior wall assemblies rated for Zone NTC in non-tropical cyclone-prone regions that are not
subject to either hurricane force winds or impacts from windborne debris. The ratings are determined from
static pressure tests. Cyclic pressure tests are also conducted, but with considerably less cycles than for a
Zone TC or TCM rated system.
Whether or not there is exposure to tropical cyclones (see Appendix A) or windborne debris defines the
required test details. For additional information, see FM 4881 and the Approval Guide.

3.6 FM Approved Exterior Wall and Roof Hail Ratings

All FM Approved Class 1 exterior wall and roof assemblies have a hail resistance rating. This rating simulates
the expected impact of hail. For additional information on hail, see Data Sheet 1-34.

3.7 Designing for Windborne Debris

3.7.1 Designing for Small Windborne Debris

To determine the needed separation distance to prevent damage, use Equation 3.7.1. To determine the height
above grade that needs protection, use Equation 3.7.2.

Fig. 3.7.1. Exposure from small windborne debris

EQ. 3.7.1 XN = 0.37V[2.01(H/1200)0.2857]1/2 (HT)1/2

EQ. 3.7.1 (metric) XN = 0.45V[2.01(H/366)0.2857]1/2 (HT)1/2

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where:
XN = needed separation to prevent exposure (ft, m), not to exceed 1500 ft (457 m).
V = VASD = allowable wind speed, mph (m/s).
H = height of source roof with aggregate, (ft, m).
HT = height of trajectory of the aggregate = H + 30 ft (9.1 m) for new construction.
Where the recommended separation is more than the separation provided (XP), the height of the exposed
windows above the grade of the source building that are expected to be damaged and that need protection
for small windborne debris exposure (HD), can be determined using Equation 3.9.2:
EQ. 3.7.2 HD = (HT) - [28.2 XP 2/{(H)0.2857)(V)2}]
EQ. 3.7.2 (metric) HD = (HT) - [13.2 XP 2/{(H)0.2857)(V)2}]
where:
HD = height of the exposed wall, with respect to the base of the source building, for which damage is expected
and protection is needed for (ft, m).
XP = separation distance provided (ft, m).

3.7.2 Design for Large Windborne Debris

Tropical cyclone-prone (hurricane-, cyclone- or typhoon-prone) regions B and C are those for which designing
for large windborne debris is recommended. Wall heights requiring protection are addressed in Section 2.0.
Large windborne debris is considered to be considerably larger than roof aggregate (small debris) and its
source is often closer to ground level than roof aggregate. Large debris can include, but is not limited to, wood
framing from adjacent poorly constructed buildings; tree limbs; and inadequately secured clay, concrete,
or slate roof tiles.

3.8 Roof-Mounted Equipment

3.8.1 Anchorage of Roof-Mounted Equipment

Calculations in Section 2.6.1 to determine resistance to uplift, sliding, and overturning of roof-mounted
equipment are based on equations in ASCE 7-10 and ASCE 7-16. A reduced horizontal force coefficient,
where sufficient space (as defined in 2.6.1) is provided between the underside of the equipment and the roof
surface, has been provided based on more recent test data. Due to other factors, elevating the equipment
to reduce wind forces alone is not likely to result in cost savings.

3.8.2 Design of HVACR Equipment Exposed to Wind

The design of roof mounted heating, ventilating, air-conditioning and refrigeration equipment (HVACR)should
prevent catastrophic failure of equipment, which could result in windborne debris. In some cases, wind
designs or impact from windborne debris could result in large deformations which could adversely affect
equipment function after a design wind event. If the equipment performance is critical to the operations of
the facility, one of the following should be considered:
A. The equipment manufacturer should be instructed to design the equipment to limit deformation of
exposed components caused by wind pressures to allow the equipment to be fully functional after a design
wind event. If there is exposure to windborne debris and that is a concern, testing as noted in Section
4.0 would be needed to assure proper performance, or
B. Spare parts should be kept on hand to replace those that are both vulnerable to wind damage and
critical to the function of the equipment.

3.9 Wind Tunnel Tests

Atmospheric Boundary Layer Wind Tunnel (BLWT) testing should be conducted, when required, to determine
wind design information. This would be needed for tall buildings (over 656 ft [200 m]); unusually shaped
buildings; or, in some cases, to determine wind loads on roof-mounted equipment. Such equipment is capable
of providing obstructions within the tunnel’s wind flow path that create sufficient turbulence to reflect

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atmospheric boundary conditions. Scale models of buildings are used within such equipment to simulate
wind flow around the building, creating varied forces on portions of the structure and any equipment on top
of it.
Aerospace wind tunnels do not create sufficient atmospheric boundary conditions and turbulence and do
not accurately quantify wind effects on buildings or rooftop equipment.

3.10 Eurocode
Using Terrain IV of the Eurocode may result in velocity pressures that are 5% to 10% lower than those based
on exposure B of ASCE 7. Eurocode Terrain IV is, by definition, similar to the former exposure A of ASCE
7. Exposure A, though no longer used, was generally applied to urban areas where localized effects could
considerably change the wind pressures and where many tall buildings are built, which are best modeled in
a wind tunnel. The coefficients used in ASCE 7 for roof corners and negative pressures for vertical corner
strips of walls for tall buildings are more conservative than the Eurocode. This concern applies mainly to
buildings between 90 ft and 656 ft (27.4 m and 200 m) in height because wind tunnel modeling is required by
the Eurocode for buildings taller than that. The use of Eurocode Terrain III results in higher velocity pressures,
which offsets the higher pressure coefficients for ASCE 7.
Wind speeds used based on the EuroCode method will appear low because they are 10-minute wind speeds
as opposed to 3-second gust wind speeds as used elsewhere in this document. However, coefficients used
in the EuroCode pressure calculations account for this, so the resultant pressures are similar to that using
this document for an equivalent 3-second gust wind speed. Conversions between 3-second gust and
10-minute wind speeds can be made using Table AC1.3 in Appendix C. For example, calculations based on
a 100 mph (45 m/s), 3-second gust wind speed should result in wind pressures similar to that using a 69
mph (31 m/s), 10-minute wind speed based on the EuroCode method.

4.0 REFERENCES

4.1 FM Global
Data Sheet 1-8, Antenna Towers and Signs
Data Sheet 1-15, Roof-Mounted Solar Photovoltaic Panels
Data Sheet 1-29, Roof Deck Securement and Above-Deck Roof Components
Data Sheet 1-34, Hail Damage
Data Sheet 1-54, Roof Loads for New Construction
Data Sheet 5-23, Emergency and Standby Power Systems
Data Sheet 7-88, Ignitable Liquid Storage Tanks
Data Sheet 10-2, Emergency Response
RoofNav, an online resource of FM Approvals for roofing professionals
The Approval Guide, an online resource of FM Approvals
FM Approval Standard 4350, Approval Standard for Windstorm Resistant Fenestrations
FM Approval Standard 4431, Approval Standard for Skylights
FM Approval Standard 4481, Approval Standard for Exterior Walls

4.2 Other
Air Movement and Control Association. Test Method for Louvers Impacted by Wind Borne Debris, AMCA
Standard 540-13.
Air Movement and Control Association. Test Method for High Velocity Wind Driven Rain Resistant Louvers,
AMCA Standard 550-15.
The Aluminum Association. Aluminum Design Manual. 2015 Edition.
American Architectural Manufacturer’s Association (AAMA). Voluntary Specification for Rating the Severe
Wind-Driven Rain Resistance of Windows, Doors and Unit Skylights, AAMA 520-12.
American National Standards Institute/Air Movement and Control Association. Test Method for High Velocity
Wind Driven Rain Resistant Louvers, ANSI/AMCA Standard 550-09.

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American National Standards Institute/Door and Access Systems Manufacturers Association, International
(ANSI/DASMA). Standard Method for Testing Sectional Garage Doors and Rolling Doors: Determination of
Structural Performance Under Missile Impact and Cyclic Wind Pressure. ANSI/DASMA 115-2005.
American National Standards Institute/Door and Access Systems Manufacturers Association, International
(ANSI/DASMA). Standard Method for Testing Sectional Garage Doors and Rolling Doors: Determination of
Structural Performance Under Uniform Static Air Pressure Difference. ANSI/DASMA 108-2012.
American Society of Civil Engineers (ASCE). Minimum Design Loads for Buildings and Other Structures,
ASCE 7-05.
American Society of Civil Engineers (ASCE). Minimum Design Loads for Buildings and Other Structures,
ASCE 7-10.
American Society of Civil Engineers (ASCE). Minimum Design Loads and Associated Criteria for Buildings
and Other Structures, ASCE 7-16.
American Society of Citil Engineers (ASCE). Pre-Standard for Performance-Based Wind Design, 2019.
American Society of Civil Engineers (ASCE). Wind Tunnel Testing for Buildings and Other Structures. ASCE
49-12.
American Society of Testing and Materials (ASTM) International. Standard Test Method for Structural
Performance of Exterior Windows, Doors, Skylights and Curtain Walls by Uniform Static Air Pressure
Difference. ASTM E 330/E330M-14.
American Society of Testing and Materials (ASTM) International. Standard Test Method for Water Penetration
of Exterior Windows, Doors, Skylights and Curtain Walls by Uniform Static Air Pressure Difference. ASTM
E 331-00 (Reapproved 2009).
American Society of Testing and Materials (ASTM) International. Standard Test Method for Structural
Performance of Exterior Windows, Curtain Walls and Doors by Cyclic Air Pressure Differential. ASTM E
1233/1233M-14.
American Society of Testing and Materials (ASTM) International. Standard Practice for Determining Load
Resistance of Glass in Buildings. ASTM E 1300-09.
American Society of Testing and Materials (ASTM) International. Standard Test Method for Performance of
Exterior Windows, Curtain Walls, Doors and Impact Protective Systems Impacted by Missile(s) and Exposed
to Cyclic Pressure Differentials. ASTM E 1886-13a.
American Society of Testing and Materials (ASTM) International. Standard Specification for Performance of
Exterior Windows, Curtain Walls, Doors and Impact Protective Systems Impacted by Windborne Debris in
Hurricanes. ASTM E 1996-14a.
American Society of Testing and Materials (ASTM) International. Standard Test Method for Water Penetration
of Exterior Windows, Skylights and Doors by Rapid Pulsed Air Pressure Difference. ASTM E E2268-04
(Reapproved 2016).
British Standards Institute. BS EN 1991-1-4,Eurocode 1, Actions on structures, General actions, Wind actions,
2005+A1:2010.
DASMA 115.
Federal Emergency Management Association (FEMA). Attachment of Roof-top Equipment in High-Wind
Regions. May 2006, Revised July 2006.
Florida Building Code. Impact Test Procedures. Testing Application Standard (TAS) 201-94
Florida Building Code. Criteria for Testing Impact & Non-impact Resistant Building Envelope Components
Using Uniform Static Air Pressure. Testing Application Standard (TAS) 202-94.
Florida Building Code. Criteria for Testing Products Subject to Cyclic Wind Pressure Loading. Testing
Application Standard (TAS) 203-94.

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4.3 Bibliography

4.3.1 FM Global
Data Sheet 1-31, Metal Roof Systems
Data Sheet 1-32, Inspection and Maintenance of Roof Assemblies
Data Sheet 1-33, Safeguarding Torch-Applied Roof Installation
Data Sheet 1-49, Perimeter Flashing
Data Sheet 1-52, Field Verification of Roof Wind Uplift Resistance

4.3.2 Other
Door and Access Systems Manufacturers’ Association International (DASMA), Technical Data Sheet #182.

APPENDIX A GLOSSARY OF TERMS

Arched Roof: A roof that is curved in one direction from one eave to the opposite eave, but has gables on
the other two ends. See Fig. 3-4a, b and c.
Building, enclosed: A building that does not meet the criteria for open or partially enclosed buildings (see
Flow Chart A and Section 3.2.3).
Building, open: A building having each wall at least 80% open.
Building, partially enclosed: A building in which there are sufficient openings to increase the internal
pressure beyond that considered for an enclosed building (see Flow Chart A and Section 3.2.3).
Building width, W: The lesser plan dimension.
Cupola Roof: A small, steeply sloped structure, often found at the top of a larger structure. See Figures
1a and 1b.

Fig. 1a. Circular cupola roof; Fig. 1b. Hip-shaped cupola roof

Directionality factor (KD): This factor accounts for(a) The reduced probability of maximum winds coming
from any given direction, and (b) The reduced probability of the maximum pressure coefficient occurring for
any given wind direction.
Dock door: A door serving a loading dock. The door allows access to a transport vehicle for loading and
unloading operations.
Domed Roof: A roof which is circular in plan dimension, completely rounded in the vertical direction and
slopes either to grade level or to the top of circular walls. See Fig. 3.4.4a.

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Effective wind area (EWA): The area assumed to be supported by a construction component for the purpose
of wind load transfer. For roof cover, roof deck, or wall panel fastening, the effective wind area should not
exceed that supported by the fastener or clip (generally reflected in the tables in this document).
Escarpment: A cliff or steep slope, usually separating two levels or gently sloping areas.
FM Approved: Product or services that have satisfied the criteria for Approval by FM Approvals. Refer to
RoofNav or the Approval Guide, an online resource of FM Approvals, for a complete listing of products and
services that are FM Approved.
Gable: A triangular shaped, upper portion of a building end wall that is formed by a sloping roof on either
side of the ridge.
Gabled Roof: A roof with a peak in the interior part of the roof that slopes downward in two opposite directions
towards lower eaves. Also, see Tables 6 and 12 in Section 3.0.
Girts: Wall-framing members that immediately support the wall panels.
hp (Eurocode definition): Height of the parapet as measured from the top of the adjacent roof to the top
of the parapet (m).
h (Eurocode definition): Height of the roof as measured from grade to the roof peak, regardless of roof
slope (m).
Hill: A land surface characterized by strong relief in any horizontal direction.
Hurricane-prone regions: See “tropical cyclone-prone locations.”
Importance factor: A factor that accounts for the importance of the building. In applying this data sheet,
the value of the importance factor is taken as 1.15 for all locations.
Inward wind pressure: A condition created on the windward side of a building. It is caused by wind forces
and places forces toward the wall. It is sometimes referred to as positive pressure.
Mansard Roof: A steeply sloped roof usually found at the perimeter of a rectangular building. See Figure
2.

Fig. 2. Steep sloped mansard roof

Main Wind Force Resisting System (MWFRS): connected structural members that provide support and
stability for the overall structure and that generally receive wind load from more than one surface.
Mean roof height (h): The average of the roof eave height and the height to the highest point on the roof
surface, except for roof angles of less than or equal to 7°, where the mean roof height is the roof eave height.
Multi-gabled Roof: Two or more gabled roofs in parallel, abutting at their eaves on the same building or
two abutting buildings. See Figure 3.4.5a.

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Openings: Apertures or holes in the building envelope that allow air to flow through the building envelope
and that are designed as “open” during design winds as defined by these provisions. Glass area, doors and
louvers that are insufficiently designed to resist design wind pressures per this data sheet, and/or wind-borne
debris as defined in Appendix A of this data sheet, are considered openings. (Make the glazing in the
wind-borne debris regions impact-resistant glazing or protected with an impact resistant covering or assume
such glazing that receives positive external pressure to be openings). For roof design pressures, openings
are only considered when located on the story immediately below the roof.
Outward wind pressure: A condition created on the leeward side of a building. It is caused by wind forces
and places forces away from the wall. It is sometimes referred to as negative pressure.
Pressure coefficient: A factor accounting for variations in inward and outward wind pressure on walls at
different locations and elevations of the same building.
Ridge: An elongated crest of a hill characterized by strong relief in two directions.
Saw Tooth Roof: A roof with a series of ridges, usually with different pitches on either side of the roof. Often
one side may contain glazing to allow indirect sunlight. See Fig. 3.4.2b.
Secondary roof framing: Structural framing, such as joists or purlins, that immediately supports the roof
deck.
Shed or mono-slope roof: A roof that is sloped in one direction only. See Fig. 3.4.1a. and b.
Tropical cyclone-prone region: An area prone to tropical storms in which winds rotate about a center of
low atmospheric pressure, clockwise in the southern hemisphere and counter-clockwise in the northern
hemisphere. This includes locations prone to hurricanes, typhoons and cyclones and includes the following
regions:
1. The U.S. Atlantic Coast and Gulf of Mexico Coast, including parts of Mexico (Eastern Mexico, the
southern end of the Baja Peninsula and the southwest coast of Mexico) and Central America, within and
on the coastal side of the 100 mph (45 m/s) wind zone.
2. Hawaii, Puerto Rico, Guam, U.S. Virgin Islands, St. Croix, St. John, St. Thomas and American Samoa.
For locations outside the United States, any areas that are in a “tropical cyclone” region or “typhoon-prone”
region. This includes, but is not limited to, eastern Mexico and the southern coastal areas of western Mexico,
parts of Australia (green, blue, and red banded areas in the map in Appendix C, as well as islands noted in
Table AC1.1.1) and northern part of the North Island of New Zealand, Bermuda, all the countries and
territories of the Caribbean (also see Table AC1.4), Bangladesh, India, the Philippines, Japan, South Korea,
Hong Kong, Macau, Vietnam, Burma (Miramar), China, Sri Lanka, Cambodia, Taiwan, Madagascar, and the
southeast coast of Brazil within and on the coastal side of the 100 mph (45 m/s) wind zone.
−Tropical Cyclone Region A is where the design wind speed is at least 100 mph (45 m/s).
− Tropical Cyclone Region B is where the design wind speed is at least 110 mph (49 m/s) within one mile
of the coast.
− Tropical Cyclone Region C is where the design wind speed is at least 120 mph (54 m/s).
Typhoon-prone region: See “tropical cyclone-prone locations.”
Wind Speed (design or allowable), V: The 3-second gust wind speed at 33 ft (10 m) above the ground in
Surface Roughness Exposure C, as provided in the wind speed information of this data sheet. Except where
otherwise noted, a 100-year mean recurrence interval (MRI) is used.
Windborne debris, large: Pieces of broken material and other objects that have become airborne projectiles
due to the high winds.
Windborne debris, small: Any roof aggregate (including gravel and slag as used on multi-ply roof covers,
and larger stone as used on ballasted roof covers) that become airborne projectiles due to the high winds.

APPENDIX B DOCUMENT REVISION HISTORY

The purpose of this appendix is to capture the changes that were made to this document each time it was
published. Please note that section numbers refer specifically to those in the version published on the date
shown (i.e., the section numbers are not always the same from version to version).
February 2020. Interim revision. Significant changes include the following:

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A. Revised design wind guidance to reflect changes in pressure coefficients and zone dimensions in ASCE
7-16. In some cases, roof wind pressures have increased considerably based on an updated review of
boundary layer wind tunnel (BLWT) test data. This document uses allowable strength design (ASD) for wind
design guidance. More specific changes are noted below.
B. The basic design wind speed maps for the continental United States and Alaska remain unchanged.
They are still based on ASCE 7-05. Optional design wind guidance for tornadoes is contained in Appendix
D.
Instead of using wind isolines subject to interpolation, wind zones (polygons) are provided. For locations
that fall anywhere within a given zone, the wind speed for that zone should be used without interpolation.
C. A separate 100-year MRI wind map is provided for each of the islands of Hawaii, instead of using one
wind speed for all the islands. Also, because of the steep terrain on much of the islands, wind speeds
on the map increase with elevation to reflect the topographic effect. So a determination of KZT, which can
be somewhat complicated, is not needed for Hawaii (assume 1.0).
D. Deleted wind pressure tables for walls and roofs. Roof pressures can be determined using Ratings
Calculator in RooofNav. Also, pressure equations with various pressure coefficients are provided in Section
3.0 of this document.
E. Incorporated relevant content from DS 1-28R/1-29R into this document (DS 1-28) or DS 1-29. DS
1-28R/1-29R has been made obsolete.
October 2016. Interim revision. Additional comments were added in section 3.4.3, Arched Roofs, to clarify
how pressures are determined.
October 2015. This document was completely revised and reformatted. The following major changes were
made:
A. Added optional guidance for tornado-resistant design.
B. Clarified guidance on surface roughness and roof overhangs.
C. Added an explanation of the wind speed design for ASCE 7-10.
D. Updated guidance for the anchorage of roof-mounted equipment.
E. Added guidance for less-common roof shapes.
F. Added design wind speeds for the four islands of Australia.
G. Added an explanation of “lee zones” in New Zealand.
H. Added further guidance on topographic factors.
I. Revised the formulae for small windborne debris.
J. Added guidance regarding emergency power systems.
K. Deleted the use of Ground Roughness Exposure C in coastal areas where v ≥ 120 mph (54 m/s) for
new construction, to be consistent with ASCE 7.
L. Increased (from 3 ft [0.9 m] to 10 ft [3 m]) the minimum roof elevation required to treat abutting buildings
differently with regard to various wind zones, for consistency with ASCE 7.
M. Updated the wind map for Western Mexico.
January 2012. Minor editorial changes were made to the caption for Figure 12 and Indonesia was removed
from the list of hurricane-prone regions in Appendix A.
April 2011. Clarification was added to Table 6, Roof Design Outward Pressure Multipliers for Roof Zones
1, 2, and 3. Minor editorial changes were made.
September 2009. The following changes were made:
• Recommendations were added to enable the use of the Eurocode for wind design.

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• Various wind maps and tables were added or updated.

The format of the wind maps was changed from iso-lines, which are typically shown in 10 mph (4.5 m/s)
increments, to colored bands using 5 mph (2.3 m/s) increments. This change eliminates interpolation.
• The cutoff for roof slope as it relates to the definition of roof height was changed from 7 to 10 degrees,
to be consistent with ASCE 7.
• Addition guidance was added regarding the effective wind area for new doors on exterior vehicle openings.
Additions and clarifications were made to Appendix A, Glossary of Terms.
• Minor editorial changes were made.
September 2007. Minor corrections were made to Tables 3, 4, 5 and 6.
February 2007. The following changes were done for this revision:
• Guidelines were added regarding the use of higher design levels to facilitate part or all of the building design
to meet winds that exceed the basic wind speed.
• Information was added regarding the new category of approved exterior wall panels (per FM Approvals
Standard 4881) for natural hazards exposures, including respective ratings which are appropriate for
various exposures.
• Example problems were edited to reflect optional design pressures that are higher than that for the basic
wind speed. Guidance on door and window design, and building frame design was clarified.
• Some additions and revisions were made to the Appendix A, in part, to be consistent with changes to ASCE
7-05. This includes the deletion of Surface Roughness Exposure A, changes to the definitions of Surface
Roughness Exposure B, C, and D, and a change in the cutoff for low-slope and moderate slope roofs
from 10° to 7° and from 30° to 27° respectively, for some situations.
• Flow Chart A was modified.
• Table 8 was revised to be consistent with changes in DS 1-29.
September 2005. Clarification was made to Flow Chart A, Enclosed building vs. partially enclosed buildings.
January 2002. This revision includes a complete reformatting of wind design guidance. Wind loading
requirements from the previous Data Sheet 1-7 and 1-28 have been combined into this single wind load data
sheet. Load resistance issues are provided in the other data sheets listed above. Also, roof deck securement
issues are now in Data Sheet 1-29.
This revision of the document includes a ‘‘3-sec gust averaged time’’ unit of wind speed, rather than the former
‘‘fastest-mile’’ unit of wind speed. Also, design pressures are now derived directly from the American Society
of Civil Engineers (ASCE) Standard 7-98, Minimum Design Loads for Buildings and Other Structures. This
encompasses some of the latest available technology for determining wind design pressures.
Inward and outward wall design pressures can be determined, as well as roof outward design pressures.
These are a combination of internal and external pressures. Outward wall design pressures are uniform for
the full wall height. Inward wall design pressures vary with height of the wall.
The term ‘‘partially enclosed’’ was previously addressed by the term ‘‘large openings’’. The adjustments to
pressure are somewhat different than the previous adjustments.
September 2000. This revision of the document has been reorganized to provide a consistent format.
August 1998. Major revisions were made.

APPENDIX C WIND SPEED MAPS AND TABLES

C.1 Wind Speed

All wind speed maps and tables are representative at 33 ft (10 m) above grade in open terrain or Exposure
C. All represent 3-second gust wind speeds, except where otherwise noted.
See Figures 3 (five parts) through 4 for the 100-year MRI wind maps for the continental United States and
Alaska. For Hawaii, see Figures C-1A through C-1F. For other US territories outside the continental United
States, use the wind speeds shown in Table AC1.1.

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1-28 Wind Design
Page 50 FM Global Property Loss Prevention Data Sheets

C.1.1 Regions Prone to Tropical Cyclones

Special attention should be paid to various construction details in tropical cyclone prone regions, as described
in Section 2. There are 3 separate triggers for such details as follows:
Tropical Cyclone Region A − this includes all locations where the design wind speed is ≥ 100 mph (45
m/s), which should be designed to prevent damage from small windborne debris.
Tropical Cyclone Region B − this includes all locations where the design wind speed is ≥ 110 mph (49
m/s), which should be designed to prevent damage from small windborne debris throughout, or large
windborne debris within 1 mile of the coast.
Tropical Cyclone Region C − this includes all locations where the design wind speed is ≥ 120 mph (54
m/s), which should be designed to prevent damage from small windborne debris throughout, or large
windborne debris throughout.

Table AC1.1. Design Wind Speeds for US Territories

Island 3-second gust wind speed, mph (m/s)
Guam and Northern Mariana Islands 170 (76)
Puerto Rico 175 (78)
Virgin Islands 145 (65)
American Samoa 145 (65)

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Fig. 3. Basic Wind Speeds - Western United States (3/2020)

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Fig. 3 (part 2). Basic Wind Speeds – Central & Eastern United States (3/2020)

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Fig. 3 (part 3) Basic Wind Speeds - Western Gulf of Mexico Coastline of United States (3/2020)

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1-28 Wind Design
Page 54 FM Global Property Loss Prevention Data Sheets

90° 85° 80° 75°

1 1 5 mp h
Charleston
Richmond Norfolk

Saint 120 mph

Louis Louisville
Wytheville 125mp h

Raleigh 35°
1 30mph
100 mph
Knoxville
Nashville
Ashville 135mp h

Chattanooga
Memphis Columbia 1 4 0 mp h

35°
ock
Atlanta Charleston
Birmingham Atlantic
Ocean
Montgomery Savannah
Jackson 9
955m
mpph
h
30°
t 1
1000
0mmp
phh
95
9 mp
5m ph
h

1
1005
5mmp
phh
111
100m
mp phh

Mobile
1
11
1
15
12
20
5m
0m
mp
mp
ph
h
phh
Jacksonville
1
1225
5mmpphh
1
1330
0mmpph
h
New Orleans 1
1440
0mmp phh 1
13355m
mpph
h
1
1445
5mmpphh
15
1 0m
50 ph
mp h

30°
hh
p
phh 10
1 0m
00 ph
mp h

1
1440
0mmp
phh
1
1445
5mmp
phh
Tampa
10
1 5m
05 ph
mp h
Gulf of Mexico 14
1 5m
45 ph
mp h
11
1 0m
10 ph
mp h Freeport
11
1 5m
15 mpphh
14
1 5m
45 ph
mp h
13
1 30 mp
0m phh 12
1 0m
20 mpph
h
25°
1 35
13 5mmp ph
h 12
1 5m
25 mp h
ph
Miami
14
1 400mmp h
ph
114 5m
45 mpphh
15
1 50
0m ph
mp h

15
1 0m
50 ph
mp h

90° 85° 80°

Notes: 1. Values are nominal design 3-second gust wind speeds in miles per hour (m/s)
at 33ft (10m) above ground for Exposure C category.
2. Islands and coastal areas outside the last contour shall use the last wind speed
contour of the coastal area.

Wind Speed - mph (m/s)

90 (40) 125 (56)
95 (42) 130 (58)
100 (45) 135 (60)
105 (47) 140 (63)
110 (49) 145 (65)
100 0 100 200 300 400 Kilometers 115 (51) 150 (67)
120 (54)
100 0 100 200 300 Miles

Fig. 3. (part 4). Basic Wind Speeds - Eastern Gulf of Mexico and Southern Atlantic Coastline of United States. (8/2001)

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FM Global Property Loss Prevention Data Sheets Page 55

85° 80° 75° 70°

50°

45°
Canada
Bangor
9 0mph

Marquette Montpelier

Saranac Concord
Lake
100 mph
Boston
45° 95mph 110 mph
Albany 105 mph
115mp h
100m p h
Ludington Buffalo Hartford Providence
40°
1 05mph 1 20m p h
e 11 0mph
Detroit
Philadelphia Trenton
Chicago Cleveland 95 mph
Fort Wayne Harrisburg
100 mph
90 mph Pittsburgh
10 5mph
Atlantic
Baltimore Ocean
Columbus
110 mph
Washington DC
40° Indianapolis
Cincinnati 11 5mph
Charleston
Richmond Norfolk

120m p h 35°
Louisville
Wytheville 12 5mph

Raleigh
13 0mph
100 mph
Knoxville
Nashville 1 35mph
Ashville

Chattanooga
140m p h
Wind Speed - mph (m/s)
Columbia
90 (40) 120 (54)
95 (42) 125 (56)
100 (45) 130 (58)
105 (47) 135 (60)
Atlanta Charleston
Birmingham 110 (49) 140 (63)
Atlantic 115 (51) No Data

Ocean 30°
Montgomery Savannah

85° 80° 75°

Notes: 1. Values are nominal design 3-second gust wind speeds in miles per hour (m/s)
at 33ft (10m) above ground for Exposure C category.
2. Islands and coastal areas outside the last contour shall use the last wind speed
contour of the coastal area.

100 0 100 200 300 400 Kilometers

100 0 100 200 300 Miles

Fig. 3. (part 5). Basic Wind Speeds - Mid-Atlantic and Northern Atlantic Coastline of United States. (8/2001)

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 1-28
Page 56
170° 165° 160° 155° 150° 145° 140° 135° 130° 125° 120°
Wind Speed - mph (m/s)
90 (40) 115 (51) 70°
95 (42) 120 (54)
100 (45) 125 (56) Beaufort Sea
105 (47) 130 (58)
110 (49) 135 (60)
No Data

it
S tra
Kotzebue
65° 65°
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in g

9 5 mp h
Ber

Nome 100m ph 90m ph

Norton 105mp h
1 3 5 mp h Fairbanks
Sound
110m ph Canada
1 1 5 mp h
1 3 5 mp h 130mp h
60° 120mp h
125mp h

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135mp h 60°
Anchorage

Seward
Bering Sea

135mp h
Bristol
Bay Gulf of Alaska

55°

Wind Design
130mph 55°

Pacific Ocean
160°
135mp h

165° 160° 155° 150° 145° 140° 135° 130°

100 0 100 200 300 400 Kilometers
Note:
Values are nominal design 3-second gust wind speeds in miles per hour (m/s)
at 33ft (10m) above ground for Exposure C category. 100 0 100 200 300 Miles

Fig. 4. Basic Wind Speeds - Alaska. (8/2001)

Wind Design 1-28
FM Global Property Loss Prevention Data Sheets Page 57

Fig. C-1a. 100-year MRI wind speeds for Oahu, HI, with topographic effects included.

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Fig. C-1b. 100-year MRI wind speeds for Kauai, HI, with topographic effects included

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Fig. C-1c. 100-year MRI wind speeds for Hawaii, HI, with topographic effects included

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Fig. C-1d. 100-year MRI wind speeds for Maui, HI, with topographic effects included

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Fig. C-1e. 100-year MRI wind speeds for Molokai, HI, with topographic effects included
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Fig. C-1f. 100-year MRI wind speeds for Lanai, HI, with topographic effects included

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C.1.2 Wind Design for Australia and New Zealand

Use design wind speeds per Table AC1.1.1 for the four Australian islands noted.

Table AC1.1.1. Design Wind Speeds for Australian and Pacific Islands
100-year MRI Wind Speed, Tropical-Cyclone Prone
Australian Island mph (m/s) Location Region
Christmas Island 107 (48) Well west of Darwin Yes
Cocos Island 125 (56) Well west of Darwin Yes
Lord Howe Island 92 (41) Well southeast of Brisbane No
Norfolk Island 107 (48) Well east of Brisbane Yes
Fuji Islands 125 (56) Well east of Townsville Yes
Tonga 125 (56) Well east of Townsville Yes

C.1.2.1 New Zealand Wind Zone Topographic Effects

In the Australian/New Zealand Standard (AS/NZS 1170.2:2011), on the New Zealand wind map they note
“lee” zones that are noted by various shading on the wind map and as listed in Table AC1.2. The total width
of a wind zone (Southeast or Northwest) is 30 km (18.6 miles), of which 12 km (7.5 miles) is considered
to be within the shadow lee zone and 18 km (11.2 miles) is considered to be within the outer lee zone. The
wind zones are approximately centered on the mountain crests. The designer for any structures in these
areas must increase the wind design pressures to account for the topographical effects (M) in these regions.
Additional guidance is provided in the Australian/New Zealand Standard AS/NZS 1170.2:2011. Note that the
presence of these lee zones should not be interpreted as being tropical cyclone prone.
Though calculated differently, similar guidance is provided in ASCE 7 (KZT). Using the New Zealand code,
the designer multiplies M by the wind speed, which is then squared in determining the wind pressure. Per
ASCE 7, KZT is multiplied by the wind pressure, so it is comparable to the square of M.

Table AC1.2. Location and Size of New Zealand Lee Zones

Location Horizontal Distance from Initiating Ridge, km (mi)
Southeast Wind − Shadow Lee Zone 0 − 12 (0 − 7.5)
Southeast Wind − Outer Lee Zone 12 − 30 (7.5 − 18.6)
Northwest Wind − Shadow Lee Zone 0 − 12 (0 − 7.5)
Northwest Wind - Outer Lee Zone 12 − 30 (0 − 18.6)

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 Page 64
Wind Design
110° 115° 120° 125° 130° 135° 140° 145° 150° 155° 160°
Arafura Sea

Timor Sea
56 m / s
10° 4 8 m/s 10°
Darwin
Coral Sea
Weipa

Katherine Gulf of
Carpe ntaria
Wyndham
Dunbar Cooktown

15° 15°
Derby
Broome
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Fitzroy Tennant
O cean
Crossing Creek
In di an 5 6 m/s
Charters Bowen
Towers
Pt. Headland Northern Territory Mount Isa
Marbel Bar
66m /s Croydon
20° Australia
Onslow
20°
Alice Springs Queensland
Newman Emerald Rockhampton
41m /s
Ayers Rock
Western Australia Biloela
Gascoyne Birdsville
Carnarvon Junction
Callathara Charleville
Oodnadatta
25° 56 m / s 48 m / s
Pa cif 25°
ic Oc

FM Global Property Loss Prevention Data Sheets

4 8 m/s Brisbane ea n
Mullewa South Australia
Geraldton Casino
Morawa
Gunyidi Bourke Grafton
Kalgoorlie
Bencubbin Port
G ree n Merredin Augusta Broken Hill
Head
30° Perth Great Australian New South
Bight Wales Newcastle
30°
Collie
Sydney
Albany
Port Canberra
Lincoln Port
Adeiade
Horsham
Victoria Wind Speed - m/s (mph)
Melbourne 35 (78)
35° Indian Ocea n Geelong
41 (92) 35°
48 (107)
Note: 1. For sites located within hills, ridges or escarpments increase 56 (125)
wind speed by applying the topographic multiplier, M t, in the
Australian Standard, AS 1170.2-1989,Sec 3.2.8. 66 (148)
2. Using the M t multiplier is acceptable as the topographic No Data
factor, Kzt. 41m / s
Values are nominal design 3-second gust wind speeds in meters per second (mph)
at 10m (33ft) above ground for Exposure C category.
40°
40°
100° 105° 110° 115° 120° 125° 130° 135° 140° 145° 150° 155° 160° 165°

1-28
200 0 200 400 600 Kilometers

200 0 200 400 Miles

Fig. 5. Basic Wind Speeds - Australia, 3-sec gust in miles per hour (m/s). (8/2001)
1-28 Wind Design
FM Global Property Loss Prevention Data Sheets Page 65

170° 175°

Wind Speed - m/s (mph)

38 (85)
39 (88)
42 (94)
Bay of
44 (98) Islands
35° Southeast Wind - Shadow Zone 35°
Southeast Wind - Outer Zone Kaitaia
Northwest Wind - Shadow Zone 45m/s
Northwest Wind - Outer Zone Whangarei
Note: For sites located within hills, ridges, escarpments,
lee zones, or above an elevation of 1640ft (500m) Hau ra ki
Increase wind speeds by applying topographic multiplier. Mt. Kaipara Harbour Gul f

according to New Zealand Standard NZS 4203-1992 Thames

Part 5.4.6.

Auckland 39m/s Bay of Plenty

Huntly Morrinsville
Hamilton Tauranga
Whakatane
NORTH ISLAND Rotorua
Gisborne
Taupo
New Plymouth 38m/s
Stratford
Ohakune Napier Hawke Bay
Waiouru Hastings
40° 42m/s 40°
Wanganui Waipukurau Waipawa
Collingwood Cook
Nelson Strait Palmerston
Tasman Sea Masterton North

44m/s Upper Hutt

Westport Blenheim
Hammer
Springs Wellington

39m/s Kaikoura
Hokitika
Westland Culverden
National Mount
Park Cook Christchurch
Haast Methven Pacific Ocean
Ashburton
Milford
Sound Twizel Timaru
Wanaka
Cromwell
45° 45°
Oamaru
44m/s Alexandra
Te Anau
SOUTH ISLAND
Dunedin
Invercargill

44m/s Oban

170° 175°

50 0 50 100 150 200 Kilometers

Note: Values are nominal design 3-second gust wind speeds in meters per second (mph)
at 10m (33ft) above ground for Exposure C category. 50 0 50 100 150 Miles

Fig. 6. Basic Wind Speeds - New Zealand, 3-sec gust in miles per hour (m/s). (8/2001)

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Page 66 FM Global Property Loss Prevention Data Sheets

Fig. 7 (Part 1) Basic Wind Speeds – Western Mexico, 3-sec gust in miles per hour

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FM Global Property Loss Prevention Data Sheets Page 67

Fig. 7. (Part 2) Basic Wind Speeds - Eastern Mexico, 3-sec gust in miles per hour.

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Wind Design 1-28
Page 68 FM Global Property Loss Prevention Data Sheets

70° 75° 80° 85° 90° 95° 100° 105°

Russia

Wind Speed - m/s (mph)

38 (85) 49 (110)
39 (87) 50 (112)
40 (90) 51 (115)
42 (95) 55 (123)
44 (98) 60 (134)
45° Kazakhstan Mongolia 45 (100) No Data
47 (105)

49m / s

1
Kyrgyzstan
47m / s
40°

42 m/s

45m / s 40m / s
15

20

35° 21
W. China

55m / s

49m / s
W. CHINA
47m / s
39m / s

52
30°
4 5m/s

2
42m / s

Nepal
44m / s 40m / s
47m / s
Bhutan
India
25°
5 0m/s Burma 65
(Myanmar)

Bangladesh
38m / s
47m / s 55m / s
3 9m/s

51m/s 60 m/s

20° 4 4m/s Laos

Bay of Bengal
44m / s

80° 85° 90° 95° 100°

Note: Values are nominal design 3-second gust wind speeds in meters per second (mph)
at 10m (33ft) above ground for Exposure C category. 100 0 100 200 300 400 Kilometers

100 0 100 200 300 Miles

For numbered city names and basic wind speeds, see Fig. 8. (part 3).
Fig. 8. Basic Wind Speeds for Western China, 3-sec. gust in m/s (mph). (8/2001)

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1-28 Wind Design
FM Global Property Loss Prevention Data Sheets Page 69

105° 110° 115° 120° 125° 130° 135° 140°

3 42 m/s
40 m/s
Wind Speed - m/s (mph)
45 m/s
38 (85) 58 (130) 45°
55° 40 (90) 60 (135)
42 (95) 63 (140)
45 (100) 65 (145)
47 (105) 67 (150)
49 (110) 69 (155) Russia
51 (115) 72 (160) 47m / s
54 (120) No Data
56 (125)
4
5
40 m/s 49 m/s

50° 6 42m / s

45 m/s 7 40°

Mongolia 47 m/s 8
9 Tongjoson
North Bay

10 Korea

45° Gulf
Of
Lia odong Korea
4 9 m/s Bay
49 m/s 13 South
51m/s Korea
11 12 54m/s 14 51m / s 35°
54m / s
Bo Hai
G ulf of Chihli 19
17 18 51m/s 58m/s
49 m/s
25
24 58m / s
16 Yellow Sea
40°
15 4 0 m/s
22 23 30
34
32
31 30°
20 29 33 41
28 40 43
21 36 72m/s
35 42 48
27 38 37 44
26 45 49
39
46
35° 47
50
54 56 East
China Sea
55 59
47m/s 4 0 m/s 64 67 m/s
E. China 58
38m / s 40 m/s 63
25°
52
57 61
53 62
itra

45m / s
an St

60
30° 69
Ta iw

Taiwan
42m/s 68
P es c a do re
C h ann el

4 0m/s 66 78 58m/s an
nel
Ch
67 Ba
shi

40 m/s
74 20°
75 77
65 76
73
25° 70 5 8m/s
72 South China
38m/s Sea
71
Vietnam
Gulf of
Tonkin

100° 105° 110° 115° 120°

Note: Values are nominal design 3-second gust wind speeds in meters per second (mph)
at 10m (33ft) above ground for Exposure C category.
100 0 100 200 300 400 Kilometers

For numbered city names and basic wind speeds, see Fig. 8. (part 3). 100 0 100 200 300 Miles

Fig. 8. (part 2) Basic Wind Speeds for Eastern China, 3-sec. gust in m/s (mph). (8/2001)

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 China Cities-Numerical Order

Page 70
1-28
China Cities-Alphabetical Order
Basic Wind Speed Basic Wind Speed Basic Wind Speed Basic Wind Speed
City 3-sec. gust mph City 3-sec. gust mph City 3-sec. gust mph City 3-sec. gust mph
No. City Name (m/s) No. City Name (m/s) No. City Name (m/s) No. City Name (m/s)
1 Urmuqi 110 (49) 40 Changzhou 85 (38) 051 — — 041 Nantong 90 (40)
2 Lhasa 85 (38) 41 Nantong 90 (40) 010 Anshan 95 (43) 050 Ningbo 108 (48)
3 Mohe 85 (38) 42 Suzhou 90 (40) 026 Baoji 85 (38) 015 Ningchuan 110 (49)
4 Qiqihaer 95 (43) 43 Shanghai 111 (50) 011 Beijing 85 (38) 025 Qingdao 113 (51)
5 Harbin 95 (43) 44 Jinshanwei 118 (53) 007 Changchun 106 (47) 013 Qinghuangdao 90 (40)
6 Wulanhaote 106 (47) 45 Wuxing 90 (40) 057 Changsha 85 (38) 004 Qiqihaer 95 (43)
7 Changchun 106 (47) 46 Hangzhou 90 (40) 040 Changzhou 85 (38) 069 Quanzhou 118 (53)
8 Fushun 95 (43) 47 Shaoxing 90 (40) 052 Chengdu 85 (38) 043 Shanghai 111 (50)
Fig. 8 (Part 3). Basic wind speeds for selected cities in China
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9 Shenyang 102 (45) 48 Chenshi 160 (71) 048 Chenshi 160 (71) 078 Shantou 132 (59)
10 Anshan 95 (43) 49 Dinghai 127 (57) 053 Chongqing 85 (38) 077 Shanwei 127 (57)
11 Beijing 85 (38) 50 Ningbo 108 (48) 014 Dalian 118 (53) 047 Shaoxing 90 (40)
12 Tianjin 90 (40) 51 — — 049 Dinghai 127 (57) 009 Shenyang 102 (45)
13 Qinghuangdao 90 (40) 52 Chengdu 85 (38) 034 Dongtai 85 (38) 075 Shenzhen 127 (57)
14 Dalian 118 (53) 53 Chongqing 85 (38) 063 Fuding 122 (55) 032 Sheyang 85 (38)
15 Ningchuan 110 (49) 54 Wuhan 85 (38) 008 Fushun 95 (43) 017 Shijiazhuang 85 (38)
16 Taiyuan 85 (38) 55 Jindezhen 85 (38) 062 Fuzhou 118 (53) 042 Suzhou 90 (40)
17 Shijiazhuang 85 (38) 56 Jinhua 85 (38) 074 Guangzhou 102 (46) 016 Taiyuan 85 (38)
18 Yantai 113 (51) 57 Changsha 85 (38) 067 Guilin 85 (38) 012 Tianjin 90 (40)
19 Weihai 118 (53) 58 Nanchang 90 (40) 066 Guiyang 85 (38) 001 Urmuqi 110 (49)

FM Global Property Loss Prevention Data Sheets

20 Xining 85 (38) 59 Yuhuan 152 (68) 023 Handan 85 (38) 024 Weifang 90 (40)
21 Lanzhou 85 (38) 60 Zhuzhou 85 (38) 046 Hangzhou 90 (40) 019 Weihai 118 (53)
22 Yan’an 85 (38) 61 Nanping 85 (38) 005 Harbin 95 (43) 064 Wenzhou 113 (51)
23 Handan 85 (38) 62 Fuzhou 118 (53) 038 Hefei 85 (38) 054 Wuhan 85 (38)
24 Weifang 90 (40) 63 Fuding 122 (55) 076 Hong Kong 127 (57) 039 Wuhu 90 (40)
25 Qingdao 113 (51) 64 Wenzhou 113 (51) 055 Jindezhen 85 (38) 006 Wulanhaote 106 (47)
26 Baoji 85 (38) 65 Kunming 85 (38) 056 Jinhua 85 (38) 045 Wuxing 90 (40)
27 Xi an 85 (38) 66 Guiyang 85 (38) 044 Jinshanwei 118 (53) 027 Xi an 85 (38)
28 Zhenzhou 90 (40) 67 Guilin 85 (38) 029 Kaifeng 95 (43) 068 Xiamen 132 (59)
29 Kaifeng 95 (43) 68 Xiamen 132 (59) 065 Kunming 85 (38) 020 Xining 85 (38)
30 Lianyungang 90 (40) 69 Quanzhou 118 (53) 021 Lanzhou 85 (38) 031 Xuzhou 85 (38)
31 Xuzhou 85 (38) 70 Nanning 85 (38) 002 Lhasa 85 (38) 022 Yan’an 85 (38)

Wind Design
32 Sheyang 85 (38) 71 Zhanjiang 132 (59) 030 Lianyungang 90 (40) 033 Yangzhou 85 (38)
33 Yangzhou 85 (38) 72 Maoming 118 (53) 037 Ma’anshan 85 (38) 018 Yantai 113 (51)
34 Dongtai 85 (38) 73 Zhuhai 127 (57) 072 Maoming 118 (53) 059 Yuhuan 152 (68)
35 Zhenjiang 85 (38) 74 Guangzhou 102 (46) 003 Mohe 85 (38) 071 Zhanjiang 132 (59)
36 Nanjing 85 (38) 75 Shenzhen 127 (57) 058 Nanchang 90 (40) 035 Zhenjiang 85 (38)
37 Ma’anshan 85 (38) 76 Hong Kong 127 (57) 036 Nanjing 85 (38) 028 Zhenzhou 90 (40)
38 Hefei 85 (38) 77 Shanwei 127 (57) 070 Nanning 85 (38) 073 Zhuhai 127 (57)
39 Wuhu 90 (40) 78 Shantou 132 (59) 061 Nanping 85 (38) 060 Zhuzhou 85 (38)
1-28 Wind Design
FM Global Property Loss Prevention Data Sheets Page 71

120° 121° 122°

56 m/ s
East China Sea
China
5 8 m/ s

Yangmingshan

Sanchung Chilung 6 9 m/ s
Taoyuan Taipei 67 m/ s
25° 5 8 m /s Panchiao 6 3 m/ s 25°
Chungli 6 0 m/ s 6 5 m /s

Hsinchu 5 8 m/ s
5 6m / s
5 4 m/ s
5 1m / s

Taiwan Strait 4 9 m /s
47 m/ s 67 m/ s
Taichung
4 5 m /s
Changhua 42 m/ s
Hualien
24° 24°
6 9 m/ s
4 0 m/ s
3 8 m /s

51 m/ s
63 m/ s Chiai

Pescadore
Channel
6 3 m /s 4 2 m /s
45 m/ s
Pacific Ocean
47 m/ s
56 m/ s
Tainan
23° 4 9m / s 23°
5 1 m/ s
Taitung
5 4 m/ s Lu Island
Pingtung
Kaohsiung 69 m/ s
Fengshan 5 6 m/ s
5 8 m/ s
60 m/ s
60 m/ s
6 3 m/ s
6 5 m/ s
Wind Speed - m/s (mph) 6 7 m /s Lan Island
38 (85) 56 (125)
6 9 m/ s
40 (90) 58 (130) 69 m/ s
22° 42 (95) 60 (135) 22°
45 (100) 63 (140)
47 (105) 65 (145)
49 (110) 67 (150)
51 (115) 69 (155)
54 (120)
Bashi Channel

120° 121° 122°

20 0 20 40 60 Kilometers
Note: Values are nominal design 3-second gust wind speeds in meters per second (mph)
at 10m (33ft) above ground for Exposure C category. 10 0 10 20 30 40 Miles

Fig. 9. Basic Wind Speeds - Taiwan, 3 sec gust in m/s (mph). (8/2001)

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Wind Design 1-28
Page 72 FM Global Property Loss Prevention Data Sheets

Venezuela
5 Guyana

French
Columbia Suriname Guiana

Atlantic Ocean

Manaus

Fortaleza

10
Brazil
38m/s Sa lvador

Peru

Brasilia

15
Bolivia
Belo Horizonte

40m/s
20 42m /s
40m/s
42m /s
Pacific Ocean Paraguay 45m /s Rio de
Ja neiro

49m/s 45m/ s
Sao Paulo

51m/s
Chile 47m/s
51m/s

25
45m/s
Argentina 47m/s
42m /s Porto
Allegre

45m/s Wind Speed - m/s (mph)

Atlantic Ocean
38 (85)

30
40 (90)
47m/s 42 (95)
49m/s 45 (100)
51m/s 47 (105)
49 (110)
51 (115)
No Data

35 75 70 65 60 55 50 45 40 35

Note: Values are nominal design 3-second gust wind speeds in meters per second (mph)
at 10m (33ft) above ground for Exposure C category.
200 0 200 400 600 Kilometers

200 0 200 400 Miles

Fig. 10. Basic Wind Speeds - Brazil, 3-sec gust in miles per hour (m/s). (8/2001)

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Wind Design 1-28
FM Global Property Loss Prevention Data Sheets Page 73

Table AC1.3. Wind Speed Conversions

Fastest Mile, Three-Second Gust, 10-Minute Wind Speed,
mph mph (m/s) mph (m/s)
70 84 (37) 58 (26)
75 88 (39) 61 (27)
80 94 (42) 65 (29)
85 100 (44) 69 (31)
90 104 (46) 72 (32)
95 111 (49) 77 ((34)
100 116 (52) 80 (36)
105 122 (54) 84 (37)
110 127 (56) 88 (39)
115 132 (59) 91 (40)
120 137 (61) 94 (42)
125 143 (64) 99 (44)
130 148 (66) 102 (45)
135 152 (68) 105 (47)
140 159 (71) 109 (48)
145 164 (73) 113 (50)
150 168 (75) 116 (52)
155 174 (77) 120 (53)
160 178 (78) 123 (55)

Table AC1.4. Basic Wind Speed for Selected Countries and Cities
1
Country/City Basic Wind Speed, 3-sec gust
Atlantic and Caribbean Sea Islands: Bermuda, Jamaica, 145 mph (65 m/s)
Dominican Republic, Haiti, Bahamas, Virgin Islands, and
the Leeward and Windward islands of the Caribbean Sea
Aruba 130 mph (58 m/s)
Trinidad and Tobago 120 mph (54 m/s)

Malaysia Not a typhoon-prone region

Panama 72 mph (32 m/s) for the Pacific side;
87 mph (39 m/s) for the Caribbean side. Panama is not
prone to tropical storms.2
Samoa Islands 135 mph (60 m/s)
Singapore Not a typhoon-prone region
1
Consult local records in mountainous areas.
2
This is consistent with the Structural Design Code for the Republic of Panama.

Table AC1.5. Design Wind Speeds for Vietnam

City Three-Second Gust Wind Speed, mph (/s)
Ho Chi Minh (Saigon) 110 (49)
Hanoi 115 (52)
Da Nang 145 (65)
Note: These wind speeds are effective at 33 ft (10 m) above the ground, in open terrain(surface roughness exposure C) and represent a
100-year mean recurrence interval (MRI, 1% chance of being exceeded per year).

Fig. 11. Basic Wind Speeds for Selected Cities: Canada, 3-sec gust in miles per hour (m/s) (8/2001)
Name Province Latitude Longitude Wind Speed 3 Sec mph
100 Mile House British Columbia 51.6475 -121.29 83
Abbotsford British Columbia 49.0492 -122.331 103
Abbottsford British Columbia 49.0492 -122.331 103
Acton Vale Quebec 45.6483 -72.5659 74

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1-28 Wind Design
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Name Province Latitude Longitude Wind Speed 3 Sec mph

Agassiz British Columbia 49.2375 -121.77 115
Ailsa Craig Ontario 43.1604 -81.6796 98
Aishihik Yukon Territory 61.5942 -137.513 82
Ajax Ontario 43.85087 -79.0203 100
Aklavik Northwest Territories 68.2201 -140.367 100
Alberni British Columbia 49.26557 -124.814 105
Alert Northwest Territories 82.4243 -62.5671 115
Alexandria Ontario 45.3084 -74.6277 84
Alliston Ontario 44.1453 -79.8577 74
Alma Quebec 48.5497 -71.6602 74
Alma New Brunswick 45.6074 -64.9386 98
Almonte Ontario 45.2303 -76.1887 84
Amherst Nova Scotia 45.8327 -64.2043 100
Amos Quebec 48.5747 -78.1253 74
Amprior Ontario 45.4409 -76.3612 81
Amqui Quebec 48.4594 -67.4377 78
Anse Comeau Quebec 49.2171 -68.1608 103
Antigonish Nova Scotia 45.6231 -61.9897 98
Antigonishe Nova Scotia 45.6231 -61.9897 98
Arctic Bay Northwest Territories 73.0387 -85.1881 98
Argentia Newfoundland 47.2836 -54.0105 115
Armstrong Ontario 50.3057 -89.0605 69
Arnprior Ontario 45.4409 -76.3612 81
Ashcroft British Columbia 50.7256 -121.276 82
Assiniboia Saskatchewan 49.6243 -105.963 100
Athabasca Alberta 54.7133 -113.284 84
Athabaska Alberta 54.7133 -113.284 84
Atikokan Ontario 48.7572 -91.6158 69
Aurora Ontario 44.00648 -79.4504 86
Aylmer Quebec 45.3899 -75.8304 84
Bagotville Quebec 48.3459 -70.8927 81
Baie-Comeau Quebec 49.2171 -68.1608 103
Baker Lake Northwest Territories 64.3235 -96.0323 98
Bancroft Ontario 45.0524 -77.8509 74
Banff Alberta 51.1772 -115.552 93
Barrhead Alberta 54.1218 -114.397 86
Barrie Ontario 44.3847 -79.6752 74
Barriefield Ontario 44.2395 -76.4514 91
Bathurst New Brunswick 47.612 -65.6466 91
Battrum Saskatchewan 50.54834 -108.335 107
Beaconsfield Quebec 45.42424 -73.8662 84
Beauport Quebec 46.85944 -71.1932 96
Beauséjour Manitoba 50.0606 -96.5254 84
Beaverlodge Alberta 55.2069 -119.429 79
Beaverton Ontario 44.4295 -79.1536 78
Bedford Quebec 45.12055 -72.9865 84
Belleville Ontario 44.1605 -77.3766 86
Belmont Ontario 42.8814 -81.0875 93
Beloeil Quebec 45.56699 -73.2024 81
Big Trout Lake Ontario 53.81876 -89.8351 86
Biggar Saskatchewan 52.0539 -107.976 107
Boissevain Manitoba 49.2287 -100.057 100
Bonavista Newfoundland 48.6541 -53.1205 110
Borden Ontario 44.2901 -79.9127 74
Bracebridge Ontario 45.0353 -79.3036 78
Bradford Ontario 44.12022 -79.5619 78
Brampton Ontario 43.6889 -79.7583 86
Brandon Manitoba 49.8404 -99.958 93
Brantford Ontario 43.1457 -80.2624 84
Bridgewater Nova Scotia 44.3732 -64.5176 100
Brighton Ontario 44.0351 -77.7281 98
Broadview Saskatchewan 50.3796 -102.576 86
Brockville Ontario 44.6011 -75.69 86
Brome Quebec 45.19407 -72.5717 81
Brooks Alberta 50.5676 -111.894 96
Brossard Quebec 45.45715 -73.4922 84
Buchans Newfoundland 48.8232 -56.8743 103
Buckingham Quebec 45.5863 -75.4059 84

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Name Province Latitude Longitude Wind Speed 3 Sec mph

Burks Falls Ontario 45.61988 -79.4087 78
Burlington Ontario 43.3255 -79.7917 91
Burnaby British Columbia 49.234 -122.953 92
Burns Lake British Columbia 54.2327 -125.765 83
Cache Creek British Columbia 50.8148 -121.322 82
Calgary Alberta 51.0246 -114.102 94
Cambridge Ontario 43.3559 -80.3035 78
Cambridge Bay Northwest Territories 69.1122 -105.071 98
Campbell River British Columbia 50.0307 -125.255 105
Campbellford Ontario 44.3007 -77.7909 84
Campbells Bay Quebec 45.7324 -76.5875 74
Campbellton New Brunswick 47.9988 -66.6763 96
Campbell-town New Brunswick 47.9988 -66.6763 96
Campsie Alberta 54.13735 -114.651 86
Camrose Alberta 53.0198 -112.831 84
Cannington Ontario 44.35018 -79.0386 78
Canso Nova Scotia 45.3341 -61.0029 105
Cape Race Newfoundland 46.665 -53.093 136
Cardston Alberta 49.1909 -113.301 134
Carleton Place Ontario 45.1432 -76.1412 84
Carmi British Columbia 49.4973 -119.12 79
Castlegar British Columbia 49.3147 -117.666 76
Cavan Ontario 44.19967 -78.4687 86
Cayoosh Flat British Columbia 50.6931 -121.929 86
Centralia Ontario 43.2839 -81.4721 96
Chambly Quebec 45.44906 -73.2918 84
Channel-port Aux Basqeus Newfoundland 47.5851 -59.1657 110
Chapleau Ontario 47.8504 -83.4079 69
Charlottetown Prince Edward Island 46.239 -63.1333 103
Chatham Ontario 42.4024 -82.185 86
Chatham New Brunswick 47.0302 -65.4668 84
Chesley Ontario 44.30272 -81.0966 91
Chesterfield Northwest Territories 63.3437 -90.7414 100
Chesterfield Inlet Northwest Territories 63.3437 -90.7414 100
Chetwynd British Columbia 55.694 -121.619 84
Chicoutimi Quebec 48.4294 -71.0424 78
Chilliwack British Columbia 49.1432 -121.961 110
Churchill Manitoba 58.7609 -94.0678 106
Claresholm Alberta 50.0268 -113.579 124
Clinton Ontario 43.6197 -81.5394 96
Cloverdale British Columbia 49.10833 -122.725 91
Clyde Northwest Territories 70.457 -68.6299 124
Clyde River Northwest Territories 70.457 -68.6299 124
Coaticook Quebec 45.1338 -71.8053 81
Coboconk Ontario 44.65881 -78.7974 78
Cobourg Ontario 43.96 -78.1574 103
Cochrane Ontario 49.0639 -81.0466 78
Colbourne Ontario 44.0051 -77.8877 100
Cold Lake Alberta 54.4575 -110.189 84
Coleman Alberta 49.6397 -114.497 115
Collingwood Ontario 44.4957 -80.2116 81
Colvilletown British Columbia 49.1253 -123.924 105
Comax British Columbia 49.682 -124.942 105
Comeau Bay Quebec 49.2171 -68.1608 103
Comox British Columbia 49.682 -124.942 105
Comuck British Columbia 49.682 -124.942 105
Contrecoeur Quebec 45.85716 -73.2391 87
Coppermine Northwest Territories 67.8717 -115.639 90
Coral Harbour Northwest Territories 64.13374 -83.1669 132
Corner Brook Newfoundland 48.9587 -57.9856 115
Cornwall Ontario 45.0283 -74.7381 84
Coronation Alberta 52.0902 -111.441 78
Coronation Northwest Territories 67.8717 -115.639 90
Corunna Ontario 42.8886 -82.4533 91
Courtenay British Columbia 49.6803 -124.999 105
Cowansville Quebec 45.2067 -72.7464 84
Cowley Alberta 49.5733 -114.063 132
Cranbrook British Columbia 49.5101 -115.768 74

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1-28 Wind Design
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Name Province Latitude Longitude Wind Speed 3 Sec mph

Crescent Valley British Columbia 49.45 -117.55 74
Crofton British Columbia 48.8632 -123.647 105
Dafoe Saskatchewan 51.749 -104.521 81
Dartmouth Nova Scotia 44.6851 -63.5353 100
Dauphin Manitoba 51.141 -100.049 84
Dawson Yukon Territory 64.0428 -139.417 73
Dawson City Yukon Territory 64.0428 -139.417 73
Dawson Creek British Columbia 55.7542 -120.234 84
Debert Nova Scotia 45.43808 -63.4599 98
Deep River Ontario 46.09717 -77.4939 78
Deseronto Ontario 44.1926 -77.0469 86
Destruction Bay Yukon Territory 61.2561 -138.803 103
Deux-Montagnes Quebec 45.54176 -73.8932 81
Digby Nova Scotia 44.6214 -65.7618 98
Dog Creek British Columbia 51.584 -122.239 84
Dolbeau Quebec 48.8794 -72.2323 78
Dorchester Ontario 42.98522 -81.0491 91
Dorion Ontario 48.78333 -88.5333 83
Dorval Quebec 45.43896 -73.7332 84
Dresden Ontario 42.58434 -82.1799 86
Drumheller Alberta 51.4617 -112.703 86
Drummondville Quebec 45.8821 -72.4953 74
Drummondville East Quebec 45.8821 -72.4953 74
Dryden Ontario 49.7817 -92.8476 69
Duncan British Columbia 48.7648 -123.685 105
Dundurn Saskatchewan 51.8036 -106.499 96
Dunnville Ontario 42.9076 -79.6185 86
Durham Ontario 44.1667 -80.8118 86
Dutton Ontario 42.66379 -81.5027 91
Earlton Ontario 47.7088 -79.8187 87
Earlton Junction Ontario 47.7088 -79.8187 87
East Souris Prince Edward Island 46.3542 -62.2507 98
Edmonton Alberta 53.5556 -113.508 87
Edmundston New Brunswick 47.381 -68.3294 86
Edson Alberta 53.5835 -116.435 98
Elko British Columbia 49.3007 -115.11 84
Elmvale Ontario 44.58357 -79.8663 78
Embarras Alberta 58.2086 -111.375 84
Embro Ontario 43.15365 -80.9 91
Englehart Ontario 47.8235 -79.8711 84
Eskimo Point Northwest Territories 61.1877 -94.0963 106
Espanola Ontario 46.2534 -81.7602 84
Estevan Saskatchewan 49.1399 -102.999 99
Etobicoke Ontario 43.65437 -79.5408 96
Eureka Northwest Territories 79.9842 -85.8287 107
Exeter Ontario 43.347 -81.4733 96
Fairview Alberta 56.0717 -118.376 78
Farnham Quebec 45.2853 -72.9793 84
Fenelon Falls Ontario 44.5341 -78.726 78
Fergus Ontario 43.707 -80.3696 78
Fernie British Columbia 49.51 -115.065 91
Flin Flon Manitoba 54.76849 -101.877 87
Fonthill Ontario 43.04543 -79.2855 86
Forest Ontario 43.0966 -81.996 96
Fort Erie Ontario 42.9091 -78.9257 91
Fort Frances Ontario 48.6145 -93.4165 73
Fort Good Hope Northwest Territories 66.255 -128.621 105
Fort Macleod Alberta 49.7164 -113.405 126
Fort McLeod British Columbia 54.9934 -123.031 74
Fort McMurray Alberta 56.7251 -111.366 78
Fort Nelson British Columbia 58.8003 -122.702 70
Fort Providence Northwest Territories 61.3547 -117.66 78
Fort Rae Northwest Territories 62.8337 -116.036 91
Fort Resolution Northwest Territories 61.1736 -113.663 83
Fort Saint John British Columbia 56.2481 -120.854 83
Fort Saskatchewan Alberta 53.7065 -113.216 86
Fort Simpson Northwest Territories 61.8621 -121.361 84
Fort Smith Northwest Territories 60.0125 -111.893 84

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Name Province Latitude Longitude Wind Speed 3 Sec mph

Fort Vermilion Alberta 58.3898 -115.997 70
Fort Vermillion Alberta 58.3898 -115.997 70
Fort William Ontario 48.441 -89.2476 83
Fort-coulonge Quebec 45.8425 -76.7342 74
Fredericton New Brunswick 45.9493 -66.6543 84
Gagetown New Brunswick 45.7786 -66.1487 96
Gananoque Ontario 44.3311 -76.1673 91
Gander Newfoundland 48.9508 -54.6277 103
Gaspé Quebec 48.8286 -64.5025 117
Gatineau Quebec 45.4942 -75.6607 84
Geraldton Ontario 49.7212 -86.9506 69
Gimli Manitoba 50.633 -96.9852 84
Glacier British Columbia 51.2658 -117.516 74
Glencoe Ontario 42.7232 -81.7143 86
Goderich Ontario 43.7457 -81.7053 98
Golden British Columbia 51.2917 -116.959 78
Good Hope Northwest Territories 66.255 -128.621 105
Gore Bay Ontario 45.9115 -82.4634 83
Gracefield Quebec 46.0942 -76.0587 74
Graham Ontario 49.2395 -90.5866 69
Granby Quebec 45.4025 -72.7221 78
Grand Bank Newfoundland 47.0932 -55.7612 115
Grand Falls New Brunswick 47.0502 -67.7341 84
Grand Falls Newfoundland 48.929 -55.6505 103
Grand Forks British Columbia 49.0342 -118.44 83
Grande Prairie Alberta 55.1697 -118.796 92
Gravenhurst Ontario 44.9171 -79.3674 78
Greenwood British Columbia 49.0904 -118.671 86
Greenwood Nova Scotia 44.9764 -64.9509 96
Grimsby Ontario 43.1823 -79.557 91
Guelph Ontario 43.5505 -80.2519 76
Guthrie Ontario 44.4728 -79.55 74
Habay Alberta 58.8088 -118.707 70
Haileybury Ontario 47.4419 -79.6295 86
Haldimand-norfolk Ontario 43.2263 -80.142 86
Haliburton Ontario 45.045 -78.5085 78
Halifax Nova Scotia 44.6539 -63.6075 100
Halleybury Ontario 47.4419 -79.6295 86
Halton Ontario 43.5809 -79.8591 81
Hamilton Ontario 43.257 -79.8423 91
Haney British Columbia 49.2198 -122.503 91
Hanover Ontario 44.1465 -81.0194 91
Happy Valley Newfoundland 53.2974 -60.28 81
Hardisty Alberta 52.6734 -111.299 78
Harrington Harbour Quebec 50.4975 -59.4709 127
Harve-st-pierre Quebec 50.2434 -63.6032 117
Hastings Ontario 44.30694 -77.9558 84
Hawkesbury Ontario 45.6047 -74.6114 84
Hay River Northwest Territories 60.8535 -115.749 78
Hearst Ontario 49.6895 -83.6786 69
Hemmingford Quebec 45.0504 -73.5868 84
High River Alberta 50.5816 -113.869 107
Hinton Alberta 53.3919 -117.596 91
Holman Northwest Territories 70.7359 -117.746 122
Honey Harbour Ontario 44.87107 -79.8171 81
Hope British Columbia 49.3799 -121.438 103
Hornepayne Ontario 49.21302 -84.7711 69
Hudson Bay Saskatchewan 52.8573 -102.382 81
Hudson Bay Junction Saskatchewan 52.8573 -102.382 81
Hull Quebec 45.4362 -75.7255 84
Humboldt Saskatchewan 52.2014 -105.119 83
Huntsville Ontario 45.3197 -79.2096 78
Iberville Quebec 45.3107 -73.2377 84
Ingersoll Ontario 43.0423 -80.8802 91
Inuvik Northwest Territories 68.3655 -133.706 103
Iqaluit Northwest Territories 63.71104 -68.3275 103
Iroquois Falls Ontario 48.7746 -80.6845 84
Isachsen Northwest Territories 78.7723 -103.572 126

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1-28 Wind Design
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Name Province Latitude Longitude Wind Speed 3 Sec mph

Island Falls Saskatchewan 55.5041 -102.329 87
Island Lake Manitoba 53.8666 -94.6407 87
Ivujivik Quebec 62.4138 -77.9287 125
Jarvis Ontario 42.88448 -80.1141 86
Jasper Alberta 52.8785 -118.085 91
Jellicoe Ontario 49.6848 -87.5479 69
Joliette Quebec 46.0266 -73.4425 79
Jonquiere Quebec 48.4239 -71.2445 78
Kamloops British Columbia 50.7113 -120.386 84
Kamsack Saskatchewan 51.5586 -101.897 84
Kangerjuaq Northwest Territories 64.3235 -96.0323 98
Kapuskasing Ontario 49.4278 -82.429 73
Kaslo British Columbia 49.9097 -116.911 73
Keg River Alberta 57.7551 -117.6 70
Kelowna British Columbia 49.8675 -119.449 91
Kemptville Ontario 45.0205 -75.6332 84
Kenogami Quebec 48.4282 -71.2307 78
Kenora Ontario 49.7681 -94.4894 73
Kentville Nova Scotia 45.0749 -64.5018 96
Killaloe Station Ontario 45.5519 -77.4229 78
Kimberley British Columbia 49.6827 -115.983 74
Kimberly British Columbia 49.6827 -115.983 74
Kincardine Ontario 44.1758 -81.6301 98
Kindersley Saskatchewan 51.4675 -109.154 105
Kingston Ontario 44.23 -76.4975 91
Kinmount Ontario 44.7846 -78.6475 78
Kirkland Lake Ontario 48.1596 -80.0281 84
Kitchener Ontario 43.457 -80.4934 81
Knob Lake Quebec 54.8007 -66.8108 86
Kogluktok Northwest Territories 67.8717 -115.639 90
Komoux British Columbia 49.682 -124.942 105
Kuujjuag Quebec 58.1081 -68.4172 112
Kuujjuarapik Quebec 55.28335 -77.7499 121
La Malbaie Quebec 47.6569 -70.1608 98
La Tuque Quebec 47.4432 -72.7774 78
Labrador City Newfoundland 52.9396 -66.9201 84
Lac du Bonnet Manitoba 50.255 -96.0745 81
Lac La Biche Alberta 54.7675 -111.96 84
Lachute Quebec 45.654 -74.3425 84
Lac-Mégantic Quebec 45.5717 -70.8625 78
Lacombe Alberta 52.46415 -113.734 84
Ladner British Columbia 49.09013 -123.082 93
Lakefield Ontario 44.4163 -78.2657 81
Langley British Columbia 49.1009 -122.65 91
Lansdowne House Ontario 52.2097 -87.9021 74
Laval Quebec 45.5714 -73.6838 84
Le Pas Manitoba 53.8164 -101.253 87
Leamington Ontario 42.0504 -82.5992 91
Lennoxville Quebec 45.3691 -71.8559 74
Lery Quebec 45.34483 -73.8062 84
Lethbridge Alberta 49.6908 -112.82 121
Levis Quebec 46.80289 -71.1761 96
Lillooet British Columbia 50.6931 -121.929 86
Lindsay Ontario 44.3518 -78.7316 81
Lions Head Ontario 44.98475 -81.2532 91
Listowel Ontario 43.7331 -80.9452 91
Liverpool Nova Scotia 44.0392 -64.7185 103
Lloydminster Saskatchewan 53.28414 -110.003 84
Lockeport Nova Scotia 43.6989 -65.1253 103
London Ontario 42.9883 -81.2356 96
Loretteville Quebec 46.8549 -71.3644 96
Louisbourg Nova Scotia 45.925 -59.9684 107
Louisburg Nova Scotia 45.925 -59.9684 107
Louisville Quebec 46.2586 -72.9482 87
Lucan Ontario 43.18781 -81.4028 98
Lunenburg Nova Scotia 44.377 -64.3202 103
Lynn Lake Manitoba 56.8558 -101.039 87
Lytton British Columbia 50.2338 -121.577 86

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Wind Design 1-28
FM Global Property Loss Prevention Data Sheets Page 79

Name Province Latitude Longitude Wind Speed 3 Sec mph

Mackenzie British Columbia 55.3298 -123.086 74
Macleod Alberta 49.7164 -113.405 126
Magog Quebec 45.2608 -72.1407 78
Maitland Ontario 44.63513 -75.6133 86
Malartic Quebec 48.1414 -78.1264 74
Maniwac Quebec 46.3785 -75.9753 73
Maniwaki Quebec 46.3785 -75.9753 73
Manning Alberta 56.9148 -117.609 70
Maple Creek Saskatchewan 49.896 -109.479 105
Markdale Ontario 44.3285 -80.6633 84
Markham Ontario 43.85619 -79.3368 96
Martin Ontario 49.2496 -91.1476 69
Masset British Columbia 54.02278 -132.099 105
Masson Quebec 45.5498 -75.4178 84
Matane Quebec 48.8431 -67.5271 103
Matheson Ontario 48.5367 -80.4691 84
Matheson Station Ontario 48.5367 -80.4691 84
Mattawa Ontario 46.31748 -78.7023 74
McBride British Columbia 53.2998 -120.163 78
McLeod Lake British Columbia 54.9934 -123.031 74
McMurray Alberta 56.7251 -111.366 78
Meadow Lake Saskatchewan 54.1351 -108.427 93
Medicine Hat Alberta 50.0312 -110.682 97
Megantic Quebec 45.5717 -70.8625 78
Melfort Saskatchewan 52.8537 -104.606 78
Melville Saskatchewan 50.9299 -102.795 84
Merrit British Columbia 50.1073 -120.782 86
Merritt British Columbia 50.1073 -120.782 86
Midland Ontario 44.7446 -79.8771 81
Milton Ontario 43.5127 -79.8787 86
Milton West Ontario 43.5127 -79.8787 86
Milverton Ontario 43.5658 -80.9221 86
Minden Ontario 44.9279 -78.7254 78
Mississauga Ontario 43.58873 -79.6444 93
Mitchell Ontario 43.4673 -81.1955 93
Moncton New Brunswick 46.098 -64.7889 105
Mont Jolie Quebec 48.587 -68.1931 103
Mont-Joli Quebec 48.587 -68.1931 103
Mont-Laurier Quebec 46.5508 -75.496 73
Montmagny Quebec 46.9791 -70.5598 98
Montreal Quebec 45.5316 -73.6102 84
Montrose British Columbia 49.0866 -117.574 76
Moose Harbor Ontario 51.2729 -80.6725 78
Moose Jaw Saskatchewan 50.39 -105.54 91
Moosonee Ontario 51.2729 -80.6725 78
Morden Manitoba 49.1885 -98.1051 96
Morrisburg Ontario 44.9007 -75.1841 84
Mould Bay Northwest Territories 76.2483 -119.35 107
Mount Forest Ontario 43.984 -80.7306 84
Murray Bay Quebec 47.6569 -70.1608 98
Nakina Ontario 50.1637 -86.7131 69
Nakusp British Columbia 50.2381 -117.794 76
Nanaimo British Columbia 49.1253 -123.924 105
Nanymo British Columbia 49.1253 -123.924 105
Napanee Ontario 44.2728 -77.1146 86
Napanee Ontario 44.2461 -76.952 86
Neepawa Manitoba 50.2338 -99.4588 87
Nelson British Columbia 49.4821 -117.296 74
New Glasgow Nova Scotia 45.5926 -62.6589 98
New Liskeard Ontario 47.5131 -79.6774 86
New Westminister British Columbia 49.1802 -122.89 91
Newcastle Ontario 43.9114 -78.6781 103
Newmarket Ontario 44.0943 -79.4396 81
Niagara Falls Ontario 43.0974 -79.0935 86
Nichikun Quebec 53.1969 -70.883 81
Nicolet Quebec 46.2342 -72.6069 86
Nipawin Saskatchewan 53.3449 -104.02 81
Nitchequon Quebec 53.1969 -70.883 81

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1-28 Wind Design
Page 80 FM Global Property Loss Prevention Data Sheets

Name Province Latitude Longitude Wind Speed 3 Sec mph

Noranda Quebec 48.2407 -79.029 78
Norman Wells Northwest Territories 65.2784 -126.814 105
North Battleford Saskatchewan 52.7735 -108.282 109
North Bay Ontario 46.3093 -79.4533 77
North Burnaby British Columbia 49.234 -122.953 92
North Sydney Nova Scotia 46.148 -60.1893 103
North Vancouver British Columbia 49.3356 -123.137 92
North York Ontario 43.78347 -79.4078 96
Norwood Ontario 44.3823 -77.9799 84
Nottingham Island Northwest Territories 63.11667 -77.9333 132
Oakville Ontario 43.4437 -79.662 93
Ocean Falls British Columbia 52.35402 -127.694 103
Orangeville Ontario 43.9181 -80.0946 78
Orillia Ontario 44.6016 -79.4179 78
Oromocto New Brunswick 45.8435 -66.4628 93
Oshawa Ontario 43.8992 -78.8526 100
Osoyoos British Columbia 49.0343 -119.466 91
Ottawa Ontario 45.4129 -75.6701 84
Outremont Quebec 45.51452 -73.6111 84
Owen Sound Ontario 44.5646 -80.9339 91
Pagwa River Ontario 50.0093 -85.2128 69
Paris Ontario 43.1963 -80.3792 84
Parkhill Ontario 43.1623 -81.6842 98
Parry Sound Ontario 45.3433 -80.0265 81
Peace River Alberta 56.23386 -117.29 74
Pembroke Ontario 45.8161 -77.106 78
Penetanguishene Ontario 44.7628 -79.9288 81
Penticton British Columbia 49.4902 -119.613 100
Perce Quebec 48.5216 -64.234 122
Perth Ontario 44.9082 -76.2508 84
Petawawa Ontario 45.9061 -77.2736 78
Peterborough Ontario 44.2958 -78.3296 84
Petewahweh Ontario 45.9061 -77.2736 78
Petewawa Ontario 45.9061 -77.2736 78
Petrolia Ontario 42.8812 -82.1478 91
Pickering Ontario 43.8568 -79.0122 100
Picton Ontario 44.0011 -77.1376 93
Pictou Nova Scotia 45.6778 -62.7106 98
Pierrefonds Quebec 45.49402 -73.8494 84
Pincher Alberta 49.4844 -113.947 130
Pincher Creek Alberta 49.4844 -113.947 130
Pincourt Quebec 45.35721 -73.9822 84
Pine Falls Manitoba 50.5615 -96.2294 82
Plattsville Ontario 43.30325 -80.6216 84
Plessisville Quebec 46.224 -71.7843 78
Point Alexander Ontario 46.13333 -77.5667 78
Port Alberni British Columbia 49.2949 -124.854 105
Port Arthur Ontario 48.441 -89.2476 83
Port Burwell Ontario 42.64852 -80.8063 91
Port Colborne Ontario 42.8895 -79.2517 91
Port Credit Ontario 43.55334 -79.582 93
Port Dover Ontario 42.78677 -80.203 91
Port Elgin Ontario 44.4346 -81.392 98
Port Hardy British Columbia 50.7264 -127.497 105
Port Hawkesbury Nova Scotia 45.6198 -61.3633 115
Port Hope Ontario 43.9499 -78.2935 103
Port McNeill British Columbia 50.5847 -127.096 105
Port Perry Ontario 44.1017 -78.9467 86
Port Radium Northwest Territories 66.0892 -118.014 96
Port Stanley Ontario 42.66468 -81.2147 91
Portage La Prairie Manitoba 49.9693 -98.3052 91
Port-Cartier Quebec 50.0279 -66.8558 110
Powell River British Columbia 49.8389 -124.521 103
Prescott Ontario 44.7165 -75.5219 86
Prince Albert Saskatchewan 53.1926 -105.742 81
Prince George British Columbia 53.9139 -122.768 81
Prince Rupert British Columbia 54.3152 -130.308 98
Princeton British Columbia 49.4563 -120.505 78

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Wind Design 1-28
FM Global Property Loss Prevention Data Sheets Page 81

Name Province Latitude Longitude Wind Speed 3 Sec mph

Princeton Ontario 43.17005 -80.5267 84
Providence Northwest Territories 61.3547 -117.66 78
Qualicum Beach British Columbia 49.3511 -124.448 105
QuAppelle Saskatchewan 50.54255 -103.878 86
Quebec Quebec 46.8021 -71.2449 96
Quesnel British Columbia 52.9816 -122.493 74
Rae Northwest Territories 62.8337 -116.036 91
Ragged Island Nova Scotia 43.6989 -65.1253 103
Raith Ontario 48.8248 -89.9362 69
Ranfurly Alberta 53.4063 -111.677 74
Rankin Inlet Northwest Territories 62.8177 -92.1133 103
Rayside-Balfour Ontario 46.60648 -81.1921 86
Red Deer Alberta 52.2632 -113.8 84
Red Lake Road Ontario 49.9663 -93.3802 70
Regina Saskatchewan 50.4478 -104.616 86
Renfrew Ontario 45.4752 -76.6967 78
Resolute Northwest Territories 74.6864 -94.9094 110
Resolution Northwest Territories 61.1736 -113.663 83
Resolution Island Northwest Territories 61.3151 -64.8355 145
Revelstoke British Columbia 50.9949 -118.191 74
Richmond Quebec 45.6619 -72.1414 74
Richmond British Columbia 49.1579 -123.137 92
Richmond Ontario 45.1963 -75.829 96
Rimouski Quebec 48.4277 -68.5165 103
River Clyde Northwest Territories 70.457 -68.6299 124
Rivers Manitoba 50.0265 -100.235 91
Rivigere-du-Loup Quebec 47.8311 -69.5352 100
Riviere-du-Loup-en-Bas Quebec 47.8311 -69.5352 100
Roberval Quebec 48.5178 -72.2337 78
Rock Island Quebec 45.00766 -72.0985 84
Rockland Ontario 45.5499 -75.2861 84
Rocky Mountain House Alberta 52.3738 -114.914 87
Rosemere Quebec 45.63899 -73.785 84
Rosetown Saskatchewan 51.5495 -107.99 105
Rouyn Quebec 48.2065 -79.0427 78
Rugged Island Nova Scotia 43.6989 -65.1253 103
Sackville New Brunswick 45.923 -64.3571 100
Saint John New Brunswick 45.2823 -66.0715 96
Saint-Joseph-d’Alma Quebec 48.5497 -71.6602 74
Salaberry-de-Valleyfield Quebec 45.2633 -74.1329 84
Salmon Arm British Columbia 50.6994 -119.283 82
Sandilands Manitoba 49.32444 -96.2964 84
Sandspit British Columbia 53.2331 -131.825 110
Sarnia Ontario 42.9721 -82.3881 91
Saskatoon Saskatchewan 52.1432 -106.653 92
Sault Ste Marie Ontario 46.522 -84.3372 84
Scarborough Ontario 43.793 -79.2747 96
Schefferville Quebec 54.8007 -66.8108 86
Schreiber Ontario 48.81331 -87.2665 83
Scott Saskatchewan 52.3635 -108.818 105
Seaforth Ontario 43.5562 -81.3842 96
Selkirk Manitoba 50.1389 -96.8875 86
Senneterre Quebec 48.3887 -77.2401 74
Sert-iles Quebec 50.2081 -66.3731 110
Shafferville Quebec 54.8007 -66.8108 86
Shawenegan Quebec 46.5511 -72.7485 78
Shawinigan Quebec 46.5511 -72.7485 78
Shawinigan Falls Quebec 46.5511 -72.7485 78
Shawville Quebec 45.60381 -76.4916 78
Shelter Bay Quebec 50.0279 -66.8558 110
Sherbrook Quebec 45.4044 -71.9 74
Sherbrooke Quebec 45.4044 -71.9 74
Shewanegan Quebec 46.5511 -72.7485 78
Shippegan New Brunswick 47.7411 -64.715 110
Shippigan New Brunswick 47.7411 -64.715 110
Sidney British Columbia 48.6561 -123.4 103
Sillery Quebec 46.77958 -71.2506 96
Simcoe Ontario 42.8361 -80.3011 86

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1-28 Wind Design
Page 82 FM Global Property Loss Prevention Data Sheets

Name Province Latitude Longitude Wind Speed 3 Sec mph

Simpson Northwest Territories 61.8621 -121.361 84
Sioux Lookout Ontario 50.0968 -91.9319 69
Slave Lake Alberta 55.2792 -114.768 81
Smith River British Columbia 59.8787 -126.442 70
Smithers British Columbia 54.7805 -127.175 84
Smiths Falls Ontario 44.9048 -76.0241 84
Smithville Ontario 43.09469 -79.5486 86
Smooth Rock Falls Ontario 49.27366 -81.6239 74
Snag Yukon Territory 62.4 -140.367 73
Sorel Quebec 46.0446 -73.1052 87
Souris Prince Edward Island 46.3542 -62.2507 98
South River Ontario 45.8425 -79.3766 74
Southampton Ontario 44.4919 -81.3648 96
Split Lake Manitoba 56.0234 -95.8121 93
Springhill Nova Scotia 45.6539 -64.0595 98
Spurell Harbour Northwest Territories 63.3437 -90.7414 100
Spurrell Harbour Northwest Territories 63.3437 -90.7414 100
Squamish British Columbia 49.7009 -123.158 98
St Anthony Newfoundland 51.3562 -55.5645 121
St Catharines Ontario 43.1756 -79.2228 91
St John’s Newfoundland 47.5652 -52.7343 118
St Marys Ontario 43.25975 -81.1406 93
St Stephen New Brunswick 45.19229 -67.2772 103
St Thomas Ontario 42.7731 -81.1808 91
Ste.-foy Quebec 46.767 -71.2892 96
Ste-Agathe-des-Monts Quebec 46.04802 -74.2841 78
Ste-Anne-de-Bellevue Quebec 45.40393 -73.9523 84
Steinbach Manitoba 49.5181 -96.697 84
Stephenville Newfoundland 48.5497 -58.5872 117
Stettler Alberta 52.3233 -112.695 78
Stewart British Columbia 55.927 -130.01 86
Stewiacke Nova Scotia 45.1377 -63.3491 98
St-Felicien Quebec 48.65777 -72.451 78
St-Georges-de-Cacouna Quebec 47.91694 -69.5006 100
St-Hubert Quebec 45.49671 -73.4097 84
St-Hyacinthe Quebec 45.62645 -72.9472 78
Stirling Ontario 44.29614 -77.5475 83
St-jerome Quebec 48.4234 -71.8756 81
St-Jovite Quebec 46.11804 -74.6006 76
St-Lambert Quebec 48.95169 -79.4583 84
St-Laurent Quebec 45.50732 -73.6824 84
St-Nicolas Quebec 46.67828 -71.3474 93
Stony Saskatchewan 52.8537 -104.606 78
Stony Plain Alberta 53.5276 -114.01 87
Strasbourg Saskatchewan 51.0689 -104.943 86
Stratford Ontario 43.3668 -80.9806 91
Strathroy Ontario 42.9577 -81.6169 93
Sturgeon Falls Ontario 46.3576 -79.9159 78
Sudbury Ontario 46.485 -80.9848 87
Suffield Alberta 50.2144 -111.176 100
Summerside Prince Edward Island 46.3962 -63.7545 110
Sundridge Ontario 45.7792 -79.3779 74
Surrey British Columbia 49.10582 -122.828 91
Sutton Quebec 45.1075 -72.6163 84
Swan River Manitoba 52.0972 -101.271 82
Swift Current Saskatchewan 50.285 -107.793 104
Sydney British Columbia 48.6561 -123.4 103
Sydney Nova Scotia 46.148 -60.1893 98
Taber Alberta 49.7755 -112.128 115
Tadoussac Quebec 48.1493 -69.7181 99
Ta-Tuque Quebec 47.4432 -72.7774 78
Tavistock Ontario 43.32096 -80.8362 91
Taylor British Columbia 56.2191 -120.688 84
Temagami Ontario 47.06667 -79.7833 81
Temiscaming Quebec 46.7222 -79.0996 74
Terrace British Columbia 54.5167 -128.608 79
Teslin Yukon Territory 60.1727 -132.719 69
Thamesford Ontario 43.059 -80.9962 91

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Wind Design 1-28
FM Global Property Loss Prevention Data Sheets Page 83

Name Province Latitude Longitude Wind Speed 3 Sec mph

The Pas Manitoba 53.8164 -101.253 87
Thedford Ontario 43.1631 -81.8571 98
Thetford Quebec 46.0939 -71.3034 81
Thetford Mines Quebec 46.0939 -71.3034 81
Thompson Manitoba 55.7426 -97.858 93
Three Rivers Quebec 46.3376 -72.6075 87
Thunder Bay Ontario 48.441 -89.2476 83
Thurso Quebec 45.6167 -75.3674 84
Tignish Prince Edward Island 46.9608 -64.0224 117
Tillsonburg Ontario 42.8613 -80.7229 86
Tilsonburg Ontario 42.8613 -80.7229 86
Timmins Ontario 48.4836 -81.3437 81
Tofino British Columbia 49.1469 -125.905 110
Toronto Ontario 43.6871 -79.3893 96
Trafalgar Nova Scotia 45.2898 -62.6652 96
Trail British Columbia 49.0974 -117.693 78
Trenton Ontario 44.0941 -77.5831 91
Trois-Rivieres Quebec 46.3376 -72.6075 87
Trout Creek Ontario 45.9851 -79.3549 74
Tukik Northwest Territories 73.0387 -85.1881 98
Turner Alberta 50.6763 -114.273 107
Turner Valley Alberta 50.6763 -114.273 107
Twin Falls Newfoundland 53.5008 -64.5285 84
Uranium City Saskatchewan 59.5665 -108.619 87
Uxbridge Ontario 44.10642 -79.1228 84
Val-dor Quebec 48.1044 -77.7885 74
Valleyfield Quebec 45.2633 -74.1329 84
Valleyview Alberta 55.0701 -117.28 91
Vancouver British Columbia 49.2575 -123.133 92
Varennes Quebec 45.6826 -73.4409 84
Vegreville Alberta 53.4936 -112.049 78
Vercheres Quebec 45.7715 -73.3575 87
Verdun Quebec 45.45899 -73.5722 84
Vermilion Alberta 53.3541 -110.847 73
Vernon British Columbia 50.2604 -119.265 86
Victoria British Columbia 48.4467 -123.349 105
Victoriaville Quebec 46.0582 -71.9645 78
Ville-Marie Quebec 47.3318 -79.431 84
Virden Manitoba 49.8434 -100.933 91
Vittoria Ontario 42.76202 -80.3231 91
Wabana Newfoundland 47.6442 -52.9544 115
Wabush Newfoundland 52.9023 -66.8705 84
Wagner Alberta 55.35 -114.983 81
Wainwright Alberta 52.834 -110.858 78
Walkerton Ontario 44.1237 -81.1451 93
Wallaceburg Ontario 42.5903 -82.384 86
Waterloo Ontario 43.5941 -80.5546 81
Waterloo Quebec 45.3509 -72.5203 78
Watford Ontario 42.94998 -81.88 91
Watson Lake Yukon Territory 60.0689 -128.703 78
Wawa Ontario 47.9933 -84.7737 83
Welland Ontario 42.9962 -79.2545 86
West Lorne Ontario 42.60378 -81.6067 91
West Vancouver British Columbia 49.36667 -123.167 92
Wetaskiwin Alberta 52.9672 -113.371 84
Weyburn Saskatchewan 49.6664 -103.859 93
Whitby Ontario 43.881 -78.9336 100
White River Ontario 48.593 -85.3067 69
Whitecourt Alberta 54.1449 -115.688 86
Whitehorse Yukon Territory 60.7257 -135.044 81
Whycocomagh Nova Scotia 45.9802 -61.131 96
Wiarton Ontario 44.737 -81.1403 91
Williams Lake British Columbia 52.1342 -122.139 82
Wimborne Alberta 51.866 -113.587 84
Windsor Nova Scotia 44.9939 -64.1428 99
Windsor Ontario 42.3068 -82.9827 91
Windsor Quebec 45.5689 -72.0055 74
Wingham Ontario 43.8849 -81.3044 93

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1-28 Wind Design
Page 84 FM Global Property Loss Prevention Data Sheets

Name Province Latitude Longitude Wind Speed 3 Sec mph

Winnipeg Manitoba 49.9212 -97.1244 90
Woodbridge Ontario 43.79665 -79.5883 96
Woodstock New Brunswick 46.1486 -67.5786 81
Woodstock Ontario 43.1292 -80.7566 86
Wyoming Ontario 42.9553 -82.1185 91
Yellowknife Northwest Territories 62.4738 -114.366 91
Yorkton Saskatchewan 51.2092 -102.465 84
Youbou British Columbia 48.87289 -124.199 103

©2015-2020 Factory Mutual Insurance Company. All rights reserved.

 FM Global Property Loss Prevention Data Sheets
Wind Design
120° 124° 128° 132° 136° 140° 144° 148°
44°
Sea of
Okhotsk
La Perouse Strait

m//ss
4477m

a it
tr
oS
Russia
4477m
m//ss
44°

ur
Kuril Islands

em
4 9 m /s

N
47m/ s 45m/ s 42m/ s 4499m
m//ss m//ss
4477m
HOKKAIDO
40m/ s 4477m
m//ss
m//ss
4455m
China 42m/s
45m/s Sapporo
40° Gulf 47 m/s 4477m
m//ss
Of 4 9 m /s
©2020 Factory Mutual Insurance Company. All rights reserved

Liaodong m//ss
4499m m//ss
4477m
4 9 m /s 4477m
m//ss it
a
St r
u
4 9 m /s m//ss
5511m ar
ug
Ts
51m/s
54m /s North 5544m
m//ss

Bo Hai Aomori
Korea
(Gulf of Korea Tongjoson 40°
Chihli)
Bay Bay
Sea of Japan m//ss
5511m Akita
Morioka
m//ss
4422m
m//ss
4455m
4499m
m//ss 5544m
m//ss HONSHU
5544m
m//ss
5511m
m//ss
m//ss
4477m m//ss
4477m
36° Seoul 5544m
m//ss
Yamagata
5566m
m//ss
Sendai
Sado
Niigata
South m//ss
5544m Fukushima
Pacific Ocean
Korea m//ss
4499m 5511mm//ss
5 1 m /s m//ss
4477m 4499mm//ss m//ss
4477m
OKI Toyama
m//ss
4477m
ISLANDS Utsunomiya
Kanazawa Nagano
m//ss
6600m
36°
Ulsan 5588mm//ss
Mito
Maebashi
Pusan
m//ss
5566m Urawa
Fukui Japan 4455m
m//ss
Yellow Sea
4477m
m//ss
58 m/s ai
t 4477m
m//ss Kohu Tokyo 5511m
m//ss
S tr Matsue Tottori Gifu
ea Yokohama Chiba
or Nagoya 5588m
m//ss Wind Speed - m/s (mph)
K m//ssYamaguchi
5544m m//ss
4455m Kioto
Otsu 4499mm//ss m//ss
5511m
m//ss
4477m Okayama Kobe Shizouka m//ss
5544m 40 (90)
TSU ISLAND 5511m Tu m//ss
6600m
m//ss Hiroshima
m//ss m//ss
4477m
4499m Nara
Fukuoka 5511m
m//ss 42 (95)
32° m//ss
5588m
Tokushima
Wakayama
Osaka m//ss
5588m
6633m
m//ss 45 (100)
4499m
m//ss5544m
m//ss
4499m Kochi
m//ss 5588m
m//ss 47 (105)
4499m
m//ss Saga
5511m
m//ss m//ss
4455m
m//ss
4477m m//ss
6600m 49 (110)
m//ss
5511m Kumamoto Oita m//ss 5566m
5511m m//ss 6633mm//ss 51 (115)
Nagasaki 4477m
m//ss 54 (120)
SHIKOKU
m//ss
5544m 5544mm//ss 4499m m//ss Matsuyama 56 (125)
5511mm//ss 58 (130)
East 6600m
Kagoshima
5566m
m//ss
m//ss Miyazaki
60 (135)
32°
China Sea m//ss5588m
6633m m//ss
63 (140)
KYUSHU 65 (145)
m//ss
6600m 67 (150)
Ogasawara Islands, Satsunann Islands, Okinawa
6655m
m//ss 72 (160)
OSUMI ISLANDS
m//ss
6633m
Islands, Daitou Islands, Sakishima Islands and
other islands not shown in the map: 160 mph No Data
28° m//ss
7722m

Page 85
124° 128° 132° 136° 140° 144°

1-28
100 0 100 200 300 400 Kilometers
Note: Values are nominal design 3-second gust wind speeds in meters per second (mph)
at 10m (33ft) above ground for Exposure C category. 100 0 100 200 300 Miles

Fig. 12. Basic wind speeds - Japan and South Korea, 3-sec gust in miles per hour (11/2006)
1-28 Wind Design
Page 86 FM Global Property Loss Prevention Data Sheets

118° 120° 122° 124° 126° 128°

Wind Speed - m/s (mph)
20° 35 (78) 74 (165) 20°
38 (85) 76 (170)
40 (90) 78 (175)
42 (95) 80 (180)
47m/s
45 (100) 83 (185) 51m/s

47 (105) 85 (190) 49m/s 54m/s

49 (110) 87 (195) 49m/ s 56m/s

51 (115) 89 (200) Aparri
51m/s
54 (120) 92 (205)
Laoag Gonzaga
56 (125) 94 (210) 54m/s

18° 58 (130) 96 (215) 18°

60 (135) 98 (220)
63 (140) 101 (225) Vigan 58m/ s
Tuguegarao
60m/s
65 (145) 103 (230) 56m/s
63m/ s
67 (150) 105 (235)
69 (155) No Data 65m/s
Philippine
Luzon
Sea
72m/ s
72 (160) 51m/s 80m/ s
45m/ s Baguio 76m/s

54m/s 83m/ s
49m/s
67m/s
Casiguran

16° Dadupan
Baler
78m/s
16°
45m/ s
47m/s

40m/s 42m/ s Cabanatuan 72m/s

Iba
76m/s
74m/ s
Quezon City
72m/s
69m/ s
Infanta
Manila
60m/s
Lamon Bay
51m/s 67m/s
47m/s 49m/s
54m/ s
Daet
47m/s
47m/ s
45m/s
58m/s
Lucena
87m/s 98m/s
14° 40m/s
42m/s 51m/s
56m/s
63m/ s

67m/s
72m/s
76m/ s

98m/s
101m/ s
14°
45m/s 74m/s 103m/s
85m/ s
38m/s 80m/s
45m/s 47m/s 58m/ s
60m/s 76m/s Naga 103m/ s
105m/s

63m/s 65m/s
40m/s
49m/s
51m/s
Aurora 94m/s
Virac
42m/s
Calapan 54m/s 67m/s
78m/s
105m/s
96m/s
45m/s
47m/s 58m/s 72m/s 80m/s 94m/s
56m/s 63m/s 85m/s Legaspi 92m/s
Mindoro Sibuyan 83m/ s 89m/s
87m/s
49m/s 54m/ s 65m/s Sea 80m/ s

South China
76m/s
40m/s 45m/s 51m/s
56m/s 63m/ s
Romblon 72m/s 78m/s
74m/ s
78m/s 78m/s
74m/s
60m/ s 65m/s
Catarman69m/s
69m/s 72m/s

Sea
63m/s 67m/ s
56m/s 58m/s 60m/s 65m/s

51m/s
54m/s 58m/ s 60m/s Masbate
58m/ s
67m/s
65m/s
62m/ s
54m/s 60m/s
12° 40m/s 42m/s 47m/s
49m/s
47m/s
56m/s

51m/ s
58m/s
Samar 12°
45m/ s 49m/ s 54m/s
49m/s
Roxas
45m/s 51m/s
Visayan
45m/s 47m/s
42m/ s
Borongan
Sea
40m/s 47m/s

Pacific
40m/s 47m/s 49m/s
40m/s 45m/s
38m/s
Panay 45m/s
Tacloban
Carigara
Ocean
42m/s
38m/s
49m/s
38m/s
Cuyo
51m/ s

Lloilo 54m/s 54m/s

42m/ s

47m/s 56m/s

Palawan 45m/s 49m/s 54m/s

56m/ s
Leyte
Cebu 56m/s
56m/s
51m/s
47m/s 54m/s 54m/s
42m/s 51m/s 54m/ s

10° 40m/s 49m/s

47m/s 51m/s
54m/ s 10°
Puerto Negros Bohol 42m/s
Surigao 51m/s

Princesa 38m/s
38m/s
51m/s
38m/ s 38m/ s 49m/s
Dumaquete 38m/s
47m/ s

45m/ s
Mindanao Butuan
Sea 42m/ s
Gingoog
Dipolog 40m/s

Hinatuan

8° 38m/s Sulu Sea 8°

Mindanao
38m/s

Cotabato Davao
Moro Gulf
38m/s
Zamboanga

38m/s
General
38m/s Santos

6° 38m/s
38m/s

40m/s
6°
38m/s 35m/s

Malaysia 40m/ s
40m/ s

Colebes Sea
35m/s
40m/s

118° 120° 122° 124° 126° 128°

Notes: Values are nominal design 3-second gust wind speeds in meters per second (mph)
50 0 50 100 150 200 Kilometers
at 10m (33ft) above ground for Exposure C category.

50 0 50 100 150 Miles Consult local records in mountainous areas. To convert m/s to mph multiply x 2.2369

Fig. 13 Basic wind speeds - Philippines, 3-sec gust in miles per hour (8/2001)

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Wind Design 1-28
FM Global Property Loss Prevention Data Sheets Page 87

30° 45° 60° 75° 90° 105°

Black Sea
Caspian UZBEKISTAN
Sea KYRGYZSTAN
4422m
m//ss 4477m
m//ss
4499m
m//ss 4400m
m//ss
TURKMENISTAN
TURKEY TAJIKISTAN 4477m
m//ss
m//ss
4455m

SYRIA
AFGHANISTAN CHINA
LEBANON 5555m
m//ss
Mediterranean Sea IRAQ 4499m
m//ss 4477m
m//ss

ISRAEL m//ss
3399m
IRAN
JORDAN
4455m
m
30° 4477m
m//ss
4422m m//ss BHUTAN
m//ss 4400m
30°
P 4455m
m//ss
er PAKISTAN NEPAL
si
an 4444m
m//ss
KUWAIT
G 4477m
m//ss
ul 5500m
m//ss
SAUDI f
EGYPT QATAR
ARABIA 5511m
m//ss 4477m
m//ss
5555m
m//ss

INDIA 5511m
m//ss 6600m
m//ss BURMA
OMAN 5555m
m//ss
UNITED
Re

ARAB 5555m
m//ss
d

EMERATES
Se

4477m
m//ss BANGLADESH
a

Arabian
Sea m//ss
4444m
Bay of Bengal
ERITREA 3399m
m//ss
YEMEN
15° 15°
SUDAN
en
Ad
DJIBOUTI lf of m//ss
4411m
Gu 4477m
m//ss
5500m
m//ss And
S
SOMALIA
ETHIOPIA Gu lf
of
Man nar
5511m
m//ss

3355mm
m///s
/s
ss
3355m
m//ss
3355m

3355mm//ss
UGANDA 3335
3555
mm

KENYA Indian Ocean 335

0° 0°

ZAIRE Wind Speed - m/s (mph)

TANZANIA

35 (78) 47 (105)
38 (85) 49 (110)
39 (87) 50 (112)
40 (90) 51 (115)
MALAWI
41 (92) 55 (123)
ZAMBIA 42 (95) 60 (134)
el
nn

15° 44 (98) No Data 15°

ha
eC

45 (100)
MADAGASCAR
iqu

5511m
m//ss
b

ZIMBABWE
am
oz
M

BOTSWANA

MOZAMBIQUE

SOUTH
AFRICA

30° 30°

30° 45° 60° 75° 90°

Notes: Values are nominal design 3-second gust wind speeds in meters per second (mph)
at 10m (33ft) above ground for Exposure C category.
Consult local records in mountainous areas.

400 0 400 800 1200 Kilometers

200 0 200 400 600 800 Miles

Fig. 14. Basic wind speeds - cyclone-prone exposures from the Indian Ocean, 3-sec gust in miles per hour (8/2001)

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1-28 Wind Design
Page 88 FM Global Property Loss Prevention Data Sheets

68° 72° 76° 80° 84° 88° 92° 96°

36°
36°

Srinagar
Afghanistan 55m/s

32° 32°
39m/s China
Jullundur City 49m/s

Ludhiana

Sirsa
47m/s 40m/s
28°
Pakistan Meerut 42m/s
Nepal 45m/s 28°
Delhi
44m/s

Jaipur 47m/s Bhutan

Jodhpur City
Lucknow Gauhati
Rajasthan Gwalior
50m/s
Bhagalpur
51m/s Imphal
47m/s
24° 24°
Bangladesh 55m/s

55m/s Bhopal
Jabalpur
Asanol
Indore
60m/s
Jamnagar Vadodara Calcutta
51m/s
Raurkela
Bhavnagar Bilaspur
Burma
Durg
Nagpur
Sambalpur (Myanmar)
20° 20°
39m/s
47m/s
Bombay
India
Arabian Maharashtra 44m/s
Sea (Pune)
Sholåpur
Warangal 55m/s
Visakhapatnam
Hyderabad
Bay of Bengal
16° 16°
Hubli

41m/s Bangalore Chennai

(Madras)
12° Mysore
12°
Coimbatore
47m/s An

Cochin
50m/s
Madurai

Trivandrum Gulf of
8° Mannar
51m/s 8°
Sri
Lanka
Wind Speed - m/s (mph)
35 (78) 47 (105)
39 (87) 49 (110)
4° 4°
40 (90) 50 (112)
41 (92) 51 (115)
42 (95) 55 (123)
44 (98) 60 (134)
Indian Ocean 45 (100) No Data

0° 0°

72° 76° 80° 84° 88° 92°

100 0 200 400 600 Kilometers
Note: Values are nominal design 3-second gust wind speeds in meters per second (mph)
at 10m (33ft) above ground for Exposure C category. 100 0 200 400 Miles

Fig. 15. Recommended basic wind speeds - India, in m/s (mph) (11/2006)

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 Wind Design
FM Global Property Loss Prevention Data Sheets
95° 100° 105° 110° 115° 120° 4 5 m /s
4 7m / s
5 4m /s

58m/ s
6 7 m /s 78m/ s
1 0 5m / s

1 0 5m / s
96m/ s
94m/ s
125° 130° 135° 140°
7 2 m /s
5 6 m /s 63m/ s 8 0 m /s 8 5 m /s 92m/ s
S ib uy a n 89m/ s
8 7m / s
Se a
8 3 m /s
4 9m / s
54m/ s 6 5 m /s 80m/ s
78m/ s 7 6m / s
56m/ s 6 3m / s 7 8m /s 7 8 m /s
4 0 m /s 4 5m / s 5 1 m /s 7 2m / s 7 4m / s 7 4 m /s
6 0m / s 6 5m / s

Wind Speed - m/s (mph)

6 9 m /s 7 2m / s
6 3m /s 6 7m /s 6 9 m /s
5 6m / s 5 8m /s 6 5m / s
60m/ s
58m/ s 6 0m /s 6 7 m /s
5 4m / s 6 5 m /s
5 1 m /s 5 8m / s
6 2m / s
5 4 m /s 60m/ s
4 9 m /s 5 6 m /s
4 0m / s 4 7 m /s 5 8 m /s
42m/ s
4 7m / s
5 1 m /s
4 5m /s 4 9m / s 5 4 m /s

South China
4 9m / s
45m/ s 5 1m /s
V is a ya n
4 5m / s 47m/ s
42m/ s
4 7 m /s
Se a
4 0 m /s
40m/ s 4 7m / s

Andaman Cambodia 35 (78) 69 (155)

4 9m / s
4 0 m /s 4 5 m /s
4 5m /s
38m/ s

Vietnam
Sea
4 2 m /s
3 8m / s

Sea
4 9m / s
3 8m / s

38 (85) 72 (160)
5 1 m /s
54m/ s 54m/ s
4 2m / s

56m/ s
4 7m / s
5 4 m /s
45m/ s 49m/ s
56m/ s

Philippines
5 6m / s

4 7 m /s
5 1m / s 5 6m /s

40 (90) 74 (165)
10° 10°
54m/ s 5 4 m /s
42m/ s 5 1m /s 5 4 m /s
4 0m / s 4 9 m /s
4 7 m /s 5 1 m /s
54m/ s

41 (92) 76 (170)
4 2 m /s
51m/ s

3 8m / s
3 8m /s
5 1m / s

Gulf of
3 8m / s 4 9 m /s
3 8 m /s

42 (95) 78 (175)
3 8 m /s
4 7m / s

Thailand
4 5 m /s
M in d an ao
Se a

Thailand
4 2m / s

4 0m / s 45 (100) 80 (180)
47 (105) 83 (185)
3 8 m /s

Sulu Sea 3 8 m /s

Pacific 48 (107) 85 (190)

Ocean 49 (110) 87 (195)
3 8m /s

Moro Gulf
Stra it of 3 8m / s
51 (115) 89 (200)
Ma lacca
54 (120) 92 (205)
3 8m / s

3 8 m /s

38m/ s
4 0 m /s

4 0m / s
40m/ s
3 8m /s
35m/ s 56 (125) 94 (210)
58 (130) 96 (215)
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5° Brunei 5°
60 (135) 98 (220)
3 5 m /s

Colebes Sea
4 0m /s

35m/ s

Malaysia 63 (140) 101 (225)

Medan 35m/ s

m//ss
3355m Taraka n
65 (145) 103 (230)
Tebingtinggi
67 (150) 105 (235)
Malaysia
B atu
No Data
Bay

Manado

Halmahera
Gulf of
3355m
m//ss
0° Sumatra Pontian ak
Indonesia Sam arin da
Tomini
Ha lmahera
0°
m//ss Molucca Sea Sea
3355m Borneo
3355m
m//ss Balik papan
Sorong
m//ss
3355m Ma ka ssa r
M entawai
Indonesia Strait
Strait
Celebes
3355m
m//ss Ceram Sea Jayapura
Palem bang Karimata
Strait
Ban djermasin Ceram
Buru Indonesia
3355m
m//ss
Irian Jaya
Udjun g m//ss
3355m
5° Java Sea
Pandang
5°
Seran g
Banda Sea 3355m
m//ss
Sunda Strait Jakarta
Pekalongan
Bogor
Ban dung Semarang
Java 3355m
3355m m//ss
m//ss Sura baya
Surakarta
Jem ber Ma tara m
Malang
Merauke
Flores E nde Dili
Waik atoebak
3355m
m//ss Arafura Sea
m//ss
3355m
Timor
10° Sumba
Kupang
10°
Indian Ocean Timor Sea

m//ss
5566m
4488m
m//ss

Australia
Gulf of
Carpentaria
15° 15°
95° 100° 105° 110° 115° 120° 125° 130° 135° 140°

Page 89
1-28
200 0 200 400 600 Kilometers

Note: Values are nominal design 3-second gust wind speeds in meters per second (mph) 200 0 200 400 Miles
at 10m (33ft) above ground for Exposure C category.
Fig. 16. Basic Wind Speeds - Indonesia, 3-sec gust in miles per hour (m/s).
1-28 Wind Design
Page 90 FM Global Property Loss Prevention Data Sheets

Reykjavik

A
SE
N
Trondheim

IA
EG
95 90 85
80

RW

BALTIC SEA
100

NO
75
105
Helsin ki

110

100 Tallinn
Inver ness Starvnger
110 95
70
Glas gow Stockholm
Belfast Goteborg
NORTH 100
SEA Riga
70
OC AN TIC
N

Dub lin
EA

85
ATL

Copenha gen
Liverpool
Birmingham 90
105 100
85 Amsterdam
Ham burg
80
75 The
Hague
70 Warsaw
London
95 Berlin
90 Essen
75
95
85 Brussels

Frankfurt
80 Prag ue
80
Paris
85
75 75
90
Mun ich Vienn a
95
85
Budapest
Bern
Lyon 75
80
85
Milan 70
Bordeaux
Belgrade
Porto
75
Florence

Lisbon 90
80
Madrid
Barcelona
85
90
75
80 AD
Marseille RI
85
AT
80 IC
80
Rome SE
A Tirane
75
85
70 80 75
Sevilla
75 Taranto
80 75 85
MEDIT 80
ERR AN
EA N SE Palermo
A 85

Note: Consult local records Miles per hour 110 105 100 95 90 85 80 75 70 50 0 100
Kilometers
200

in mountainous areas 50 0 50 100

Meters per sec. 49 47 45 43 40 38 36 34 31 Miles

Fig. 17. Basic wind speed in miles per hour for Europe. Annual extreme-mile
30 ft (9 m) above ground, 100-year mean recurrence interval.
Note: Convert wind speed using Table 22 and Section C-1.

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APPENDIX D OPTIONAL GUIDANCE FOR TORNADO-RESISTANT DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION

D.1 Scope
This appendix provides optional guidance for building owners or occupants who have important facilities
that warrant additional protection to reduce potential property damage and business interruption as a result
of a tornado.
This appendix uses the allowable wind speed method of design, with other modifications as noted
in this section.
D.1.1 General
While tornadoes can occur virtually anywhere, it is not economically practical to design all buildings and
structures for tornadoes. Building codes typically do not require such a level of design. Some building owners
or occupants with key facilities in areas prone to tornadoes sometimes desire to provide some additional
level of protection against tornadoes. This appendix is advisory only and provides some general information
to assist these owners.
Tornadoes have hit major urban areas including Fort Worth, Texas; Salt Lake City, Utah; Memphis, Tennessee;
Atlanta, Georgia; and St. Louis, Missouri.
Tornadoes are categorized by wind speed ranges and potential damage using the Enhanced Fujita (EF)
scale (see Table D-1). The probability of a strike from a tornado is greater in some locations than others (see
Fig. D-1 and D-2). The minimum design wind speeds throughout the country are generally high enough that
properly designed and constructed roof and wall assemblies should not be severely damaged during a
low-end (EF0 or EF1) tornado. Locations prone to tropical storms are designed for higher wind speeds and
in some cases windborne debris, and may be more resistant to somewhat more intense tornadoes. It is up
to the individual building owner to decide if the importance of the building and/or occupancy justifies the design
of a building to a higher level to reduce potential damage from a tornado. For additional information, see
references in Section D 4.0.
The importance of the building along with the probability of a tornado impacting the building should be
considered. The value of the building occupancy, effect on business continuity, and importance of company
records can define the importance of a building with regard to property protection. Data is available for the
United States that defines the probability of tornado occurrence in a given state. However, the size of the state
can skew these figures, therefore maps that denote the probability of occurrence within a state per unit area
are a more accurate reflection of tornado occurrence(see Fig. D-1).

Table D-1. Potential Damage and Wind Speeds Corresponding to the Enhanced Fujita Scale
Enhanced Estimated Estimated
Fujita 3-second Peak 3-second Peak
Scale Damage Gust (mph) Gust (m/s)
EF0 Light damage. Some damage to chimneys; branches broken off 65 - 85 29 - 38
trees; shallow-rooted trees pushed over; sign boards damaged.
EF1 Moderate damage. Peels surface off roofs; mobile homes pushed 86 - 110 39 - 49
off foundations or overturned; moving autos blown off roads.
EF2 Considerable damage. Roofs torn off frame houses; mobile 111 - 135 50 - 60
homes demolished; boxcars overturned; large trees snapped or
uprooted; light-object missiles generated; cars lifted off ground.
EF3 Severe damage. Roofs and some walls torn off well-constructed 136 - 165 61- 74
houses; trains overturned; most trees in forest uprooted; heavy
cars lifted off the ground and thrown.
EF4 Devastating damage. Well-constructed houses leveled; structures 166 - 200 75 - 90
with weak foundations blown away some distance; cars thrown
and large missiles generated.
EF5 Incredible damage. Strong frame houses leveled off foundations ≥ 200 ≥ 90
and swept away; automobile-sized missiles fly through the air in
excess of 100 meters (109 yds); trees debarked; incredible
phenomena will occur.

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As with hurricanes, the magnitude of tornadoes varies considerably, from EF0 to EF5 (Enhanced Fujita Scale;
see Table D-1). Between 2008 and 2013, about 97% of tornadoes had EF2 or lower intensity (see Table
D-2). While EF5 tornadoes can have wind speeds of over 200 mph (90 m/s), such tornadoes are rare. Also,
when an EF5 tornado occurs, the actual damage area within its path that is consistent with EF5 damage
is relatively small. While a tornado may be classified as either an EF4 or EF5, not all the areas within its path
experience such a magnitude of wind effects. As much as 80% of the damage within the path of an EF5
tornado is consistent with the damage of a tornado with a scale of EF3 or less. It is not generally considered
practical to design for an EF5 tornado. With few exceptions, locations within the United States are required
by code to have a minimum design wind speed (not ultimate) of 90 mph, 3-second gusts. Some damage
caused by lower-scale tornadoes is likely attributable to poor design or construction practices.
In addition to deciding whether the probability of tornado exposure justifies more fortified construction, one
must select the design wind speed for the facility. Such guidance is provided in this document and in FEMA
320 and FEMA 361 (see Appendix D, Section 4.0).

Fig. D-1. Average annual tornado counts per state and per 10,000 square miles between 1991 and 2010

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Fig. D-2. Areas covered by Tornado Alley (shown in red) and Dixie Alley (shown in green)

Table D-2. Tornado Frequency Based on Enhanced Fujita Scale

EF Scale Average Counts of 2008-2013 % of Total
EF0/U 721 56.5%
EF1 390 30.6%
EF2 122 9.5%
EF3 34 2.7%
EF4 9 0.7%
EF5 1 0.1%
Total 1,277 100%

D.1.2 Tornado Shelters

If the goal is only to provide temporary shelter, construction of a safe room may be a practical solution. Design
of such structures is beyond the scope of this data sheet, but guidance for the construction of safe rooms
up to 14 by 14 ft (196 ft2; 4.27 by 4.27 m; 18.2 m2) and for up to 39 occupants can be found in FEMA 320.
Where the facility is to serve a larger number of occupants, such as a community safe room, guidance for
the construction of larger internal or stand alone safe rooms can be found in FEMA 361.

D.2 Recommendations
D.2.1 Design the building envelope, including walls, doors, windows, skylights, roof-mounted equipment,
and roofs to resist wind speeds in accordance with Figure D-3 and Section D.3.0. Higher design wind speeds
may also be used if desired.
D.2.2 Make the following assumptions in regard to wind design:
A. Base the design on a “partially enclosed building,” regardless of what efforts are made to maintain
the building envelope. A breach of even limited size can compromise the integrity of a building envelope
that might otherwise be considered “fully enclosed.”

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B. Assume a Surface Roughness Exposure of “C,” even if the terrain conditions prior to the storm justify
the use of a “B” exposure. The event may modify the surrounding terrain prior to impact by the tornado.

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Fig. D-3. Recommended Property Protection Tornado Wind Speed Zones for the Mainland USA Based on a 10-4 Probability
or 10,000-Year Mean Recurrence Interval (MRI)
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Figure D-3 note: Hawaii, Alaska, Puerto Rico, and Guam are considered to have a very low probability of
tornado occurrence. The non-tornado design wind speeds exceed 100 mph (45 m/s) for all of Hawaii, Puerto
Rico and Guam, and much of Alaska. One difference is that Hawaii, Puerto Rico, and Guam are prone to
tropical storms and should normally be designed for windborne debris; whereas that is not true for Alaska.
D.2.3 Avoid the use of windows. This will help prevent the compromise of the building envelope.
D.2.4 When avoiding windows in the exterior walls is not practical, use Level E (preferably) or Level D
impact-resistant windows as tested in accordance with FM 4350 or other standards (such as TAS 201 and
203 or ASTM E 1886 and E 1996 noted in Section 4.0). See Table D-3 for specific test details.
Ideally, tornado-resistant windows should be able to withstand the impact from a 15 lb (6.8 kg), wood, nominal
2 x 4 in. (50 x 100 mm) member impacting at 100 mph (45 m/s). Windows that could pass such a test are
not commonly available commercially and often would not be economically practical to use for buildings other
than shelters. The weight and impact speed used in a tornado-resistant window test is considerably greater
than that used in large windborne debris impact tests for windows in areas exposed to hurricanes and
described in Table D-3 and in reference documents noted in Section D.4.0.
Despite all efforts to prevent it, some portions of the wall envelope can be breached, so the building envelope
should be considered partially enclosed. Interior walls are normally designed to meet minimal interior lateral
load requirements, not wind loads.
D.2.5 Do not use roof aggregate of any type or size, other than mineral surfacing such as for cap sheets.
D.2.6 Where practical, openings in exterior walls other than personnel doors should be limited. Doors should
open outward and be provided with positive latching, both of which should be adequate for the wind design
pressures used. Where large exterior doors are required, use doors that are rated for the needed design
pressures, as well as windborne debris impact (Level E or D, see Table D-3). Avoid the use of all doors in
corner areas (Zone 5), or design and test for increased pressures in this area.
D.2.7 Consideration should be given to the provision of full-time inspection during the installation of exterior
wall and roof components. For more information on evaluation of roof components, refer to DS 1-52.

Table D-3. Test Criteria for Large Windborne Debris Tests

Windborne
Debris Level Simulated Debris Impact Speed
D 9 lb +/-0.25 lb (4100 g +/- 100 g), nominal 2 x 4 in. x 8 ft 50 ft/s, 34 mph, 15.3 m/s
+/- 4 in. (2.4 m +/- 100 mm) lumber
E 9 lb +/- 0.25 lb (4100 g +/- 100 g), nominal 2 x 4 in. x 8 ft 80 ft/s, 55 mph, 24.4 m/s
+/- 4 in. (2.4 m +/- 100 mm) lumber

D.3 Support for Recommendations

D.3.1 General Design Considerations

In some cases, it may be desirable to construct large commercial, residential, health care, or industrial
buildings to be resistant to tornadic wind speeds. It may not be economically practical to follow all the same
guidelines as used for tornado shelters, however, construction considerations in this data sheet should
improve the resistance to tornado winds.

D.3.2 Building Envelope Concerns

D.3.2.1 Building Shape and Specific Occupancy Concerns

Tornado damage is caused by both windborne debris and pressure. The building owner should consider
both the size of the building in question, as well as its occupancy. A windowless, concrete dome may provide
the best resistance. The curvature of the structure allows for lower pressures acting on the surface, and
windows are a potential weak link in the wall envelope. However, it often may not meet the needs of the
building function or the aesthetic concerns of the owner.
Interior partition walls are typically designed for only 5 to 10 psf (0.24 to 0.48 kPa) lateral loads, are not able
to withstand high wind pressures, and may offer only limited protection if the building envelope is breached.

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D.3.2.2 Windborne Debris and Glass Breakage

Annealed, heat-strengthened (partially tempered) or even fully tempered glass should not be used (while
tempered glass may meet safety glass criteria, it is not adequately resistant to windborne debris). These glass
types have the greatest potential to break, compromise the enclosure of the building, increase wind pressure
on the structure, and directly expose the interior of the building to wind pressure, windborne debris, and rain.
Laminated glass can meet the requirements for safety glass and windborne debris resistance. The use of
laminated glass or other material and associated framing that has passed a large windborne debris impact
test is recommended for use in exterior walls designed to have some resistance to tornadoes. While the
impact speed of windborne debris during a tornado may be up to 100 mph (45 m/s), it may not be
economically practical to design for such a high level of impact. Laminated glass that has been tested to
a Type E large windborne debris test in accordance with ASTM E 1886 and ASTM E 1996 may maintain
a reasonable level of integrity for the opening against windborne debris of moderate size and impact velocity,
and may be cost effective to use. A less-desirable alternative would be to use laminated glass that has passed
the Type D windborne debris level test per the same standards. For specific test details, see Table D-3.
Reducing the potential sources of windborne debris is important and can be cost effective. Gravel roof
surfacing of any type should not be used. This includes large stone ballast such as used on loose-laid
ballasted roofs, or pea gravel used on built-up-roofs (BUR) and modified-bitumen (mod-bit) types. While pea
gravel is usually embedded into a full mop of hot bitumen, in practice only the bottom half of the pea gravel
gets embedded and the top half remains loose and nested and is subject to becoming windborne debris
in an extreme wind event. Stone ballast used for loose-laid roof systems may be larger, but it still contains
a large percentage of stone small enough to become windborne debris (see report by Phalen).

D.3.2.3 Exterior Doors

Dock doors are the most vulnerable to wind damage and they are one of the building envelope components
that receive the least attention, outside of hurricane-prone areas, with regard to wind design.
The use of wind-rated doors is critical in buildings designed for some level of tornado resistance. Normally
the vertical guides and end-locks that attach the door slats to those guides are smooth and are designed to
allow vertical movement of the door, but not resist considerable lateral forces. Such doors bow considerably
under wind load and act like catenaries, thus allowing the door slats to pull out of the vertical guides.
Wind-rated doors have guides and end-locks that are interlocked to resist such large lateral loads. For more
information, see Section 4.0.

D.3.2.4 Design Wind Speeds and Wind Pressures

Recommended tornado design wind speeds for shelters can be found in FEMA 320 or FEMA 361. It should
also be noted that other factors related to wind pressure may be greater than normally used for wind design.
When providing property protection, tornado design wind speeds for the United States may be selected from
Figure D-3. This figure covers the entire mainland United States, subdividing it into three wind zones (100,
120, and 140 mph [45, 54, and 62 m/s]).
Similarly to what occurs in hurricanes, most tornado damage is much greater to the building envelope than
to the building frame. For some larger structures designed for more typical code required wind speeds (≥90
mph [≥ 40 m/s]), using an importance factor of 1.15 (based on ASCE 7-05) have experienced considerable
damage to the building envelope, yet limited damage to the structural frame. One cost-effective approach
would be to provide limited increase in design strength for the building frame, but considerable increase in
resistance for the building envelope.

D.3.2.5 Design Method

For the design of components and cladding, after selecting the design wind speed from Figure D-3, determine
the design pressure using Equations D-1 and D-2 below.
qh = 0.00256KZKZTKDIV2 (Eqn. D-1)
Where:
qh = the basic velocity pressure calculated at height h

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1-28 Wind Design
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KZ = velocity pressure coefficient (see Table D-4 or ASCE 7) for Exposure C (unless Exposure D applies),
even if the terrain is considered B now.
KZT = topographic factor, use 1.0 for all terrains
KD = directionality factor, use 1.0 regardless of the shape of the structure
I = importance factor ≥1.0
V = allowable strength design wind speed per Figure D-3 at 33 ft (10 m) above grade in Exposure C (open
terrain). As this design method does not use ultimate wind speeds, a 2.0 safety factor is applied to the
calculated pressure.
p = [(1.05GCP) - GCPi] qh (Eqn. D-2)
Where:
GCP = external pressure coefficient. For a low slope, gabled roof ≤ 60 ft (18 m) tall, see Table D-5 for
values for Zones 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5. For other geometries see ASCE 7.
GCPi = internal pressure coefficient = +/- 0.55, assumes that building is partially enclosed regardless of
what assumptions would be made for other types of wind loading

Table D-4. Values of KZ for Exposure C* Tornado Design for Buildings Up To 200 ft (61 m) High
Height Above Ground Level Height Above Ground Level
ft m KZ ft m KZ
15 0-4.6 0.85 80 24.4 1.21
20 6.1 0.90 90 27.4 1.24
25 7.6 0.94 100 30.5 1.26
30 9.1 0.98 120 36.6 1.31
40 12.2 1.04 140 42.7 1.36
50 15.2 1.09 160 48.8 1.39
60 18 1.13 180 54.9 1.43
70 21.3 1.17 200 61.0 1.46
* Do not use if Exposure D applies and do not use Exposure B in any case.

Table D-5. Values of External Pressure Coefficient (GCP) for Low-Slope (Θ ≤ 7°) Gabled Roofs ≤ 60 ft (18 m) High
Zone GCP
1 -1.7
2 -2.3
3 -3.2
4 +0.9/-1.0
5 +0.9/-1.26
+ inward pressure; - outward or upward pressure, which always governs for roofs

D.3.2.6 Example D-1

Given: A 50 ft (15.2 m) high building is proposed to be constructed at a Eastern Kansas and the building
owner requires it to be designed for property protection against tornado winds. Using Fig. D-3, determine the
recommended design wind speed and calculate the design wind pressures for all 5 roof and wall areas.
Solution: First determine which wind zone the proposed installation is in using Fig. D-3. For this location,
use V = 140 mph (62 m/s) wind speed. Use Equations D-1 and D-2 to calculate the design pressures.
qh = 0.00256KZKZTKDIV2 (Eqn. D-1)
From Table D-4, use 1.09 for KZ. Use 1.0 for KZT, KD and I.
qh = 0.00256(1.09)(1.0)(1.0)(1.0)(140)2 = 54.7 psf (2.6 kPa)
Use Equation D-2 and respective GCP values from Table D-5 to determine the design pressures in respective
zones.
p = [(1.05GCP) - GCPi] qh (Eqn. D-2)

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FM Global Property Loss Prevention Data Sheets Page 99

Use GCPi = +/- 0.55 for all zones, as partial enclosure must be assumed.
For Zones 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5, the respective values of GCP = -1.0, -1.8, -2.8, +0.9/-1.0 and +1.0/-1.26. So
for:
Zone 1: qh = [(1.05)(-1.7) − 0.55](54.7 psf) = −128 psf (−6.1 kPa)
Zone 2: qh = [(1.05)(-2.3) − 0.55](54.7 psf) = −162 psf (−7.8 kPa)
Zone 3: qh = [(1.05)(-3.2) − 0.55](54.7 psf) = −214 psf (−19.2 kPa) Zone 4: qh = [(1.05)(+0.9) + 0.55](54.7psf)
= +82 psf (+3.9 kPa)
Zone 4: qh = [(1.05)(-1.0) - 0.55](54.7psf) = -87 psf (-4.2 kPa)
Zone 5: qh = [(1.05)(+1.0) + 0.55](54.7psf) = +87 psf (+4.2 kPa)
Zone 5: qh = [(1.05)(-1.26) - 0.55](54.7psf) = -102 psf (-4.9 kPa)

Table D-6. Summary for Example D-1

Ultimate Assembly Rating w/Min. 2.0
Wind Design Pressure, SF,
Zone psf (kPa) psf (kPa)
1 -128 (-6.1) 270 (-12.9)
2 -162 (-7.8) 330 (-15.8)-
3 -214 (-10.2) 435 (-20.87)
4 +82/-87 (+3.9/-4.2) +165/-175 (+7.9/-8.4)
5 +87/-102 (+4.2/-4.9) +175/-205 (+8.4/-9.8)

D.3.2.8 Building Materials Used for Roof Construction

Wind loss experience has been more favorable with structural concrete roof decks than with steel deck. Steel
deck may be used, but should be designed for higher pressures. This could involve the use of any or all
of the following:
• Shorter deck spans
• Stiffer (deeper, thicker, etc.) deck
• Increased securement to joists/purlins
Experience has also shown that steel joists may buckle due to the transfer of lateral loads to them or
compressive stresses that develop in their lower chords while uplift pressures are applied to the roof deck.
This could be resolved by enhancing the joist resistance, improving the joist bridging, and/or adding lower
chord extensions.
Insulated roof assemblies with very high wind resistance can be found in RoofNav. Some assemblies,
including those using insulated steel deck have wind uplift ratings up to approximately 465 psf (22 kPa). This
will allow for a cost-effective design for higher wind speeds associated with tornado design, including the
application of pressure coefficients to reflect areas of the roof with higher wind pressures and a reasonable
safety factor.

D.4 References
Applied Technology Council (ATC), Wind Design for Tornadoes (webinar), William L. Coulbourne, P.E.
ASTM International. Standard Specification for Performance of Exterior Windows, Curtain Walls, Doors and
Storm Shutters Impacted by Windborne Debris in Hurricanes. ASTM E 1996-14a.
ASTM International. Standard Test Method for Performance of Exterior Windows, Curtain Walls, Doors and
Storm Shutters Impacted by Missile(s) and Exposed to Cyclic Pressure Differentials. ASTM E 1886-13a.
Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA). Design and Construction Guidance for Community Safe
Rooms. FEMA P-361.
Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA). Taking Shelter from the Storm: Building a Safe Room
for Your Home or Small Business. FEMA P-320.
Nong, S. and Doddipatla, L.; Review of US Tornado Risk, FM Global, January, 2015.

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1-28 Wind Design
Page 100 FM Global Property Loss Prevention Data Sheets

Phalen, Thomas E., Jr. “The Mechanics of Gravel Instability, Scour and Movement Under Wind Conditions
on Single-ply Loose Laid Roof Membranes.” RoofBlok Limited. Waltham, MA., 1984.
US Department of Commerce, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA). 1998-1999
Tornadoes and a Long-Term U.S. Tornado Climatology. Technical Report 99-02. NOAA/NESDIS. August
2000.

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