LECTURE 4

TOPICS
 Electric flux and Electric flux density
 Gauss’ Law
 Divergence of Electric field

On completing this lecture, Students should be able to:

1. Understand what the electric flux is and what is its use
2. Define the electric flux density and establish the relation between the electric flux
density and electric field intensity
3. State Gauss’ Law and construct the 3 Gaussian surfaces (sphere, cylinder, pillbox)
4. Solve the electric field problems using Gauss’ Law in integral form
5. Derive Gauss’ Law in differential(point) form and use it to solve for the charge
density for the given electric field E
6. Identify Maxwell’s equations for electrostatic field:   D  v

4.1 ELECTRIC FLUX LINES AND FLUX DENSITY

If a test charge is placed in the electric field of a fixed charge, the force acts
on the test charge will push or pull it along a certain path depending on the
direction of the field and the sign of the test charge. The path along which a
positive test charge would move in an electric field is called the electric field
lines or electric force lines or electric flux lines. The flux lines, actually,
have no real existence. Michael Faraday, in 1837, showed their use to
visualize the existence of electric field around a system of charge for the first
time. The rules for drawing electric field lines are: (1) at any given point,
electric field vector must be tangent to the electric field line through that
point and in the same direction, (2) in a plane perpendicular to the field
lines, the relative density of the field lines represents the relative magnitude
of the field there, with greater density with greater magnitude.
The field or flux line points radially outward from a point charge if it is
positive; otherwise it is inward as shown in Figure 4.1.

Q+ Q- Q+ >> Q-

Figure 4.1: Field lines for different charge configuration

The electric field lines have the following properties:

 It is independent of the medium

 Its magnitude solely depends upon the charge from which it originates
 The tangent to the lines at any point gives the direction of the E-field
at that point
 Flux lines originate on positive charges and terminate on negative
ones or nearby ground
 These lines never cross each other
 The density of flux lines gives an indication of the field strength at a
given point
 If a point charge is enclosed by an imaginary sphere of radius r, the
flux lines must pass the surface of the sphere perpendicularly and
uniformly

ELECTRIC FLUX DENSITY

If we consider a unit surface area in the field of a system of charge, then the
net flux passing normally through the unit surface is called the electric flux
density D. Faraday’s experiment showed that the electric flux density D can
be defined in terms of electric field as D=ε0E.

4.2 GAUSS’S LAW

Gauss’s law states that “The total number of electric flux lines coming out
perpendicularly from any closed surface is equal to the total charge
enclosed by that surface”.
ds

D

Assume an incremental surface ds over which flux density D is constant and

if it makes an angle θ with the normal to the surface ds, the number of flux
lines d crossing the surface ds normally is then equal to D·ds=D ds cos θ.
Integrating over the closed surface we have the integral form of Gauss’s law
(uses to determine D or E when charge is known):

s
 D  ds  Q or  E  ds  Q/ 0
s
(4.1)
VERIFICATION OF GAUSS’S LAW

To prove the Gauss law, we may consider a point charge Q at the origin of
the coordinate system in free space and an imaginary sphere of radius r
around it. Then from Coulomb’s law we have
1 Q
D= ε0E= ar and the incremental surface in spherical system is ds=r2
4 r 2
sin θ dθ d ar.
Therefore,
 2
Q
ψ   D  ds    sin dd  Q .
s 0 0
4
Here, (psee) is the total flux lines that pass through the closed surface.

GAUSS’S LAW IN POINT FORM

If Q in RHS of (4.1) is expressed in terms of the volume charge density we

have Q   v dv .
v

Again using the divergence theorem, LHS of equation (4.1) can be written as
 D  ds     Ddv
s v

Therefore, from equation (4.1) we have

  D  v    E  v /  0 (4.2)
Equation (4.2) is the differential/point form of Gauss’s law that uses to
determine charge when D or E is known.
Equation (4.2) shows that the static electric field is not solenoidal. Note that
a divergenceless field is called solenoidal whose field lines always close
upon themselves. In the charge free region, the static electric field, however,
becomes solenoidal.

USE OF GAUSS’S LAW TO DETERMINE D OR E

Gauss’s law provides a convenient tool for evaluating electric field to

systems that possess certain symmetry. The use of the above equation (4.1)
to determine E or D is easy if we choose a suitable Gaussian surface (any
closed surface; generally cylindrical surface is considered for line charge,
rectangular or cylindrical surface is considered for surface charge and
spherical surface is considered for volume charge distribution) around the
charge that satisfies the following conditions:
 1) D or E is everywhere either normal or tangential to the closed surface,
so that D·ds becomes either Dds or zero, respectively.
2) D has the same value at all points on the surface where D is normal.

Problem Solving Strategy applying Gauss’s law :

Step 1. Select the Gaussian surface such that D is everywhere either
normal or tangential to the surface.
Step 2. Identify the direction of D.
Step 3. Select ds and integrate Dds over the closed surface  D  ds with the
s

magnitude of D as unknown.
Step 4. Evaluate Q for the considered closed surface.
Step 5. Equate Q to  D  ds to obtain the magnitude of D and then find E
s

from D=0E.
(a) E for spherical shell charge

A spherical shell charge distribution suggests the selection of a spherical

Gaussian surface of radius r on which E will be constant. For the surface of
radius r<a, E must be zero owing to the absence of charge enclosed.
However, for the Gaussian surface when r>a, the total charge enclosed is
Q=4πa2s, where s is the uniform surface charge density. Again
 2

  E  ds 4a     E r sin dd  4a 2  s

2 2
0 s 0 r
s  
0 0
 2
Q
   E r sin dd  Q  4r 2 0 Er  Q  Er  ra
2

4r 2 0
0 r
  0 0

(b) E for infinite plane of charge (surface charge)

An infinite (or very large) sheet carries a uniform charge density s, as
shown in the following figure. By symmetry the resultant E-field must have
a direction normal to the plane and have the same size at all points above or
below the plane. Take as a Gaussian surface a cylinder of cross-sectional
area A and height 2h. Flux is only non-zero through ends of the cylinder. If
field at cylinder ends is E then total flux is 20EA.

As the charge enclosed is area  charge density = As, therefore, from

Gauss's law 20EA=As  E=s /20

(c) E for infinitely long line charge

E dS3
E E

dS1 dS2

L
Assume an infinitely long line charge with uniformly distributed line charge
density of l C/m. As seen earlier the resultant E-field must have a direction
normal to the line and have the same value at all points having a common
distance from the line.
As the closed Gaussian surface, we choose a right cylinder of radius  and
length L which is coaxial with the line charge. Now from Gauss law

 D  ds   L
s
l   D  dS 1   D  dS 2   D  dS 3  l L
S1 S2 S3

  2 L
LHS   0   E  dS 1   E  dS 2   E  dS 3    0  E  dS 3   0   E  ddz  2 0 LE 
S  0 0
 1 S2 S3  S3

l l
Now, 2 0 LE   l L  E   E aρ
2 0  2 0 
Example 4.1: Use Gauss’s law to determine E field caused by a spherical
cloud of electrons with a volume charge density v=-0 for 0rb and =0
for r>b.
Solution:

We know from Gauss’s law that

 E  ds  Q/ .
s
0

For 0rb, assume a spherical Gaussian surface of radius ri. In this case
ds=ri2 sinθ dθdar, dv = r2sinθdrdθd and the total charge Q enclosed by the
Gaussian surface is
ri  2
4
Q    v dv       0r
2
sin drdd    0ri3
v r 0  0  0
3

From the symmetry, it is clear that E will have the radial component only, i.
e., E=Erar.
 2
4 4
 E  ds   3 0
 0ri3    E r ri2 sin dd  
3 0
 0ri3
s  0  0
1 1
Er    0 ri3  E    0 ri a r 0rb
3 0 ri 2
3 0
For r>b, assume a spherical Gaussian surface of radius r0. In this case ds=r02
sinθ dθdar, dv= r2sinθdrdθd and the total charge Q enclosed by the
Gaussian surface is
b  2
4
Q    v dv       0r
2
sin drdd    0b 3
v r 0  0  0
3

Again, E will have the radial component only, i. e., E=Erar.

 2
4 4
  0E  ds    0b    Er r02 sin dd    0b 3
3

s
3  
0 0
3 0
1 1
Er    0b 3  E    0 b 3a r r b
3 0 r02
3 0 r02
Example 4.2: A cylindrical conductor of radius a and of infinite length has a
uniform charge distribution s over its surface. Compute E everywhere in
space. Also calculate the flux passing through a cylindrical surface of radius
b (b>a) and length l.
Solution: For a infinitely long cylindrical charge, the E field acts along -
axis. The E field for a cylindrical Gaussian surface of radius <a, is zero
because of zero enclosed charge. However, for a Gaussian surface of radius
>a, the charge enclosed is Q=2πals. Now, from Gauss’s law, E at >a is
obtained as
l 2

  E  ds 2al
s
0 s    E ddz  2al
z 0  0
s / 0

a a
E  s  E   sa   a
 0  0
l 2
as
ψ   D  ds    bddz  2las C
s 0 0
b
Example 4.3: Given the electric flux density, D=0.3 r2ar nC/m in free space:
(a) find E at point (r=2, =250, =900); (b) find the total charge within the
sphere r=3.
Solution: (a) As D=0E, E=D/0=(0.3410-9)/(8.8510-12)=135.5 ar V/m
(b) Using equation (4.2), we have
  D  v
Therefore, the volume charge density in the field region is
 1  (r 2 Dr ) 1  ( D sin  ) 1 D 
v    D     
r
2
r r sin   r sin   
In this problem, Dr=0.3r2, D= D=0.
 0.3  (r 4 ) 
 v    D   2   1.2r nC/m3.
r r 
Therefore, the total charge Q within the sphere of radius r=3m is:
3  2
Q    v dv     1.2r  r
2
sin drdd  305.4 nC
v r 0 0 0
SUMMARY
1) The electric flux density D can be defined in terms of electric field as
D=ε0E.
2) Gauss’s law states that “The total number of electric flux lines coming out
perpendicularly from any closed surface is equal to the total charge
enclosed by that surface”. Gauss’s law in integral form:
 D  ds  Q
s
or  E  ds  Q/
s
0

3) When charge distribution is symmetric, so that a Gaussian surface, where

field lines are perpendicular and its density is constant, can be found,
Gauss’s law in integral form is useful to determine D=|D|:
 D  ds  Q  D  ds  Q  D  Q / S
s s

4) Gauss’s law in point form   D   v (first Maxwell’s equation) is used

to determine the charge distribution in the field region if D or E is
known.
5) The electric field inside a charged spherical shell is zero, if there is no
charge inside the shell, and that outside the shell is similar to that of a
point charge at the center of the shell.
6) The electric field due to an infinite sheet with uniform surface charge
density is perpendicular to the plane of the sheet and has magnitude
|E|=s/20.

SAMPLE QUESTIONS
4.1 The electric flux density on a spherical surface at r=b is the same for a
point charge Q located at the origin and for charge Q uniformly
distributed on surface at r=a (a<b). Chose the correct answer:
(a) Yes (b) No (c) Not necessarily.
4.2 Point charges 30 nC, -20 nC, and 10 nC are located at (-1, 0, 2), (0, 0,
0), and (1, 5, -1), respectively. The total flux leaving a cube of side 6
m centered at the origin is: (a) -20 nC (b) 10 nC (c) 20 nC (d) 30 nC
(e) 60 nC
4.3 Two large thin metal plates are parallel and close to each other as
shown in the following figure. On their inner faces, the plates have
-22 2
excess charge densities of opposite signs and magnitude 7x10 C/m .
 What is the electric field at points (a) to the left of the plates, (b) to the
right of them, and (c) between them?

4.4 Define electric field line.

4.5 What is the use of electric field line?
4.6 State the principles or rules of drawing electric field lines.
4.7 State the properties of electric field lines.
4.8 State and explain Gauss’s law.
4.9 Develop the Gauss’s law in point form from its integral form.
4.10 Verify Gauss’s law.