CABLES TYPES AND DESIGN

Prepared by: Roger Nicholls

August 2006

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 CABLE TYPES AND DESIGN

CONTENTS

Page

1. CABLE APPLICATIONS ................................................................................. 1

2. HISTORY............................................................................................................ 2

3. CABLE TYPES .................................................................................................. 6

3.1 General ....................................................................................................... 6

3.2 Paper Insulated Cables ............................................................................. 7
3.2.1 Solid Compounds ............................................................................ 7
3.2.2 Fluid Filled ...................................................................................... 7
3.2.3 Gas Filled ........................................................................................ 8
3.3 Polymeric Insulated Cables ...................................................................... 9
3.3.1 Polyvinyl Chloride (PVC) ............................................................... 9
3.3.2 Rubbers and Silicones ..................................................................... 9
3.3.3 Polyethylene (PE) and Cross Linked (XLPE)................................. 9
3.4 Polypropylene Paper Laminate ............................................................... 9

4. CABLE COMPONENTS ................................................................................. 11

4.1 Insulation ................................................................................................. 11

4.2 Conductors ............................................................................................... 12
4.3 Cable Sheaths .......................................................................................... 13
4.3.1 General .......................................................................................... 13
4.3.2 Sheath Components....................................................................... 13

5. ELECTRICAL STRESSES ............................................................................. 15

5.1 Electrical Stress Distribution ................................................................. 15

5.2 Field Control in Paper Insulated Cables............................................... 17

6. ELECTRICAL LOSSES.................................................................................. 19

6.1 General .................................................................................................... 19

6.2 Conductor Losses .................................................................................... 19
6.3 Capacitance and Dielectric Losses ......................................................... 20
6.4 Sheath Losses ........................................................................................... 20

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 CONTENTS Cont’d

Page

7. MECHANISM OF INSULATION BREAKDOWN ..................................... 23

7.1 Paper Cables ............................................................................................ 23

7.2 Polymeric Cables ..................................................................................... 23

8. OTHER TYPES OF CABLES ........................................................................ 26

8.1 DC Cables ................................................................................................ 26

8.2 Gas Insulated Lines................................................................................. 28
8.3 Superconducting Cables ......................................................................... 28

9. CONCLUSIONS ............................................................................................... 30

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 CABLE TYPES AND DESIGN

1. CABLE APPLICATIONS

Overhead lines are the most economical method for the transmission and distribution
of electrical energy. Where environmental, practical or technical considerations
dictate, the transmission and distribution systems are undergrounded by the use of
insulated cables. Cable designs vary enormously to meet the diverse requirements of
voltage, current and location, but generally, consist of three main components. These
are a low resistance conductor to carry the current, insulation to isolate the conductors
from each other and from their surroundings and an outer sheath for mechanical
protection of the cable.

The early problems of designing and manufacturing serviceable cables have been
overcome, so that today, cables are a viable and practical method of transporting
electrical energy. The evolution of the design, materials and manufacturing processes
has enabled cables to match electrical system requirements and transmission voltages.
Cable production is now an established art and generally standardised throughout the
world. Differences, which occur, are due to national standards and material
preferences, especially at the higher voltage ranges.

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2. HISTORY

Following the early experiments with electricity and the application of conducting and
insulating materials for telephony, attention turned to the development of
underground cables for transmitting electrical power. Materials that were available in
the 1880s included copper for conductors and paper, silk, Indian rubber, oils, varnish
and bituminous compounds for insulation. Voltage and current capabilities were low
as compared to modern cables.

Steel Pipe
2.5 in OD
Impregnated Paper
Sheet Insulation
0.5 in Thick

Outer Insulation

Hollow Copper
Tube 13/16 in OD
Copper Tube

Fig 1.1
Pipe cable designed by Sebastian de Ferranti in 1888

As an example of the development of cable manufacture, the work of Sebastian de

Ferranti, one of the early electrical pioneers in England, may be noted. In 1888, he
designed, produced and installed the first underground 10kV AC power transmission
line. This consisted of an inner copper tube wrapped with wax impregnated paper
sheets inserted in another copper tube that served as the return conductor of the
single-phase circuit. A further layer of insulation and an outer steel pipe completed
the construction. (See figure 1.1) The cable sections were each approximately 6m
long and the four single-phase circuits between the Deptford Power Station and
central London, a distance of 11km, which required over 7,000 plug-in joints. Later,
in 1891, de Ferranti developed a flexible cable, which initiated the development of
lead presses, paper taping and wire stranding machines.

The introduction of three phase systems at the turn of the century saw the introduction
of three core belted cables. These were essentially cables constructed with a belt of
insulation around three insulated cores.

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 Fig 1.2 Paper Insulated AC Belted Cable (Top Conductor at Peak Potential)

As the demand for higher voltages and ratings increased, so the sizes of the
conductors and the thickness of the insulation were increased. The concentration of
the flux levels and the resulting high stress levels in the insulation at the points of
contact of the adjacent cores, caused failures in this type of construction.

In 1914, Hochstadter increased the thickness of the core insulation and added
perforated metallic tapes around the outside of each core insulation. The insulating
belt was discarded so the metallic tapes were in contact with the metal sheath. The
individual screens distributed the stresses radially and evenly and eliminated the
concentration of electrical stresses at the points of contact.

By the 1920s, overhead lines were reaching a voltage of 200kV. Screened cables
were limited to about 30kV as insulation failures occurred at higher voltages due to
the limitations of the available materials and designs of the cables.

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 Fig 1.3 Three-Core Belted (Left) and Screened (Right) Cables

Emanueli in Italy found that cable voltages could be increased by impregnating the
paper insulation with low viscosity oil. The oil was allowed to permeate into and out
of the cable insulation during the operation cycles. The cables were provided with an
oil duct in the conductor, which at intervals along the route, was connected to riser
tanks. Gravity was sufficient to make the cable absorb oil from the tanks while
providing capacity to accommodate changes in oil volume during the heating and
cooling. This landmark invention ensured that gas or air cavities, which caused local
discharges leading to cable insulation failure, could not form in the paper tapes.
Further improvements were obtained by increasing the pressure of the oil to the cable
insulation. Robinson in 1936 provided the scientific explanation of the breakdown of
viscous compound impregnated cables. The Emanueli patent for a central oil duct
dates to 1917, which illustrates how technology often drives ahead of scientific
analysis and theory.

In the 1920s, the use of inert nitrogen gas to impregnate the paper insulation was
found to have similar properties to oil by retarding insulation breakdown. The
increase of gas pressure (up to 1400 kPa) reduced the mean free path of electrons and
hence, the ionisation in the voids. It provided an incentive to develop gas pressure
assisted cables in competition with the self-contained pipe oil filled cables. Various
types of gas filled cables were developed, but the design was later abandoned as the
sheaths and supply pipe work had to retain the high gas pressures. The upper limit of
the nitrogen gas ionisation level is 138kV.

At higher voltages, fluid filled or what was previously known as oil filled cables,
replaced the mass-impregnating compound with low viscosity mineral oil. Pressure
tanks at the cable ends and typically at joint locations were required to provide a
constant pressure of fluid. The design has been refined over time and the concept is
essentially used in modern fluid filled cables. Fluid filled cables for use on 275kV
systems were developed in the 1960s, following by 400kV in the 1970s. Cables for
1,100kV systems and above are presently being developed.

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The quality of paper tapes for use in oil-filled cables has improved to meet voltage
and stress requirements. With the increase in electrical stress, the dielectric losses of
an oil-filled cable has increased to about 20 to 25% of the total loss on a typical
400kV 50Hz cable. In the late 1980s, low-loss tapes manufactured from a laminate of
polypropylene between two layers of paper were developed. Although more
expensive, the low-loss insulation reduces dielectric losses and is extensively used in
high voltage applications above 200kV.

Polymeric cables using polyethylene (PE) for the insulation was developed in the
1950s. It has replaced natural and synthetic rubber insulation used in the manufacture
of most low voltage cables. However, the inclusion of voids, impurities and a low
conductor operating temperature of 70˚C made PE unattractive for use in medium and
high voltage cables. During the 1960s and 1970s, various methods were developed
for upgrading the thermal performance of PE. The most significant advance was the
cross-linking of the polyethylene molecule chains, which allowed the conductor
operating temperature to be increased ˚C.90 These are known as ‘cross linked
polyethylene’ (XLPE) polymers.

Early XLPE insulated cables were installed in significant quantities in America and
Japan with little knowledge of the operating characteristics or manufacturing
limitations. Within a few years of operation, many of these cables failed due to
insulation failure caused by water trees and material contamination. By the 1970s,
XLPE cables had improved enormously as more became known about the material
itself. Today, 400kV cables with XLPE insulation are in regular service and are being
tested at higher voltages in research establishments.

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3. CABLE TYPES

3.1 General

Wiring cables and solid dielectric low voltage distribution cables (1kV or less) have
relatively low electrical and mechanical stresses. The insulation thicknesses are
generally governed by the mechanical requirements and properties of the materials
and not by the insulation requirements. The manufacturing processes are simple and
highly automated and therefore not considered further in this discussion.

High voltage distribution and transmission cables are more complex and require
special design and more complicated manufacturing processes owing to the greater
electrical stresses.

Materials for use as cable insulation should have the following properties:

• High dielectric strength.

• High insulation resistance.

• Low losses.

• Good mechanical properties to withstand manufacturing, transport, laying and in-

service forces.

• Immune to chemical attacks and deterioration over the cable working life and
temperature range.

• Non-hygroscopic or else reliant on an impervious sheath.

• Flexible to permit manipulation during manufacture and installation.

• Cheap and readily obtainable.

The main types of insulation materials available for AC transmission cables, which
comply with some of the above properties, are shown in the following chart and
descriptions.

Types of Cables and Operating Voltages

Insulation Type Insulating Cable Type Operating

Material Voltage Range
(kV)
Paper Insulation Fluid (oil) LP (self contained) 30 to over 500
HP (pipe) 30 to over 500
Gas Internal (sheath) 30 to150
External (pipe) 30-to 250
Compound Solid (MIND) Up to 30

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 Polymeric PVC PVC Less than 6
Insulation Silicon / rubber EPR
PE PE 30 to 200
XLPE XLPE 30 to over 400

Polypropylene- Fluid (oil) PPL 100 to over 1000

paper Laminate

3.2 Paper Insulated Cables

Paper has good electrical insulating properties only when dry and impregnated with
suitable fluids and compounds to prevent moisture adsorption. Paper in tape form is
lapped onto the cable conductor with the edges butted together. Successive layers are
applied overlapping the butt joints until the required insulation thickness is obtained.
It is important that the voids at the butt joints are filled with insulating compound or
fluid to prevent electrical discharges occurring.

The paper insulation is dried by applying heat and vacuum before introducing the
insulating compound. This ensures that all voids and the paper matrix are filled by
the insulating compound or fluid.

3.2.1 Solid Compounds

Compounds used for solid type distribution cables are usually based on paraffinic or
naphthenic mineral oils. Resins are usually added to the oil base to improve
impregnation and increase the viscosity over the cable working temperature range.

One type of insulating compound that is in common use is the mass-impregnating

non-draining (MIND) compound. It is used for its low viscosity at the impregnating
temperature, but is solid over the cable temperature operating range. Modern
compounds of this type exhibit low rates of thermal expansion, ensuring that the
migration of the insulating compound does not occur. These types of cables are used
up to 30kV.

The use of compounds to impregnate the paper insulation is in common use for cables
up to about 33kV. Above this voltage, partial discharges can be initiated in any voids
not fully filled by the compound.

3.2.2 Fluid Filled

Fluid filled or what used to be known as oil filled, cables overcome this problem by
maintaining the liquid impregnant at a continuous positive pressure. This ensures that
the voids in the insulation remain filled at all possible operating conditions and
enables higher electrical stresses to be used.

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a) Internal Pressure

The fluid in a paper insulated cable may be kept under pressure by external tanks.
Changes in fluid volume due to temperature variations are accommodated by the
tanks, which maintain constant pressure in the cable to prevent void formation.

b) External Pressure

Paper insulated cables without a sheath may be installed in steel pipes, which are
filled with oil and pressurised. Three single core screened cables without sheaths are
bound together with a non-magnetic skid wire and installed in one pipe. The skid
wire protects the cable cores against damage while being pulled through the pipe.

On completion of the installation, the steel pipes are evacuated and then filled with
insulating oil of low viscosity. The fluid pressure can be maintained at a higher
pressure than the internal pressure cables. Thus, the thickness of the paper insulation
may be reduced without reducing the reliability of the cable. This leads to an
economical type of cable construction for the mid-transmission voltage range.

The disadvantage of pipe type cables is that bends must be kept to a minimum and
jointing of the pipes is time consuming. In addition, the equipment to maintain the
high fluid pressure is also complicated. However, steel pipes do afford good
mechanical protection for the cables although protection against corrosion must be
provided.

3.2.3 Gas Filled

The voltage required to initiate ionisation in a void increases as the pressure is

increased. By pressurising the insulation, ionisation is reduced as well as the void
size. No external accessories are required as the cable sheath acts as the pressure
vessel. Gas filled cables are advantageous for routes with great variations in
elevation. Nitrogen gas at a nominal pressure of 9 to 14 bar usually used for
pressurising cables from high pressure cylinders and regulators. Small gas leaks can
be accommodated without risk to the environment. Depressurising and repressuring
gas filled cabled cable for major repair work to be carried out can be a lengthy process
and add significantly to the outage times.

a) Internal Gas Pressure

Gas filled cables generally require a reinforced lead sheath to retain the internal gas
pressures. Relatively large clearances between the insulation and sheath are required
to permit the migration of the gas along the length of the cable. The main attraction
of this type of cable system is the relative simplicity of the ancillary equipment and
jointing procedures. Owing to the lower permissible electrical design, stress and
thicker metal sheaths, gas filled cables are inevitably more expensive than equivalent
fluid filled cables. Extruded polymeric cables are a more effective option.

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b) External Gas Pressure

These cables have either a heavy outer gas retaining sheath or a steel pipe similar to
the fluid filled pipe system, but are self-contained. They are generally uncompetitive
with other types of pressure assisted cables and do not have any technical advantages.

3.3 Polymeric Insulated Cables

Nearly all cables for new installations up to 150kV are now of the extruded polymeric
types. Polymeric insulated cables have been in commercial use at 400kV for
approximately 12 to 15 years.

The operating electrical stresses for polymeric insulation are kept lower than for fluid
filled cables, consequently the insulation thickness is greater. All cables above 30kV
are single core due to limitation of the extrusion processes. One advantage is that the
auxiliary equipment required for the pressure assisted paper insulated cable systems is
not required. The lack of any insulating fluid is also a factor in situations where the
effects of fire in confined spaces or leaks causing an environmental impact have to be
considered.

The insulating material broadly identifies the types of polymeric cables:

3.3.1 Polyvinyl Chloride (PVC)

PVC polymers cannot be extruded without the addition of plasticisers, lubricants and
fillers. They are generally suitable as insulation of domestic and industrial wiring
cables up to 6kV due to high electrical losses. Some manufacturers use PVC as fillers
in the cable oversheath.

3.3.2 Rubbers and Silicones

Various types of insulating materials ranging from natural rubbers to various

polymers of ethylene, propylene and silicones are used for low voltage applications.
One example is the ethylene-propylene rubber (EPR) for limited use in transmission
cables up to 150kV where additional flexibility is required.

3.3.3 Polypropylene (PE) and Cross Linked (XLPE)

Polyethylene (PE) and cross linked polyethylene (XLPE) are the most commonly
used polymeric insulant. The low dielectric losses of polyethylene make it an
attractive proposition as compared to impregnated paper and other polymers.

The melting point of XLPE is higher than PE allowing the cable to be safely operated
at continuous temperatures of 90ºC instead of 70 or 80ºC.

3.4 Polypropylene Paper Laminate

Paper insulated cables can theoretically be designed for voltages exceeding 1,100kV,
but the increase in dielectric losses with voltage limit the useful current rating of the

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cable. Thus, at a voltage of over 850kV, the paper insulated cable has little or no
rating capacity if it is naturally cooled.

To overcome this limitation, polypropylene paper laminate (PPL) has been developed
as a replacement for paper insulation. It consists of a film of polypropylene coated on
both sides with a layer of paper. The laminate has the same physical properties as
paper and can be used in the same lapping machines for the manufacture of PPL
cables. The laminate permits cables to be designed for voltages exceeding 1,100kV
while retaining a useful current rating. Other advantages are higher impulse strength
and lower permittivity. The material is more expensive than paper and is generally
only used at voltages above 250kV or in special installations.

Fig 3.1 Variation of Current Rating with Operating Voltage for Paper and PPL
Insulated Cables with Conductor Size of 2500mm2.

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4. CABLE COMPONENTS

4.1 Insulation

a) Impregnated Paper

Paper for cable insulation consists of long cellulose fibres derived by chemical
treatment of wood pulp. The paper is generally of 2-ply form with thickness, density
and impermeability being adjusted according to cable type and voltage. The thickness
of the paper is normally from 65µm to 200μm with a density varying from 650 to
1,000kg/m3. As the actual fibre density is in the order of 1,500kg/m3, a considerable
volume of space within the fibres is available for filling with an insulating compound.
The impermeability or porosity of the paper can be adjusted to suit the final
mechanical and electrical properties.

The paper is applied to the cable conductor in tape form with layers being lapped until
the required insulation thickness is obtained. This can vary from 0.6 to over 30mm
according to the cable voltage and the electrical stresses. The surface finish of the
paper is highly important, as individual layers must be able to slide over each other
when bending the cable. Thickness and tensile strength of the paper tapes may be
increased towards the outside of the insulation to improve the bending performance.
The insulation thickness may be reduced by using high-grade paper (75µm thick)
adjacent to the conductor where the electrical stresses are highest. However,
insulation grading is only used for special applications, as the manufacturing costs are
significantly greater.

b) Polymeric Insulation.

In tonnage terms, synthetic polymers have replaced natural materials such as paper,
mineral oils and natural rubbers for the insulation of distribution and wiring type of
cables and the over sheathing of cables in general. Polymers can be readily varied in
chemical composition to suit specific electrical, mechanical and thermal requirements.

A polymer is a molecule, or a substance consisting of chains of molecules composed

of one or a few structural units repeated many times. However, the definition applies
not only to synthetic materials but also to natural materials such as paper. In the cable
industry, polymeric material is taken as polymers, which are plastics or rubbers.
Plastics are considered to be materials formed to shape by heat and pressure. Rubbers
and elastomers are considered to be solid materials with elastic properties.

Plastics may be further divided into thermoplastics and thermosets. Thermoplastics

are materials in which the molecules are held together by physical rather than
chemical bonds. This means that the material can be melted and when cooled, it will
harden. A typical example is polyvinyl chloride (PVC). The molecules of a
thermoset are held together by chemical bonds, which are not easily broken. This
means that on heating, the polymer does not soften sufficiently to be reshaped.
Typical examples are cross linked polyethylene (XLPE) and elastomers. Many
thermoplastics can be converted to thermosets by appropriate treatment to induce
‘crosslinking’.

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c) Polypropylene Paper Laminate

Polypropylene paper laminate (PPL) is a low loss dielectric material used in tape
form. It consists of a layer of extruded polypropylene bonded between two thin layers
of insulating paper with a total thickness in the order of 100µm. The lapping of the
laminate onto the conductor and the impregnating processes are similar to the
techniques used for paper oil insulated cables.

The polypropylene tape has a lower dielectric loss angle and permittivity and has a
higher operating temperature and mechanical strength as compared to paper. When
combined with paper, PPL has a lower permittivity (typically 2.7 as compared to 3.4)
lower dielectric loss angle (0.0008 as compared to 0.0023) and higher impulse
strength.

PPL is more expensive than paper and generally it is only economic to use as cable
insulation at voltages above 250kV where dielectric losses are critical. (See Fig 3.1)

d) Impregnating Fluids and Compounds

Paper has good electrical insulating properties only when dry. Impregnation with
suitable fluids and compounds help to prevent or reduce moisture absorption. During
manufacture, the cable insulation is usually heated to 120°C and a vacuum applied to
remove both air and moisture from the paper fibres.

Partial discharges can occur in insulation voids at voltages above 6.6kV. It is

therefore important that all tape butt-end spaces are fully impregnated with fluid or
compound.

Impregnants for solid type distribution cables is based on refined thickened mineral
oil. The increase in viscosity, in some types approaching a wax or gel, prevents
draining from the paper insulation.

4.2 Conductors

Stranded copper was at one time almost universally used for cable conductors.
Aluminium is a viable alternative and its use is often determined by cost and weight
savings. However, the cost saving has to be offset by the lower conductivity of
aluminium which requires a larger cross-sectional area for a given conductivity.

Stranding is necessary to ensure flexibility, each layer of strands having a different

direction of lay. The alternate layers also prevent the conductor “bird-caging” when
bent. For large conductors above 1,000mm2, the strands are arranged in groups or
segments to reduce losses. (Milliken construction)

The nominal cross-section of a cable conductor is the area of the cross-section of one
strand in a plane perpendicular to its length multiplied by the number of strands.

The actual cross-section of a conductor is the area of the oblique cross-section of a

strand produced by cutting the strand by a plane perpendicular to the centreline of the
conductor, multiplied by the number of strands.

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The equivalent cross-section is the cross-section of a solid conductor of the same
length as the cable and having the same resistance at the same temperature.

The actual cross-section is greater than the nominal cross-section, but the equivalent
cross-section is less because of the increase in resistance due to spiralling.

Manufacturers have to be careful when fabricating conductors for cables to make sure
that the cross-section is adequate to meet the required specifications for resistance and
area. Work hardening and reduction in the strand cross-section due to compacting
and shaping multi-strand conductor can also occur during the fabricating process.

4.3 Cable Sheaths

4.3.1 General

All cables require a sheath for a number of reasons:

• Mechanical protection for the insulation used in the construction of cables, which
are mechanically weak.

• As a water impervious layer to prevent contamination of the insulation.

• To prevent the migration of the insulating compounds and fluids out of the papers.

• To provide a path for cable and system fault currents.

A sheath may comprise of a number of combination of components, which are

described as follows:

4.3.2 Sheath Components

a) Metal Armour

For lead sheathed paper insulated power distribution cables, the armouring usually
consists of galvanised steel wire or steel tape. The armour is laid over a bed of
bituminised tape to act as a cushion and to contribute to corrosion protection.

For cables above 11kV, XLPE insulation requires an earthed screen, usually of copper
wires and an outer sheath impervious to water.

b) Metallic Layer

A metallic layer is required for additional protection against water ingress, mechanical
damage, to retain the insulation compounds and to provide a path for fault currents.

The layer may consist of various materials, ranging from a metallic laminate used in
conjunction with screening wires to various sheaths of lead, aluminium, copper and
stainless steel. Lead sheaths are extruded directly over the cable while sheaths of
copper, aluminium, copper and stainless steel sheaths are formed from strip

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continuously welded into a tube over the insulation, which is then corrugated. This
enables the cable to be bent for winding onto drums and for installation.

Additional copper wire screens are used where the fault current requirements exceed
the capacity of the metallic sheath.

Bedding and binding layers of tape(s) may be installed over the conductor and under
the sheath components to prevent any intrusion of the screen or conductor wires into
the insulation. Water blocking tapes are also placed under the sheath to prevent
longitudinal migration of water under the sheath should it be perforated or damaged,
to reduce the length of cable that has to be cutback for repair.

c) Oversheath

The oversheath or outer covering prevents corrosion of the metallic sheath and
electrically isolates it from ground. This enables routine voltage tests to be applied
between the metallic sheath and ground to detect any damage to the integrity of the
cable oversheath.

The materials used for the oversheath may consist of PVC, PE and high-density
polyethylene (HDPE). The latter material is used to provide a hard finish to the cable,
preventing minor damage to the cable. The oversheath may also provide protection
against termites and aggressive chemical environments. Termite protection can be
obtained by installing a double brass over-lapped tape or an extruded nylon sheath.
As an alternative, an insecticide compound can be included in the oversheath material
but has limited effect and the environmental impacts have to be considered. A
protective outer (sacrificial) layer is required to preserve the brass tape and nylon
termite barrier from damage during installation.

To facilitate the oversheath voltage integrity test, the outer most layer of the sheath is
made conductive to ensure that the full length of the cable sheath is tested. This is
particularly important where the cable is not in direct contact with the ground as
would occur in tunnels, ducts and buildings. This is usually accomplished by
applying graphite or extruding a semi-conductive layer over the sheath.

d) Special Applications

When cables are installed in structures, tunnels and confined spaces, the flammability
and combustion properties of the materials used in the fabrication of the cables have
to be taken into account. The use of fire and smoke retardant materials should be
investigated and used if a hazard exists.

Submarine cables need to be armoured to withstand high tensile loads during and after
laying and to provide resistance to impact and abrasion. The design of the armour has
to take into account the method of coiling the cable for transport to site and the
resistance of the cable to withstand twisting forces. In addition, the cables have to
withstand the external water pressure as well as internal pressures due to thermal
cycles.

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5. ELECTRICAL STRESSES

The thickness of the cable insulation has to be a minimum for economy, bending and
heat dissipation but be thick enough to withstand the voltages applied to it without
breakdown. The insulating thickness is dependent on the dielectric strength of the
medium.

Electrical stress is the measure of voltage (kV) applied across the insulation (mm). It
should be noted that both operating and transient voltages have to be considered in the
establishment of electrical stress for the particular design of a cable. Paper cables for
example, have a maximum design stress in the range of about 7.5kV/mm at 33kV to
15kV/mm at 400kV.

Impulse conditions are more onerous and sets the thickness of the insulation. The
ratio of the basic impulse level to the operating voltage decreases with the operating
voltage level, as shown by 33 and 400kV cable, which have ratios of 10:1 and 6:1
respectively.

The stress levels for paper insulation are well established with predictable results.
Typical relationships between cable voltage and insulation thicknesses for paper
insulated cables are illustrated in the following chart.

Voltage (Uo kV) Insulation Maximum

Thickness (mm) Stress (kV/mm)

66 12 10
132 18-22 12
275 22-32 15
400 25-32 15

There is no international agreement or standard for the thickness of polymeric

insulation required at various voltages for cables above 30kV. Some countries,
notably Japan, consider that cables should be designed on the basis of mean stress in
the insulation. This leads to the use of a constant insulation thickness for all
conductor sizes at a given voltage. Other countries mainly design on the basis of
maximum stress at the conductor screen, which results in different insulation
thickness for different conductor diameters.

The voltage breakdown of polymeric insulation is highly dependant on the purity and
cleanliness of the material. Therefore, polymeric insulation is thicker (for example at
400kV 25 to 35mm instead of 20mm for paper cables) and the stress levels are kept
lower.

5.1 Electrical Stress Distribution

By the nature of the construction of cables, the insulation around the cable conductor
is exposed to electrical stresses. Electrical stress is inversely proportional to the
conductor diameter and insulation thickness and is a maximum at the conductor
surface reducing with distance from the conductor.

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The electrical stress in a single core and screened multicore cables may be expressed
as follows, assuming uniform distribution and permittivity:

Fig 5.1 Electrostatic Stress in a Single Core Cable.

Electric field intensity Ex at radius x is given by:

q
Ex =
2π x Eo Er

q R
From V = log e ( )
2π E o E r r

Stress at radius x is

V
Ex = (kV/mm)
R
x log e ( )
r

where:

r = radius of conductor (m)

R = internal radius of sheath (m)
Eo = permittivity of free space
Er = relative permittivity of the dielectric
V = potential of conductor relative to the sheath (V)
q = charge (coulomb/m of axial length)

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It should be noted that the stress is a maximum at the conductor surface.

V
Maximum stress =
R
r log e ( )
r

and a minimum at the insulation to sheath interface.

V
Minimum stress =
R
R log e( )
r

The above assumes that the conductor is perfectly circular and that the uneven surface
of the strands is considered to be a smooth cylinder. This is accomplished in practice
by covering the conductor with carbon paper tape for paper-insulated cables or an
extruded layer of semi-conducting polymer for polymeric cables.

The conductor cross-sectional area is determined by the circuit and system fault
current requirements as well as the maximum operating temperature of the cable
components. High electrical stresses may occur in high voltage cables with small
load current requirements. In this case, the conductor diameter has to be increased, or
in the case of fluid filled cables, the central fluid duct could be enlarged while
maintaining the required area of the conductor. Alternatively, aluminium could be
used in place of copper to gain an increase in conductor diameter.

The permittivity of paper cables insulation can be varied by using thin, high quality
papers adjacent to the conductor. This grading of the insulation enables higher
stresses to be used and reduces the insulation thickness. This also improves the
bending properties of the cable.

The grading of the insulation of polymeric cables is not possible as the polymer is
homogeneous and is extruded in a single process. However, by using super clean
high quality materials, free of impurities and voids, the stress level can be increased
thus reducing the thickness of the insulation. Refinements in quality of the insulating
material, has enabled some manufacturers to reduce 132kV cable insulating thickness
to typically 14mm instead of 20mm.

5.2 Field Control in Paper Insulated Cables

In the early days of electrical power transmission, cables were constructed with three
paper insulated cores surrounded by an outer belt of insulation. The ratio of the
insulation thicknesses were in proportion to the phase to phase and phase to earth
voltages.

For voltages up to about 22kV, the belted type of construction for three phase cables
has relatively low electrical stresses for the type of insulating paper used at the time.

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Further voltage increases initiated insulation failures necessitating a different design
of cable construction. See Fig. 1.2 Paper Insulated Belted Cable.

To eliminate the weakness of the belted cable with its unequal distribution of
electrical stresses, a cable with each core surrounded by an earthed metallic screen
was developed. This design of cable, first patented by Hochstadier in 1914, ensured
that the stresses are essentially radial between the conductor and the screen. Three
phase paper insulated cables for use above 15kV are now screened.

Similarly, polymeric cables for 3.8/6.6kV and above have screened cores and nearly
always have circular cores. The screens are formed by extruding a semi-conducting
polymer over both the conductor and the insulation. For high voltage cables, the three
layers are extruded simultaneously before passing into the cross linking and curing
stages. A perfectly smooth interface is obtained between the insulation and semi-
conducting layers thus avoiding potential areas of high electrical stress. It is also
important that the layers are bonded together, otherwise the cable components would
become detached and move during installation and load cycles. This could lead to
joint and termination failures.

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6 ELECTRICAL LOSSES

6.1 General

The three components of the cable, the conductor, the insulation and the outer
metallic layer(s) all have losses due to the load and induced currents which generate
heat. These losses should be kept to a minimum as the resulting heat reduces the
rating of the cable and has to be dissipated to the surrounding medium.

These losses are as follows:

6.2 Conductor Losses

The majority of the conductor losses are due to the resistance of the conductor. They
are proportional to the square of the current and the resistance (I2R) of the material.
Other losses in AC cables are caused by the uneven distribution of current within the
strands of the conductor. This is due to two effects known as “skin effect” and
“proximity effect”.

a) Skin Effect (ys)

The magnetic flux generated by the load current in the conductor is the greatest in the
centre of a conductor. The self-induced back e.m.f. reduces the current density in the
centre of the conductor. This concentrates the current at the surface of individual
strands as well as the outer layers of the conductor. This is known as the skin effect
and results in an increase in the effective resistance of the conductor. The magnitude
of the skin effect is influenced by the system frequency, the size and diameter of the
conductor and the conductor load current.

b) Proximity Effect (yp)

The proximity effect increases the effective resistance of the cable conductor and is
associated with the magnetic fields linking the conductors of the cable. Parameters
such as the spacing between the phases, the diameters and shape of the conductors
and the installation formation (i.e. flat or trefoil) have to be taken into account.

Skin and proximity effects may be ignored for small conductors (typically less than
150mm2) carrying low currents. They become increasingly significant with larger
conductors and higher currents and is often technically and economically desirable to
design conductors to minimise them. One method applied to conductors above
800mm2 is to group the conductor strands into four or more insulated segments. The
strands within each segment as well as the segments are continuous rotated. The
insulation between the segments is usually a single layer of paper. This disperses the
current more evenly throughout the conductor reducing the skin and proximity effects.

The AC resistance at a temperature toC is given by:

Rac = Rt[ 1 + ys +yp ] (Ω/m)

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Where

Rt = DC resistance at toC. This is derived from Rt = R20 [ 1 + α20(t – 20)]

α20 = temperature coefficient of resistance of the material at 20oC. (Usually
taken as 0.004 for copper and aluminium.)
ys = skin effect factor and yp = proximity factor. (Both these factors are
derived from formulae based on the conductor characteristics. The two
factors typically increase the total AC resistance by less than 2%. See
IEC Publication 287 for typical formulae and constant values.)

6.3 Capacitance and Dielectric Losses

Dielectric loss of the insulation is proportional to the square of the voltage,

capacitance and the dielectric loss angle (DLA) or factor. The loss per unit length
(Wd) in each phase is given by:

Wd = 2πf C Uo2 tanδ (W/m)

Where

C = capacitance to neutral (µF/km)

Uo = phase to neutral voltage (V)
tanδ = dielectric loss angle.

The capacitance of a cable per metre length is given by

C = ε r/ 18 loge(D/d) (µF/km)

Where
εr = relative permittivity
D = diameter over the insulation (m)
d = diameter over the conductor (m)

Typical values for permittivity and loss angle (tanδ) are:

Paper Cable PPL XLPE
Dielectric Loss (tanδ) 0.002 0.001 0.0005
Relative Permittivity (εr) 3.5 2.8 2.3
Thermal Resistivity (K.m/W) 5.0 5.5 3.5

6.4 Sheath Losses

Sheath losses occur in AC single core cables when the magnetic field induces eddy
currents in the cable sheath and longitudinal current currents in the sheath circuit.

Sheath Eddy Current Loss

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Eddy currents are induced in the sheath by the close proximity of the conductor
current(s). Due to the unequal distribution of the flux, the resulting induced emfs
cause currents (eddy currents) to flow in various sections of the cable.

The total of eddy currents over the sheath cross-section is zero, but they do give rise
to local heating of the sheath.

The sheath eddy current losses are given by:

3ω 2 dm 2
Se = I 2 [ ( ) x 10 −8 ] (Watt / km per phase)
Rs 2 S

Where:

Se = sheath eddy current losses

I = current (A)
ω= 2π frequency
dm = mean diameter of sheath (m)
S = distance between cable centres (m)
Rs = sheath resistance (Ω / km)

For single-core lead sheathed cables, the losses are normally small as compared with
the conductor losses, but are considerably higher with aluminium-sheathed cables
when they are in close proximity.

Sheath Circuit Loss

A current will flow in the sheath of a single-core cable if the sheath is bonded to earth
or to other sheaths at more than one point. This is because the sheath and return path
form a closed loop, which is cut by the conductor current flux. The magnitude of the
flux is dependant of the spacing between the cables or between the sheath and the
mean return path of the current through the earth.

The voltage induced in the sheath is given by:

Es = IXm

Where:

I = conductor current (A)

Xm = 2πf M 10-3 (Ω / km)

The mutual inductance M between the conductor and sheath is given by:

2S
M = 0.2 log e ( ) (mH / km)
dm

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The impedance of the sheath Zs (Ω / km) is given by:

Zs = (Rs2 Xm2)½

Where Rs = sheath resistance (Ω / km)

Thus the sheath current is equal to:

Es
Is =
( Rs x Xm 2 ) 1 / 2
2

IXm
= (A)
( Rs x Xm 2 ) 1 / 2

The sheath current losses per phase are:

I 2 Xm 2 Rs
Is 2 Rs = (Watt / km)
Rs 2 x Xm 2

Therefore, the total sheath losses due to circuit and eddy currents are:

Xm 2 3w 2 dm
2
I Rs[ 2 2
x ( 2 ( ) x 10 −8 )]
Rs x Xm Rs 2 S

The heat generated by losses in the conductor, insulation and the sheath has to pass
into the surrounding medium. Since the maximum temperature of the cable
components normally dictates the maximum current carrying capacity of a cable,
efficient cables should have components with minimum losses and low thermal
resistivity.

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7 MECHANISM OF INSULATION BREAKDOWN

Mechanical damage to the insulation and the ingress of moisture is the major cause of
cable failures. Poor workmanship during the installation of the joints and
terminations are the next most common cause of failure. Poor accessory designs,
which contributed to early failure rates, have been virtually eliminated by modern
knowledge, materials and experience. Disregarding failures due to dig-ins and faulty
jointing, the failure of a cable installation during service is dependent on the type of
insulation. These are discussed as follows:

7.1 Paper Cables

The three basic reasons for failure of paper insulated cables are due to ionisation
within the insulation, thermal breakdown, and excessive transient voltages.

a) Breakdown due to ionisation

In an ideal cable, the whole volume contained within the sheath should be completely
free of voids. During installation and during the thermal cycling of the cable under
service conditions, the main components move at different rates. This movement can
cause voids to form within the cable. If voids are present in areas of high electrical
stress, the gas in the void will ionise. The early belted types of cable were particularly
susceptible to this type of failure mainly due to the areas of high stress, which
occurred between the cores.

The introduction of screened cables eliminated many of the inherent weaknesses of

the belted cable design. The screen around the individual cores effectively confining
the stresses within the core insulation ensures that the flux is substantially radial.

With voltages above 33kV, gaseous ionisation in the voids could be initiated by the
migration of the compound resulting from loading and steep inclines.

Once ionisation occurs, the resulting ionic bombardment forms a carbon path between
the fibres of the paper tapes. If permitted to continue, the path grows forming a
carbon track or tree until the failure of the insulation occurs.

Several methods of controlling or reducing ionisation may be used. One method is to

prevent voids forming by impregnating the cable with a low viscosity fluid (self-
contained fluid-filled cable). A positive fluid pressure is maintained by pressurised
reservoir tanks to ensure that voids do not occur over the full operating temperature
range of the cable. The tanks are located at strategic positions along the cable route.

Another method of controlling ionisation is to fill the voids with a high pressure inert
gas (high pressure gas filled cable). The cable has to be kept pressurised at all times
to prevent ionisation.

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Ionisation within voids is prevented in pipe type compression cables by the
application of external pressure to the cable. This method is used generally for
medium voltage three core or three single core cables all contained within a steel pipe.
The intervening space within the pipe is filled with either low viscosity fluid or inert
gas under pressure.

b) Thermal breakdown

The dielectric loss angle for fluid impregnated paper insulation has a minimum value
in the region of 50 to 60ºC. During operation, the increase in the cable temperature
increases dielectric loss and conductor resistance (I2R) resulting in greater heat
generation. This results in an increase in temperature gradient of the surrounding
material and rate of heat dissipation. If the rate of rise of heat generation is greater
than the rate of heat dissipation, the temperature of the cable will continue to
increase, resulting in overheating and electrical failure.

Modern papers used in paper insulated cables are selected to have comparatively
small DLA variations with temperatures over the operating range. However, some
older cables, which have been exposed to high load levels, have been known to fail.

Other sources of indirect cable heating, such as other services causing hot spots or
failure of a cable sheath bonding system, which if left undetected, could allow high
circulating sheath currents to cause a thermal breakdown to occur.

c) Breakdown under transient conditions

Cables are designed to withstand transient conditions appropriate to the operating

voltages. Despite measures to protect cable installations, such as surge arresters and
arc gaps fitted at the line and cable transition points, cables can be subjected to higher
impulse voltages for which it was designed. These transient voltages, generated by
lightning or switching surges, can cause a local breakdown or puncture of the
insulation.

7.2 Polymeric Cables

Due to the rapid introduction of PE and XLPE cables into service in the early 1980s,
the limitations of these materials were not fully understood. Premature insulation
failures occurred as a result of internal electrical discharges and water treeing caused
by poor quality insulation materials and poor design of the sheath. Present polymeric
cables now incorporate an impervious barrier to prevent any contact between the
insulation and water which may be present in the outside environment.

Discharges caused by the electrical breakdown of polyethylene, may result in fine

channels being eroded in the material. These channels are caused by melting,
chemical decomposition and the production of micro cracks in the polyethylene.

Water trees are another phenomenon observed in early polyethylene insulated cables
and refer to the shape and nature of growth of conducting channels from voids,
contaminants and defects occurring in the insulation. The water trees grow in the

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direction of the electrical field and have the effect of increasing local electrical stress.
The process is not necessarily confined to highly stressed insulation and the
mechanism is not fully understood.

Modern distribution and transmission polymeric insulated cables use high-grade

polymers, which are filtered to remove all contaminants, for use in extruding the semi
conductor screens and insulation. Curing of the insulation is carried out for some
distribution cables by using hot water or steam as this offers high production rates.
The method does not appear to be detrimental to the performance of the insulation.
However, for transmission voltages, the insulation is cured and cooled by inert gas at
elevated pressure. This prevents voids from formed in the insulation by the cross
linking process and reduces the possibility of water tree formation.

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8 OTHER TYPES OF CABLES

8.1 DC Cables

The first electrical supply systems were based on DC distribution and many of the
early cables were constructed accordingly. The development of modern electrical
supply systems in the first half of this century was based exclusively on AC
transmission, mainly due to the easy transformation between generation, transmission
and distribution voltages.

Fig 8.1 Comparison of AC and DC Transmission Capacities (275kV 2000mm2)

By the 1950’s DC voltage was again used in certain circumstances for long
transmission lines as HV equipment became available. The advantages of DC
systems include improved system stability, unity power factor, lower losses and line
costs. The high cost of the terminal frequency changing equipment has to be offset
against the savings in the cable costs. For DC transmission links to be economic, the
route length has to be at least 80km long.

Submarine cables are an interesting case to consider. The high capacitance of cables
results in comparatively high AC charging currents. As capacitance is proportional to
the length of cable, there is a critical length at which the charging current equals the
thermal current rating of the cable. At this length, the cable has no capacity for
transfer of power. On land, shunt reactors can be used at intervals along the route of
an AC cable. However, this is not practical for submarine cables and hence AC
submarine transmission systems have significant length limitations. In DC
transmission, the charging current only occurs during switching on or off and
therefore has no effect on the continuous current rating of the system. This explains

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why DC transmission has been so widely used for long (typically 30km or longer)
submarine crossings.

Normally, a DC transmission circuit would consist of two conductors. In the event of

equipment failure, one conductor can be used with the return being made through the
earth. This requires good earthing electrodes in the form of carbon beds at the
terminal station locations. High earth currents adjacent to the terminal stations and
any parallel conducting paths can cause severe corrosion problems.

a) Conductors

The DC resistance of the conductor can be up to 20% less than the equivalent AC
cable conductor due to the lack of skin and proximity effects. In addition, there is no
need from a ratings point of view to use the more complex Milliken construction for
large conductor sizes.

b) Insulation

The long-time electrical strength of the insulation dielectric under DC conditions is

significantly higher than for AC. In paper insulated cables, the deterioration of the
paper can be caused by the discharge activity at the butt gaps between adjacent turns
of paper. In the case of AC, multiple discharges can occur during both positive and
negative half cycles because, following a discharge, the voltage conditions are rapidly
re-established by the capacitive current flowing in the insulation. In DC cables, the
build-up of voltage following a discharge is slow, being controlled by the very much
smaller leakage current through the insulation. Therefore, the discharge repetition
rate in DC cables is very much lower than with AC cables and for equal life, DC
cables can be operated at much higher electrical stresses.

The stress distribution of DC cables is dependent on the geometry of the cable and the
insulation resistivity. It should be noted that the resistivity is highly dependent on
temperature and to a lesser extent on electrical stress because these increase the
mobility of the charge carriers.

As in the case of AC transmission cables, transient voltages can determine the

insulation thickness of DC cables. One of the most onerous conditions that can occur
is when a transient voltage of opposite polarity to the operating voltage is imposed on
the system, especially when at full load (ie. at a high temperature). Such a condition
can occur if a cable is connected to an overhead line, which is subjected to lighting
transients.

c) Sheaths

The absence of continuous electromagnetic induction effects eliminates sheath and

armour losses. This is particularly important for submarine cables where the single
core cables are generally laid with large separations for security and maintenance
purposes.

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d) Accessories

Designs are similar to those used for AC cable systems. However, special care has to
be taken when assembling terminations and joints as the DC field attracts dust
particles.

8.2 Gas Insulated Lines

Gas insulated lines (GIL) make use of gas insulated substation technology. This
consists of non-ferrous single-phase trunking sections joined together with bolted
flanges and a tubular conductor supported by non-conducting supports. High-
pressure inert gas such as sulphur hexafluoride (SF6) provides the insulating medium.

The second generation of GIL design uses site welded enclosure joints to reduce the
insulating gas losses and an insulating gas mixture of nitrogen and 10% to 20% SF6.
Pressures are increased to 8 to 9 bar.

The relatively high cost of the GIL systems limits the use to short distances and is
found in applications that require high current transfer, typically over 4,000A.
Corrosion problems and the expansion due to temperature variations have
accommodated in the design of the system. Pure SF6 is an electronegative gas, which
at atmospheric pressure has an electrical breakdown strength approximately 60%
greater than nitrogen. To improve the electrical strength further, the gas is used under
pressure, typically 3 to 5 bar.

Due to the large volume of SF6 gas required in a GIL, the environmental problems of
leakage or a major escape of the gas has to be considered.

8.3 Superconducting Cables

In the mid 1970s, superconducting technology was investigated utilising low

temperature superconductors (LTS) and cooling by liquid helium. The application for
use in cables was originally conceived to be at a low voltage but carrying a current of
many hundred kiloamps. These low temperature superconductors required liquid
helium to cool and maintain the conductor temperature in the range of 8-20K. The
cables are technically complex and required elaborate cooling making them
uneconomical as compared with conventional technology. Only in the range of 3 to 5
GVA would such a system be considered.

In the mid 1980s, high temperature superconductors (HTS) were developed which had
an apparent zero resistivity at the unprecedented high temperature range of 90 to
120K. This enabled liquid nitrogen to be used as the cooling medium. This resulted
in much lower costs for the coolant, refrigerators and the thermal insulation of the
cable.

The main use of superconducting cable technology would appear to be in special

applications where high current capacity over relatively short distances are required.

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 Fig 8.1 Super Conductive Cable

Fig 8.2 Development of Super Conductive Materials

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9 CONCLUSIONS

Existing designs of cable for load requirements of up to about 3 GVA would appear to
be economical for the foreseeable future. For higher power ratings in the range of 3-5
GVA, gas insulated lines or superconducting cables based on high temperature super
conducting (HTS) technology are theoretically feasible.

For high voltage applications, impregnated paper insulation is technically feasible for
voltages up to 1,100kV. Due to the high dielectric losses and the consequential loss
of current rating in AC cables at high voltages, paper / polypropylene laminate
insulation is preferred.

Polymeric cables for high voltage AC system applications, are presently restricted to
XLPE and voltages in the range of 400 to 500kV. They are attractive for long cable
lengths and high voltages due to the low dielectric loss and permittivity. However,
the service reliability of XLPE at 500kV and above still has to be proved.

Ignoring gas insulated and superconducting cables due to the engineering

complexities and costs, the best prospect for high power underground transmission
appears to be paper insulated DC cables. Conventional methods of heat dissipation
and small trenches with no restriction on route lengths are all points in its favour.

Optical fibres can be incorporated under the cable sheath of polymeric insulated
cables. The fibres can be used to determine the real-time temperature of the cable, the
detection of excessive moisture levels under the sheath and also for communications
and protection functions. While the fibres are readily installed during manufacture of
the cables, the method of extracting the fibres out of the joints and terminations has to
be properly engineered.

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