It’s all in a relationship: a comparative

study of client-design consultant

relationships
Margaret Bruce and Catherine Docherty, Manchester School of
Management, UMIST, PO Box 88, Manchester, M60 lQD, UK

A taxonomy of different types of client-design consultant relationships is

delineated. Relationships that span a number of years and entail a high
degree of rapport between client and design consultant are particularly
beneficial. Such long-term relationships enable design professionals to gain
a deep understanding of the client’s business and they engender mutual
respect and trust between the client and design professional, which
facilitates the creation of effective design solutions. Long-term relationships
are more evident in Denmark and Sweden. than in the UK.

Keywords: design management, client-designer relationship

D
esignexpertise has an important role to play in international
competitivenessand successfulcompaniesmanagetheir design
1 Walsh, V, Roy, I?, Bruce, M
expertise more effectively than lesssuccessfulcompanies’.To
and Potter. P Winning by De- date, the designmanagementliterature hasfocusedon the management
sign. Basil Blsckwell. Oxford,
(1992) of in-housedesignactivities and on the managementof product designZA.
2 Lorenr, C The Design Dimen- This reflects the way in which design expertise has traditionally been
sion, Basil Blackwell, Oxford,
(1966) organizedwithin industry, that is asan in-houseresource.However, this
3 Oakley, M (Ed) Design Man-
agement: a Handbook of Issues
organization of designresourcesis changing’.
and Melhods, Basil Blackwell.
Oxford, (1990)
4 Craig, A and Hart, S ‘Where During the past decade, independent design consultancy sectors have
to now in new product develop
merit research?‘. European J.
emergedon a world-wide basis.In Britain sincethe late 197Os,the design
Marketing. (1992) consultancyprofessionhasburgeonedand during the 1980swasacclaimed
5 Centralized/decentralized de-
sign management: dispersfng the asone of the fastestgrowing serviceindustrie?. Concurrently, businesses
management 01 design through- are facing challenges in terms of decentralization, globalization and
out the orgsnisstion. Design
Management Journal, VoI3 No 2 privatization and suchchangeshave created new needsin termsof design
(1992)
6 MeAlhone, B British design
skills and expertise and for the creation of products and company
consuksncy: anatomy of a biNion identities that can exist on the world market. Such changes in the
pound business, The Design
Council; London. (1967) organization of companieshave been characterized by a trend towards
? GoodwIn, B Business booms
for consultsnciss. The Engineer.
streamliningof in-house functions and consequentlythe outsourcing of
Vol 24 (1992) 44 designresources’. As a result, managingthe relationship with external

402 0142-694X/93/040402-210 1993Butterworth-Heinemann Ltd

 design consultants is a pertinent issue”. A recent survey of over 200 UK
companies using external design professionals found that the minagement
of external design consultants was critical to the commercial outcome of
the projects. Beyond this study, little is known about the client-design
consultant relationship. From the research reported here, it is clear that
long-term relationships are advantageous in leading to an optimum design
solution and in providing some security for the design company. The
client-design consultant relationship is of a personal nature and is affected
by personal chemistry, mutual trust and respect and understanding each
other’s language.

In this paper, attention is given to the relationship between external

design professionals and their clients. A taxonomy of three main
approaches of design-client relationships has been developed, namely,
the family approach; the arms length approach; and the one-off purchase.
These are more fully described below and the prerequisites for successful
longer-term relationships are outlined.

1 Methodology
The client-design consultant relationship is the focus of this study. An
attempt is being made to understand, in a meaningful way, the manage-
ment processes entailed in this relationship and the design challenges
faced by both client and design firms. The overall purpose of the research
is to gain a deeper understanding of the client-design consultant rela-
tionship and its role in shaping the design process.

A qualitative and inductive approach is the most appropriate for explor-

ing, in-depth, the nature of the relationships established between the
client and the design professional. The relationship is of a personal nature
and information is exchanged between designer and client that is nonver-
bal and may be problematic for either party to fully articulate. In-depth
interviews, observation and collection of documentary evidence of the
design process and knowledge transfer during the shaping of a project are
appropriate techniques to elicit and document the relationships estab-
lished between designer and client. Repeat visits to both design and client
organizations are necessary to fully explore the dimensions of the
relationship and the evolution of the design project.
8 Potter, S, Robin, R, Capon,
C, Bruce, M, Walsh, V and
Lewis, J ‘The benefits and costs
Rapport between clients, designers and the researchers is needed and this
of investment in design: using takes time and effort to build. Keeping a distance to maintain objectivity
professional design expertise in
pEdlKt, engineering and and a critical eye is necessary. The researcher has to establish a balance
graphics products’. Design In- between getting close to the participants and yet remaining detached to
novation Group. The Open Uni-
versity and UMIST (1991) ensure that validity is safeguarded.

Client-design consultant relationships 403

 clarifying the nature
Drift of project scope, issues and
hypotheses in the field

Knowing what is needed

Design to flesh out the data on
central hypotheses

generalizations in new
but theoretically
relevant sites

by extremes cases to determine limitations of

generalizations
Figure I A process model for
case research (Bonomo 1985) Early Middle Late

Essentially the researchis following Bonoma’s four-stage model: drift,

design,prediction and disconfirmationby extremes(seeFigure 1)9. In the
drift phasethe researcheris immersedin the field of enquiry by carrying
out a literature search,interviews and collection of secondarydata to set
out the parametersof the researchfield. The designphaseentailsfocusing
down onto the key issuesand a constant zig-zagging between concep-
tualization and data. The prediction phase is one where the focus of
enquiry is defined and frozen. Disconfirmation by extremes enablesthe
teasingout of tentative generalizationsby applying theseto a broader set
of cases.Thesephasesare not a hierarchy of phasesthe researcherpasses
through but are iterative with constant interchangebetween each one.

In this research,the method is being usedto explore different levelsof the

design process.The nature of the design consultancy industry is being
investigated to reveal the context within which the client-design consul-
tant relationshipsare located. A broad overview of the issuesfaced by
clients and designershas been obtained by in-depth interviews and
detailed casesare being prepared to examine the effect of the rela-
tionshipson the designprocess.

To ensurethat the information obtained representsthe broad spreadof

9 Bonoma, T ‘Cases research in
marketing: opportunities, prob- designdisciplinesand a variety of businessapproacheswithin the design
lems and process’, Journal ol consultancy industry, interviews have been conducted with designfirms
Marketing ms.. VOI XII. (1995)
199-209 from:

404 DesignStudiesVol14 No 4 October 1993

 Table 1 Number of interviews conducted

Britain Denmark Sweden

Graphics 4 3 2
Product/industrial 6 3 6
Multidisciplinary 4 2 2
Clients 4 5 4

1) Graphic design, inclusive of packaging, corporate identity and print

work
2) Industrial and product design
3) Multidisciplinary firms

The UK sample has been compiled from the Design Council’s Directory
of Design Expertise. In Denmark, the interviews were organized on our
behalf by the Danish Design Centre. In Sweden, contacts were made via
the Stiftelsen Svensk Industridesign.

A questionnaire was administered in the design consultancies. Key

questions covered: company history, business strategy and the client
relationship. Personal interviews lasted about two hours and were con-
ducted with a senior partner in the consultancies.

A client questionnaire was used to investigate the design services commis-

sioned by the firm, the reasons for selecting a given consultant, design
management and relationships with the design consultancy. Clients have
been interviewed and client contacts were typically made through the
design consultancy or professional design association.

Table 1 shows the number of design and client companies interviewed in

each country. Design consultancies are categorized according to whether
they are graphics, product or multidisciplinary consultancies. Interviews
were tape recorded and a transcription was sent to the interviewee for
comments on the accuracy of the information contained within it and to
clarify any musunderstandings.

20 esign: a personalized business

2.1 Relationships
The design profession is built on personal relationships. As such, this
profession parallels that of management consultancy. Research of client’s
reasons for choosing management consultants showed that the three most
important ‘choice criteria’ were: the consultancy’s ‘reputation’, its reputa-

Client-design consultant relationships 405

 tion within its specialist area, and knowing the consultant who would work
on the project. In addition, the importance of on-going relationships was
highlighted’“. An earlier study, identified ‘personality’ as one of the most
commonly cited criteria client’s consider when choosing a design
consultant”. Hence, relationships play a significant role in determining
whether or not a particular consultant (whether it be management or
design) is employed. Where design consultancy is concerned, this is a
consequence of the ways in which design consultants immerse themselves
in the client’s business to devise an appropriate solution to their business
problems.

The ‘core competencies’ of a designer’s expertise reside in their area of

professional competence, such as graphics, industrial design, etc. But,
over and above these skills, designers talk about giving something of
themselves to the project. They totally immerse themselves in the project
and draw on all of their senses to gain a deep understanding of the
problem. They do not just work on an intellectual or abstract ‘know how’
level, but work intuitively, visually and sensually to ‘know what’ is
required. And so, aspects of the personality and character of the designer
go into the creation of a design solution. In order to manage such a
relationship designers and clients feel that a rapport and empathy has to
exist between them for a successful working relationship to develop.

The opportunity to work with someone who does understand the client’s
problem, at a deep level, and who has the necessary skills to help the
client achieve their aims is reassuring. It is, therefore, not surprising that
where such a relationship exists that the parties involved wish to build on
this.

2.2 Managing creative companies

Design consultancies are typically small, intimate work places established
by one or more designers. They are typically set up to fulfil the designer’s
own design aspirations. The direction and goals of the firm tend to reflect
the personal goals of the founder partner(s). Design consultants have a
very personalized view about what a consultancy should offer and how
best to organize the business. On the whole, it is apparent that the
10 Dawes. P L, Dowllng, G R over-riding objective of a design consultant is to provide the client with
and Pfdterson. PG ‘Criteria
used 10 select management con- quality and effective design solutions.
SuItants’. Industrial Marketing
Mansgemenf Vol.21 (1992) 187-
193 The personalized nature of a design consultancy is most clearly demon-
11 Horn, M-J Clienf companies
- how they choose and “se de- strated by the way in which the consultancy is managed. Danish and
sign cow-u/fancies, The Design
Research Company, London,
Swedish design consultancies are small with more than 10 employees
(1991) being exceptional. Although generally larger in the UK, the greatest

406 Design Studies Vol 14 No 4 October 1993

 majority of design consultants expressed the view that between 20 and 30
is the maximum ‘manageable’ number of employees in order to maintain
the quality of creative work produced. In addition, managing a small
studio, the partner(s) fulfil their desire to continue to produce creative
work, whereas in a larger company more of their time would be devoted
to administrative tasks.

Scandinavian design firms are often managed on a day-to-day or projedt-

to-project basis, rather than in a formal way. Long-term business plans
are not formally articulated. UK firms have a more structured approach to
planning, with the larger firms having regular meetings with senior
management to discuss the company strategy whereas, the smaller firms
tend to have regular meetings with their partners, either in the studio or
the pub. A vision and sense of direction and concern about commercial
goals was present in the UK firms.

The production of quality and effective design work for clients was the
over-riding objective of design consultants. Financial and growth
considerations were balanced with concern about the quality of design
work. The well-being of staff, ‘to keep a happy ship’, was another
important consideration for design consultants, as was enjoying the work
that they do. One member of senior management within a UK design
consultancy emphasized the need for the business to develop ‘in a way
that is right for the employees’. Equally important was the designers’
desire to enjoy their work, placing less emphasis on profit generation.
One UK product design consultancy, which had started its own products,
was aware that greater income could be generated if more resources were
channelled in this direction and away from consultancy work. However,
the interviewee commented, ‘that is not what we would enjoy doing’. One
product designer commented that design is not a money-making profes-
sion, that designers remain within the profession because they are
passionate about design and enjoy solving problems in a visual way. This
attitude reflects the cultural values and norms characteristic of the design
profession.

Classification of approaches to design management

From the research, three distinct approaches to design management can
be discerned. These are as follows

1) Family approach: To buy a design from one or a small number of

companiesand encouragethesedesigncompaniesto become‘part of
the family’. This may be regarded as a synergistic approach as
designersacquire invaluable tacit knowledge,an intuitive senseof the

Client-designconsultantrelationships 407
 corporate culture, vision and strategy so that the design work express-
es, in a symbolic way, what the company is attempting to do. This
leads to the fostering of long-term relationships where the design firm
becomes a strategic tool able to implement and in some cases initiate
and shape strategy.
2) Arms-length: To foster a more ‘arms-length’relationshipwith design-
ers. Clients have a list of tried and tested agenciesthat are bought in
from time to time to carry out the client’s work. Longer-term
relationshipsmay develop but are not intended to becomesynergistic.
Rather, the designeris regarded very much as a consultancy that is
external to the normal functioning of the company.
3) One-off purchase: To buy in design on a ‘one-off basiswith little
intention to reuse the designexpertise. The one-off purchasemay
occur if the client is dissatisfiedwith a consultant, or if the client does
not really understandwhat a consultant can offer (e.g. designerused
only if the client encounters a problem with a design). It may also
occur where the client, having been satisfied with the services
provided by the designer,has no further need for suchservices.

Each of the above categoriesis illustrated by specific examples,which

show the different types of relationship between clients and design
consultants.

3.1 company A: Family approach: high tech banking

Company A is in financial servicesand offers a full range of banking
services. It has a traditional image and has a strong reputation in the
North of England. The company’sgoal is to changeits corporate identity
to become much more progressive,high-tech and excel in terms of its
service quality. A new corporate identity has been developed, high-
technology retail outlets are being testedand a new concept in banking is
being explored.

Over the past four years, the firm has made substantialinvestmentsin
design. Initially external designerswere commissionedto develop new
brochures for the banking services. The brochures had strong visual
impact and led to increasedsales.Subsequently,the designcompany has
received more and more work from the client, covering print work,
branding and corporate identity. This hasbeen to the mutual benefit of
both the consultancyand the firm, with both having expandedand grown
through the commercialsuccessof the designwork.

The risky and costly venture into high-tech banking hasbeen undertaken
by the client. The designconsultant hasbeenengagedon the project from

408 DesignStudiesVoll4 No 4 October 1993

 its inception to preparation for market launch. The consultant has named
the concept, given it a strong visual identity that reinforces the new
corporate image of the client and, moreover, made an idea in the chief
executive’s mind a reality.

The relationship
Initially the design expertise was bought by the client on a ‘one-off basis.
There was no intention to build up long-term relationships and design was
not viewed as adding value to the services. When it became clear that the
design work was having a commercial impact, then it was taken much
more seriously and the design company began to be employed on a
regular, albeit ‘arms-length’, basis. At this stage, the marketing staff
bought in design to replace existing brochures and point-of-sale material.
Often the design company was given work at the last minute, had verbal
and unclear instructions as to what was required. The design team built up
an understanding of what the client required by assessing the competition,
talking to the client about business goals and the challenges they were
facing. In addition, the design team realized that the marketing staff had
few design management skills. This was an opportunity for the design
team to handle the client’s business for them, for example writing a brief,
costing out the project and devising a project timetable.

Subsequently, the design team left the original design firm and set up its
own company and the client continued to provide the team with work.
The personal relationship that was built up over time was perceived by the
client as being too valuable to risk losing. The personal chemistry, and the
tacit understanding by the design team of the client’s business was
invaluable in giving a creative and competitive edge to the client. The
relationship fostered the creation of a new design company. Without the
client’s assurance of business, the design team would not have embarked
on setting up a new company. The challenge for the design team is that of
generating new business, as it is heavily dependent on this particular
client. The relationship has been further cemented through a new banking
project and has shifted ground to take a strategic role. The design
company has given the client confidence to go ahead with its ideas and has
been a significant actor in shaping the marketing strategy for this critical
project.

The client does not have a formally stated design strategy but acknow-
ledges the integral role that design has provided in realizing its corporate
goals and in helping to formulate plans that have not been clearly
articulated. It recognizes the value of the long-term and close relationship
it has with the external agency and is continuing to invest in this.

Client-design consultant relationships 409

 3.2 c ompany B: Arms-length approach: a new chocolate
bar
Company B is a dynamic and aggressive UK chocolate company, which
attributes its success to its blend of strategic marketing and innovative
product design. The company’s aim is to grow by geographical expansion
in Europe. To achieve this objective, the company has acquired com-
panies in France and Italy and entered into strategic alliances to widen its
distribution network in Sweden. A new range of chocolate bar has been
created to exploit an expanding, top end of the countlines in the market,
that is chocolate bars bought at the check-out counter. The chocolates
developed by Company B are luxurious, rich tasting and extravagantly
wrapped and have an indulgent feel. The idea is that consumers will buy
these chocolate bars as treats for themselves, as personal gifts.

The company is marketing led and marketing initiates new product

development. Brand managers assess the commercial potential of new
products and also serve as ‘product champions’ in getting new ideas
accepted and then taking these from concept to the market. Design
activities refer to the R & D effort to produce the desired taste and texture
for the new product and to the packaging, which gives the product its
personality and individuality. Design work is commissioned, managed and
evaluated by marketing.

In 1987, two new brands were launched on the market: one was a large,
single piece, distinctively shaped, mint chocolate; the other was a
flavoured chocolate bar. The first product was an initial success, then
quickly flopped and was removed from the market. The chocolate bar
became established and achieved a 25% growth rate per annum.

Consumer research showed that the novelty chocolate had problems in

that it was awkward to eat and was too much chocolate to consume by
oneself, all at once. But the taste and name were regarded positively. The
company decided to redesign the product and relaunch it as a chocolate
bar. Accordingly, design work was commissioned and a mint-flavoured
chocolate bar was launched in 1989, supported by a major advertising
campaign to create awareness of this new brand. However, the product
has not been as successful as was anticipated, consumers perceive the
packaging as giving the product a ‘too glossy’ image and as being
overpriced.

What went wrong?

Packaging design work is commissioned from an external design firm. A
few agencies are kept on a roster basis and used in an arms-length way.

410 Design Studies Vol 14 No 4 October 1993

 The client’s marketing staff prefer to use design companies that have a
mixture of designers and marketing staff. Usually, the client commissions
the design company to carry out some market research to come back with
their own views about a proposed marketing plan and the role that design
can play in achieving this. Unfortunately, not all design companies are
fully equipped to carry out market research and so the client often
receives confirmation, rather than a critical appraisal of its existing
marketing plan.

The initial contact and design brief is given by a brand manager from the
client to the account handler (marketing staff) in the design firm. The
brief is then rewritten by the account handler and then passed onto the
designer. The designer does not meet the client until the concepts are
presented to the client and at this point the communication is carried out
by the two marketing people. This situation means that the designer who
is trained to pick up all kinds of visual and emotive cues from the client is
not able to exercise this skill and so cannot fully draw on tacit knowledge
to create the best concepts. In this case, the client had strong ideas as to
which was the concept to pursue for the new brand, but the account
handler disagreed and activated another design. In the end, the client had
to overstep the account handler and exert its authority to ensure that the
required concept was developed. The relationship between the design
firm and client remained on an aloof and professional level, with little of
the personal chemistry and creative drive that is evident in more
successful client-design relationships.
The relationship
In this case,the designagencydid not have a clear understandingof the
client’s marketing objectives nor a good senseof the market at which the
client wasaiming. The designer’sexpertise wasnot fully exploited and an
over extravagant product was produced. The use of different design
companiesby different brand managersmeansthat the designeffort is not
well co-ordinated by CompanyB. Brand managersare trained in strategic
marketing, in costingprojects and project management.But they lack a
critical skill of being able to make more objective assessments of the
design work that they are buying in. Whilst the client recognizesthat
designaddsvalue to products and effects their competitive performance,
it is reluctant to foster closer and more strategic relationshipswith those
designfirms that do understandits businessand can produce the visual
work that reflects this. The client’s view is that good designhas to be
commerciallyproven and this is converted into buying in designexpertise
from those designcompaniesthat employ a number of marketing staff,
rather than being sufficiently confident to buy in expertisefrom the best
designcompaniesfor its business.

Client-designconsultantrelationships 411
 The product has not faltered just on the packaging design, the market
opportunity may not have been there for another brand to be launched in
the market segment. But a more distinctive design would perhaps have
helped to establish the product as a brand in its own right.

3.3 c ompany C: A family approach: Scandinavian product

company
By maintaining a consistent product image, conveying quality, reliability
and prestige, this particular Scandinavian product company has main-
tained a worldwide reputation over several decades. One of the most
distinguishing features of this product, which the success of the company
can be attributed to, is that various parts of the product may be
interchanged with traditional as well as more modern features. The need
to integrate many new technological features into the product system in
order for the company to retain its market share and competitive position
will require a radical new product design. This has caused consternation
for the company’s Board of Directors as the various component parts of a
new product design will, by necessity, be incompatible with existing parts.
As a result a dichotomy has been reached: does the company keep the
original design, at the risk of losing market share to competitors offering
a more technologically advanced product; or does the company redesign
the product to include new technological features and risk damaging its
long established reputation if the product fails, thus alienating present and
potential customers who have preconceived notions about what the
present product conveys in terms of its qualities and attributes.

The company decided to embark upon a radical new design programme

for the product. An external product designer has been employed to work
alongside in-house staff to develop a new version of the product that will
have a classical style and at the same time uphold the company’s
reputation. The designer was carefully selected and has been working for
four years on the development of the new product. Different variants
have been devised and considered, but none accepted, as yet. The design
is so critical to the company’s reputation and survival that, for the moment,
any change is perceived as too risky by the Board of Directors. At the
same time the company runs the risk of delaying the project at the
expense of the market share, if their competitors successfully launch a
new product onto the market.

The relationship
The relationship between Company C and the designprofessionalis one
basedon mutual respect.A successfulproduct designis absolutelycritical
to the commercialsuccessof the businessand to the reputation of the

412 DesignStudiesVol 14No 4 October 1993

 designer involved. For the company, any design change-is inherently
risky. The designer is fully aware of the situation and is totally committed
to ensuring that the relationship is conducive to devising an effective
product solution. In order to achieve this the designer has had to gain the
support of the in-house design team to ensure full co-operation with all
those involved in the project. The designer was recruited on the basis of
his expertise, working method, naivety to the market, and most impor-
tantly his personality. It was fundamentally important that the company
chose a designer who would be accepted and respected by in-house designers.

It will take time for the Board to gain confidence in changing its product,
however, it is also aware that the window of opportunity is closing, which
could be equally as devastating for the company’s survival.

3.4 c ompany D: One-off purchase - a Swedish security

company
The design company was approached by a security firm to redesign the
traditional lock-key system used by the company. In response to the
client’s needs, the designer produced a radical new laser-gun system which
was more ergonomically designed, easier to handle, and gave the client
more control in terms of monitoring work carried out by the security
guards. The new design was very well received. Indeed, the new laser
system was fortuitous as the company was then in a position to sell their
system to their competitors. This system is still in use 12 years later. The
designer has never been approached by the company during this time. It
may be that the system has been so successful and met all the client’s
needs that the recommissioning of the designer has been unnecessary.

It is interesting to note that for all the cases described, none of the clients
had a design strategy, yet all were using design expertise and this was
integral to their relative success. Some companies have used the same
design firms for decades and so relationships can span several generations
and be passed on from generation to generation. One example is a US
company whose telecommunications equipment has been designed by one
consultancy. The relationship has lasted for more than 50 years and has
outlived the people who struck up the relationship in the first place. This
relationship has become part of a shared perspective, part of the
corporate culture for both the client and design firm. And yet, the
company has no formal design policy as part of its corporate strategy.
Without the design firm supplying fresh ideas and understanding exactly
what the client requires, and designing products with the client’s needs in
mind, then the company may not have grown to be the global success that
it is today.

Client-design consultant relationships 413

 4N ational diflerences in approaches to design manage-
ment
Our research findings indicate that Scandinavian companies typically
adopt a family approach to design management and that the working
relationship tends to be of a long-term nature. Indeed, the designer often
works very closely with a small number of clients and operates as an
in-house designer, as part of the firm, but is based outside of the
company.

The arms-length approach was most prevalent in Britain, although some

consultants had established family-type relationships with some of their
clients. According to Horn i’ clients prefer to retain a small number of
design firms on a roster basis, so as not to become over-dependent on one
supplier of design expertise. This difference in approach may arise for a
number of reasons. In Scandinavia the design consultancy industry is
more mature and well established than is the case in Britain. The design
profession was present in the 1930s in Denmark”, whereas the design
profession only became firmly established in the 1980s in the UK13. Also,
the Scandinavian culture is ‘family orientated’ and as such facilitates the
development of close working relationships. Clients tend to buy design
expertise from the same company, for example, one Swedish client in our
study returned to the same consultancy 14 years after the launch of the
product, with no contact having been made between the two companies in
the interim period.

British managers are sceptical about the commercial value of design

investments. British designers still have a role to play in educating clients
about the benefits of investing in design and in establishing long-term
relationships with designers. One designer described client relationships
as being about ‘short-term fire-fighting measures to meet an immediate
launch deadline’.

The type of relationship adopted by clients affects the strategic planning

and subsequent survival and/or success of a design consultancy. One
British designer commented on the types of clients that are fundamental
to the long-term success of a design consultancy. He stated that they were:

Those clients who understand the potential difference that a well designed product
can make to the profitability of their business. They must recognise the value of
12 Annerstadt, T ‘Art and In- design input and give the designer sufficient scope to make a difference. People
dustry’. Inter-University Centre
for Postgraduate Studies, Dub- tend to be very guarded at first and are unwilling to take risks where design is
rovnik. April (mime@ (1966) concerned. Once trust has been established, a good path of communication can be
13 Heskath, J lndusfrial design.
Thames and Hudson. London established.

414 Design Studies Vol 14 No 4 October 1993

 5P rerequisites for longer-term relationships.
Developing long-term relationships with clients is regarded as desirable,
not just because this interposes a sense of security for the design firm, but
because it allows the design firm to gain a better insight into the needs of
the client and thereby produce quality design solutions. Close rela-
tionships enable the design firm to be involved in the early stages of
thinking about and defining the direction of the design work, thereby
introducing the client to the full potential of the design. As mentioned
previously, the production of effective and quality design solutions which
will help the client achieve her/his goal (personal or business) is’of utmost
concern.

A number of factors determine whether or not an on-going relationship

between clients and designers will evolve. These include:

l Providing appropriate design solutions to clients’ problems

l Personal ‘chemistry’
l Mutual trust and respect between the individuals involved
l Understanding each others’ language (effective transfer of know-
ledge)

5.1 Appropriate solutions

Clients employ designers to help solve a business problem. If clients are
satisfied with the service received from a consultant, then they are
reluctant to risk employing the services of another design consultant. If a
poor design solution results, then it stands to reason that the client will
look elsewhere for more suitable skills and expertise for future projects.

5.2 Personal chemistry

Kubr14 asserted that a ‘psychological contract’ between the individuals
involved is a necessary attribute for successful management consultant
assignments. He commented that:

excellent consulting assignments are those where another type of ‘contract’

exists, which is not codified in any document and is not easy to describe: a

psychological contract, under which the consultant and client co-operate in an

atmosphere of trust and respect, believing that the approach taken by the other
part is the best one to bring the assignment to a successful completion. Such a
‘contract’ cannot be replaced by even the finest legal document.’

Kubr asserted that in the case of a professional advisor, or management

consultant, the client relationship is always personalized. For design-
14 Kubr, M Management con- client relationships, the psychological contract is based on three main
sutting: a guide to the profession,
ILO, (1966) attributes: firstly, personal chemistry; secondly, the effective transfer of

Clientdesign consultant relationships 415

 information between the client and consultant; and thirdly, mutual trust
and respect between the individuals involved.

The research findings indicate that a successful long-term working rela-

tionship is dependent, to a large degree, upon the personal ‘chemistry’
between the client and the consultant. This was well expressed by the one
British product design consultant who commented that:

The only reason they [clients] keep coming back is because we do a good job for
them, and we have built up a good working relationship. There are personalities in

here that they like and so there is a rapport.

An intimate working and personal relationship with a client is considered

conducive to, and necessary for, obtaining the quality and depth of
understanding, which makes for appropriate design solutions. This is
particularly important for the designer to obtain information, which is not
exclusively of an intellectual or factual nature. Often the client does not
know, or cannot adequately articulate exactly what s/he wants. Therefore,
where a ‘psychological’ bond or personal ‘chemistry’ exists, the designer is
able to glean information about personality traits, which together with
visual references help to formulate effective design solutions. Two Danish
product designers reinforced this view. They commented that:

we try to help people understand what they really want by giving shape to their
ideas and needs. To do this, the designer becomes very close to those people
You have to know what the client’s likes and dislikes are. It is a very private and

intimate relationship. It is the intimacy of the relationship that determines the

success of the design.

A Danish graphic designer commented that long-term relationships with

clients have evolved because
. we understand that company, the nature of that company, its spirit or identity,

and we try to create a picture of that company in our own heads that is recognised
and understood by the client.

To capture the spirit and identity of a company requires the absorption of

personality and cultural aspects of that organization. Personal chemistry
and intimacy between the parties involved allows the designer to under-
stand, at a deep level, the problem from the client’s perspective. The
implication that factual or intellectual information alone is insufficient for
reaching the most effective design solution was expressed by a number of
design consultants.

Where ‘personalized’ relationships exist between the client and designer

this may indicate the client’s affinity with creatives. Indeed, one British

416 Design Studies Vol14 No 4 October 1993

 graphic designer commented that one of his clients, with whom a
friendship had evolved, enjoyed visiting the design studio where he had
the freedom to dress - in jeans, rather than in suits - (and possibly act)
more comfortably. In addition, long-term relationships with clients which
are of a personal nature play an educative role informing clients about the
benefits of design.

5.3 Mutual trust and respect

Mutual trust and respect between the client and designer are fundamental
for the evolution of long-term relationships. Mutual trust and respect may
be part of the personal ‘chemistry’ and be immediately recognized. On the
other hand, as the client and designer get to know each other, over time,
then mutual trust and respect may be built into the relationship. In the
latter case, establishing mutual trust and respect may be part of the
‘inaugurative learning’ between designer and client15.
One British graphic designer stated that mutual trust and respect was
critical to a successful working relationship. He commented that
It is very important that the client and designer get on together. There must be
mutual respect between both the client and the designer. It is necessary to listen to
feedback, even if you do not agree on a particular point. The designer has to

appreciate that the client knows his/her business better than you. At the same time
you are not employed as a yes man. You must give 100 per cent of yourself to the

project and the next job should be better than the last one.

Various reasons explain why mutual trust and respect are necessary for a
successful long-term relationship. Where trust and respect is established,
the client can place confidence in the designer’s ability to solve the
problem at hand. Confidential and sensitive information is more likely to
be revealed when the relationship is built on trust. British and Scandina-
vian designers likened the relationship between client and designer to that
between doctor and patient. Such metaphors indicate relationships based
on trust, respect, the willingness to disclose sensitive information, loyalty,
and commitment.

Mutual trust and respect between the client and designer enables special-
ist opinion and knowledge to be passed between the individuals involved,
which is conducive to the creation of appropriate and effective design
solutions. Mutual respect is necessary so that the client does not do the
designing! Recognition and appreciation of designers’ skills is important
so that the designer is given enough material to undertake the design tasks
in hand, but is given some free rein to devise creative solutions. This is a
15 Jevnaker, B Ii ‘lnaugurative delicate balance. The client must give the designer enough information to
learning: adapting a new design understand the design work and at the same time must not take over the
approach. Design Sludies. Vol 14
No 4 (1993) pp 379-401 designer’s role by becoming too directive.

Client-design consultant relationships 417

 5.4 Understanding each other’s language
The designer has to understand the client’s concerns for the project and
the client has to convey his/her needs in a way that the designer can
appreciate. The designer has to interpret client’s needs in a visual form - a
two-dimensional or three-dimensional form. The client and designer have
to develop a way of working so that this happens.

The way in which design consultants manage their client relationships

affect the level of understanding between the client and designer. In
Denmark and Sweden design consultants work directly with the client.
This is the preferred method of working for those clients who enjoy the
exchange of ideas and get involved in the shaping of the project. British
design consultants adopt one of two approaches for managing client
relationships. Some advocate a system whereby designers deal directly
with clients as is the case in Scandinavia. Others have adopted a more
advertising-based approach whereby an ‘account handler’, generally with
a business, finance or marketing background, is responsible for liaising
between the client and designer. Some clients prefer to work with account
handlers. They may feel uncomfortable working directly with a designer
and prefer to deal directly with someone who can speak a ‘business
language’ and who can also manage the design project.

Although some clients may prefer this type of working relationship, it can
have adverse consequences for the design process. The account handler
takes the brief, presents the design work to the client and manages the
design process. The client may never meet the designer. This ensures that
a personal relationship does not evolve between the client and designer,
and should a particular designer choose to leave the consultancy then the
client is retained and does not follow the designer. However, the presence
of the account handler, can prohibit the designer from drawing on the
personal attributes of and tacit knowledge about the client and their
company and thereby acts as a ‘barrier’ to knowledge/information which
could be fed into the design process.

It may be that account handlers or marketing personnel strike up a

rapport with clients where the designer would have failed. This situation
may arise where the client is unsure about what the designer can offer, or
where the client feels more secure dealing with someone who understands
her/his own ‘business’ language.

6B enef’fIts rom long-term relationshps

A number of advantages can be gained from long-term working rela-
tionships between clients and designers. These are described below.

418 Design Studies Voll4 No 4 October 1993

 6. I Client perspective
Educating the external designer: Through long-term relationshipswith
designersclients are able to educate the designersabout the company
goals,the direction in which the businessisheading,the personalityof the
tirm and manufacturing capabilities. This facilitates the production of
effective designsolutions.

Solutions in advance: The depth of knowledge acquired about the client

firm through a long-term relationship, can enable the designerto take a
proactive role in problem solvingi6. In somecasesthe designeris able to
take a strategic role in the client company.

Quality and creative work: External designerswho work for other clients
tend to be unbiasedin their approach to problem-solvingasthey are not
hamperedby internal constraints, e.g. establishedmanufacturingtechni-
ques or restrained by establishedmethods. Working with various com-
panies, even in different industrial sectors, allows for the ‘cross-
fertilization’ of ideas which provides a more insightful approach to
design” . Through long-term relationshipswith the client, the designeris
best able to apply his skillsand wealth of knowledgeto produce the most
effective designsolutions.

Consktency in approach: When dealingwith an external designconsultant

the client hascontrol over the designprocessand can ensurethat a degree
of consistency is maintained in the design work produced”. Olivetti
commissionexternal design consultantson a long-term and, in some
cases,life-long basis.Designersare provided with permanentwork places
within the company. In this caseconsistencyis maintainedasexperienced
designerseducate and passon valuable knowledge about the company’s
designapproachto the young, up and coming designers’*.

Social and cultural awareness: External designers,through their experi-

encesworking with various companiesand cultures, have the ability to
reflect cultural and social changeswithin the designsolutionsthat they
16 Cheung, K W The role of
industrial desian in new product produce‘* . Through long-term working relationships the designer can
on the role of design consultants
reflect such changesin a way which is most appropriate for the client
PhD mesis. Manchester company.
Polytechnic, UK (1969)
17 Bruce, M and Phllllpe, P
Simplicity and consistency: co-
ordination of a global advertising
Another advantage emanating from employing external design consul-
campaign. Design Management tants from a client’s perspective include flexibility, where the client can
Journal, op. cit. 1992
16 Klrcherer, S Olivsffi; a study choosewhich designconsultancy to work with dependingon the specific
ot the management of corporate problem to be addressed.In addition, companiesthat have reducedtheir
design. Trefoil Books. London
(1990) in-housecapability maintain that it is more economicalfor clients to use

Client-designconsultantrelationships 419
 designers as they require them rather than having a full-time in-house
design function which may, at times, be under-utilized”.

4.2 D esigner perspective

Tacit knowledge: Through establishinglong-term relations with the client
the designercan gain tacit knowledgeabout the company and the client’s
needsand concerns.Such information enrichesconcept development. In
addition, the designeris lesslikely to produce a designsolution which will
be rejected by the client.

role: Knowing the client company in an intimate way, the

Strategic
designercan take on a strategic role.

Security:The establishmentof long-term relations with clients provides

the designerwith a senseof security, in terms of repeat business.This has
the advantage of allowing the designer to plan for the future, e.g.
investment can be undertaken, asfuture businessis assured.

The above highlights some of the advantagesthat may result from the
establishmentof long-term relationshipsbetweenclients and designersin
a businesscontext. In particular, the long-term approachallowsthe client
and designerto work constructively together to meet the client company’s
strategic objectives. Indeed, design may play an important role in
formulating strategy and in helping achieve corporate goals16.

6.3 B arriers to long-term personal relationships

Long-term working relationshipsof a ‘personal’ nature are not always
forthcoming. This may be for a number of reasons including: the
individuals involved have different educational backgrounds;they have a
different method of working; they lack a common language, lack of
mutual respect and trust; little personal chemistry; or if there is an
unwillingnessto be advisedand guided by someoneoutside of their area
of expertise. Thesebarriersmay be overcome by ‘inaugurative learning”’
where familiarity can help bridge the gap between the designerand the
client. The way in which designconsultanciesare organized and managed,
particularly with respectto client relationships,can affect the nuturing of
suchrelationshipsand in somecasesmay even hinder ‘inaugurative design
learning’. This is mostlikely to occur where an account handler mediates
betweenthe client and the designer.

A number of disadvantagesmay result from the use of external design

consultants,including a lack of co-ordination of the designprocess,the
divulgence of proprietary knowledge, conflict over intellectual property

420 DesignStudiesVol14 No 4 October 1993

 rights and a limited control over which individuals carry out the design
work15. Furthermore the establishment of close long-term working rela-
tionships is avoided by some clients. They generally express concerns that
they do not want to take on the responsibility of the design consultant
becoming too dependent upon them for business, or that the consultant
may become complacent about the relationship and this will be reflected
in a lower standard of design work. Although these problems are real,
most design consultants and clients sharing a close, long-term working
relationship consider that the benefits to be gained far outweigh any
disadvantages that may occur. Inaugurative learning through long-term
and intimate relationships between clients and designers may help foster
mutual trust and respect and thereby eliminte some of these concerns.

7 Conclusions
The way in which design expertise is organized in industry is going
through a period of change. The notable trend towards the outsourcing of
design expertise has raised a number of issues regarding how best to
manage the relationship with a design consultant. That the effective
management of this relationship has consequences for the commercial
effectiveness of design work produced has been acknowledged in an
earlier studys. It is, therefore, pertinent that designers and clients strive to
establish a working relationship which is conducive to the production of
effective design solutions.

Three approaches to design management were evident from this study:

the family approach, the arms-length approach, and the one-off purchase.
Notable differences were evident between prevailing design management
approaches adopted in Britain and Scandinavia.

Whilst Scandinavian designers generally enjoy a family approach to

design management with their clients, British designers experience a
mixture of the family approach and the arms-length approach, with the
latter being the more common. However, British design consultants are
eager to establish long-term family type relationships with their clients
which can enable the designer to take a proactive and strategic role in the
client’s business.

A close working relationship of a long-term nature can have many

important advantageous for for both client and consultant. In particular,
this type of relationship allows the consultant to draw on the wealth of
knowledge acquired about the client and his/her company. This fuels the
concept development stage in the creative process and leads to the
production of appropriate design solutions.

Client-design consultant relationships 421

 In order that long-term relationships can develop, a number of criteria
must be met: effective design solutions must be forthcoming, there must
be a personal chemistry of empathy between the two parties involved,
there must be mutual trust and respect between client and designer, and
they must understand each other in a deep and meaningful way. These are
necessary for the designer to fully immerse her/himself in the problem and
to reach their main objective: to provide the client with quality and
effective design solutions.

Design is an intimate and personal activity the design consultancy

profession is one characterized by personal service. The relationship
engendered with the client is critical to the creative process and business
success of the consultancy. Depicting a taxonomy of client-design consul-
tant relationships highlights the choices available to both client and design
professional for working together. Paying attention to the factors leading
to a close, long-term relationship may facilitate the development of such a
relationship.

8 Acknowledgments
The authors wish to acknowlege the support of the UK Economic and
Social Research Council (ESRC).

422 Design Studies Vol14 No 4 October 1993