UNIT

The World after

15 World War II

Learning Objectives

To acquaint ourselves with

„„The emergence of a bi-Polar world in the post-World War II period
„„Beginning of Cold War with US funded post-War reconstruction of Europe Q.R.Code
„„Military Pacts leading to the formation of two ideologically different camps:
NATO, led by the USA and the USSR-led Warsaw Pact countries.
„„Non-Alignment movement and Third World countries
„„UNO and its role in resolving global disputes
„„Formation and consolidation of the European Union
„„Collapse of Soviet Union and the end of Cold War

   Introduction Afro-Asian countries, India included, decided

to remain un-aligned. This group of countries
World War II (1939–1945) was fought
came together and formed the Non-Aligned
between the Allied and the Axis powers. Britain,
Movement (NAM).
France and Russia formed the allied camp;
the United States joined it later in 1941 after The destruction and displacement
the attack on Pearl Harbour. Germany, Italy caused by the Second World War was much
and Japan were the Axis powers. Despite the greater than during the First World War
ideological differences amongst Allies, it was and so the world leaders realised the need
Germany's fascist and war-mongering attitude for a world organisation to prevent a war
that compelled them to work together. United in the future. As a result, United Nations
States and Britain were not comfortable with Organisation (UNO) was established in 1945.
the Soviet Union given its communist form of UNO played its role in resolving the disputes
government. among the member states. But the cold war
At the end of the Second World, USSR and situation prevented the UN from functioning
USA emerged as super powers. In their bid to independently and effectively. The War had
gain ideological supremacy they entertained ruined European economy and devastated
mutual suspicion and distrust. Both countries several cities in Western Europe. European
tried to spread their ideology either by force states had to come together initially for the
or by enticement. In the newly emerged bi- purpose of reconstruction of the shattered
polar world, most of the countries had to economy, paving the way for its evolution as
either ally with the US or with USSR. Many a strong collective in course of time.
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 In this chapter we will be discussing the Emergence of a Bi-Polar World
emergence of the two power blocs, strategies Following the defeat of Germany, Stalin,
used by them to enlarge their spheres of Truman and Churchill, later replaced by
influence, emergence of NAM, the role of Clement Attlee, met at Potsdam near Berlin
UNO in resolving disputes, the post-war in July 1945 to discuss the future of Germany.
reconstruction in Europe and the establishment During the course of the meeting Truman
of European Union, and finally the end of cold informed Churchill about the invention of an
war with the collapse of Soviet Union. atomic bomb. A few days after the conference,
USA dropped atomic bombs over the Japanese
15.1  Post-War Conditions cities of Hiroshima and Nagasaki. With the
bombardment of Japanese cities, Japanese
in Europe Emperor Hirohito announced his country's
The Second World War was more unconditional surrender. This act of bombing
catastrophic than the First World War. As many Japan without informing USSR created a
as 60 million civilians were killed. In a planned diplomatic void between two countries. USSR
genocide the Nazis killed 6 million European produced an atomic bomb in 1949.
Jews. Millions became homeless and refugees. Meanwhile,
The War had destroyed factories and farm difference of opinion
lands. Great cities such as Warsaw, Kiev, Tokyo had arisen on the
and Berlin were totally devastated. Britain and creation of the
World Bank and the
France, which enjoyed prestige in international
International Monetary
politics prior to the War, were badly undermined.
Fund between the US
The condition of post-war Europe appeared
and the USSR. On 22
grave with shortages of food and raw materials. George Kennan
February 1946 George
There was by high rates of unemployment. Kennan, the American charge d’affaires
The post-War material conditions in Moscow, in an 8,000-word telegram to
challenged the laissez-faire attitude of capitalist the Department of State, known as ‘Long
countries. Many European countries turned into Telegram,’ emphasised that the Soviet Union
social welfare states committed to enhancing did not see the possibility for long-term
the conditions of its citizens. Not satisfied with peaceful coexistence with the capitalist world
the measures of the ruling governments the and suggested that the best strategy was to
distressed masses tended to support socialist “contain” communist expansion around the
globe.
movements. This was especially so in Greece
and Turkey where the communist movement In March 1946 Churchill, who was invited
was active. The USSR supported parties and to speak at Fulton in Missouri, condemned
the Soviet action of installing communist
movements which were left-leaning. By 1948 the
governments in Eastern European region.
Soviets had established left wing governments
He declared “From Stettin in the Baltic to
in the countries of eastern Europe notably in
Trieste in the Adriatic, an iron curtain has
Romania, Bulgaria and Hungary. Elections descended across the continent.” He called
held in Yugoslavia had already resulted in the for a western alliance which would stand
formation of a communist state under Tito. As firm against communism. Churchill’s speech
communism strengthened its grip on eastern is considered to signal the beginning of the
Europe, the Americans and the British began Cold War. Stalin criticised Churchill as a
to worry about the threat of Soviet-influenced warmonger. After the Iron Curtain Speech
parties coming to power in western Europe. of Churchill, USSR continued to tighten its
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 hold over Eastern Europe. By the end of 1947
except Czechoslovakia the rest of the area was
brought under Communist rule.

Berlin Blockade and Airlift

15.2  Cold War
On 16 April 1947 Bernard Baruch, the US
Presidential adviser, in a speech at the State House
Churchill at Fulton
in Columbia, used the term "Cold War," (earlier
The Berlin Blockade and coined by George Orwell, the great English
Formation of East Germany and writer and author of Animal Farm and 1984), to
describe the relations between the United States
West Germany
and the Soviet Union after the Second World
By the Yalta and Potsdam Conference War. A war without weapons, the Cold War was
agreements, Germany, with its capital city Berlin, a war of ideologies.
was divided into four zones, viz., U.S zone, U.K.
Between 1945 and 1991, the Cold War
zone, French zone and USSR zone. By early
defined the foreign policy of the super powers.
1948 all the three western zones were merged
During this period both the powers were in a
together and with the Marshall Plan these zones constant state of military preparedness. The US
registered rapid growth and development. wanted to promote open market for its goods and
USSR’s response was to put pressure on wanted to stop the spread of communism. On the
communications between West Berlin and West other hand USSR wanted to spread communism
Germany. In June 1948 the Russians stopped all and desired to have friendly governments on its
road and rail traffic between West Berlin and borders who shared the same value systems. The
West Germany. The western powers decided to powers adopted six major strategies to achieve
maintain contact with Berlin by air. For nearly their ends: Economic Aid, Military Pacts,
eleven months West Berlin was supplied by air, Propaganda, Espionage, Brinkmanship, and
and vast quantities of supplies were flown in at Surrogate Wars.
immense cost. In May 1949 USSR ended its ban
Cold War Strategies
on land traffic and the crisis ended. The western
powers now went ahead and set up the Federal (a) Economic Aid
Republic of Germany in August 1949 (FRG, Truman Plan
popularly known as West Germany) and USSR In 1945 a civil war broke out in Greece.
set up the German Democratic Republic (GDR, Britain which had supported Greece for
popularly known as East Germany) in October years, now decided to withdraw given its own
1949. If the division of Germany marked the real economic problems. Sometime later trouble
beginnings of the Cold War, the reunification of started in Turkey also, with the communists
Germany in 1990 signalled the end of Cold War. trying to take control. In 1947, Britain told the
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 United States that it could no longer afford to In the Soviet view, Marshall Plan was little
fight communist insurgencies in Greece and more than a ploy to spread American
Turkey and decided to leave it as of March 31. influence.
United States chose to act. President Harry S.
Molotov Plan
Truman decided to intervene in support of
Greece and Turkey. He committed to provide In response to Marshall Plan, USSR set up
financial and military assistance to those The Cominform (the Communist Information
countries where communism was ascendant. Bureau) in September 1947. This was an
This laid the framework for US policy towards organisation in which all European communist
containing communism, known popularly as parties were represented. It discouraged trade
the Truman Doctrine which dominated until contact between the non-communist countries
the end of the Cold War. and tried to forge ideological and material linkages
with its member countries. In 1949, USSR came
out with its economic package known as Molotov
Plan. Another organisation, known as Comecon
(Council of Mutual Economic Assistance), was
set up to co-ordinate the economic policies of
USSR and its satellite states.

Truman and Marshall

Marshall Plan
With its experience in Greece and Turkey,
USA understood the value of American dollars
in containing Communism. So it decided to
move further in the same direction. In June
1947, George C. Marshall, the Secretary of Joseph Stalin and Molotov
State under President Truman, came out with
an economic plan for all those European (b) Military Pacts
countries which were affected by war. He Forging strategic alliances by signing
called it a European Recovery Programme. military pacts was another notable strategy
Marshall declared, "Our Policy is directed not used by both the powers to enlarge their
against any country or doctrine but against camps. In 1948 Czechoslovakia was the only
hunger, poverty, desperation and chaos". democratic state in Eastern Europe and was
European states were provided with financial a buffer between the capitalist bloc and the
assistance. Over the next four years 13,000 Soviet Union. In the elections of May 1948
million dollars were pumped into western the Communist party swept the polls. This
Europe in the name of Marshall plan. By 1948
further alarmed the western powers.
sixteen European states and the three Western
zones of Germany set up the Organisation for North Atlantic Treaty Organisation (NATO)
European Economic Cooperation (OEEC). Despite the friendship of the United States,
Marshall Aid lasted for four years (1948–52). Western European countries felt insecure.
Molotov, the soviet foreign minister dubbed Communist victory in Czechoslovakia added
the Marshall Plan as "dollar imperialism". to their fears.
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 as The Warsaw Pact, as the treaty was signed
On 1 November 1952, the United States in Warsaw, the capital of Poland. The members
successfully detonated “Mike,” the world’s were Soviet Union, Albania, Poland, Romania,
first hydrogen bomb, on the Elugelab Atoll Hungary, East Germany, Czechoslovakia, and
in the Pacific Marshall Islands. Three years Bulgaria. The treaty called upon member states
later, on 22 November 1955, the Soviet Union to come to the defence of any member if it was
detonated its first hydrogen bomb. attacked by an outside force. A unified military
command under Marshall Ivan S. Konev of
The Western European countries were
the Soviet Union was set up. The Warsaw Pact
now willing to consider a collective security
remained valid till 1991, the year of collapse of
solution. The representatives of Great Britain,
Soviet Union.
France, Belgium, the Netherlands and
Luxembourg met in Brussels and signed a treaty
in March 1948 which provided for military,
political, economic and cultural collaboration.
After sometime USA, Italy, Canada, Iceland,
Denmark, Norway, Ireland and Portugal joined
the five Brussels Treaty Powers resulting in
the formation of NATO. Under NATO, all the
member states agreed to regard an attack on
any one of them as an attack on all of them
and placed their defence forces under a joint
Central and Eastern
NATO Command Organisation. This collective
European Countries Meet
defence arrangement applied only to attacks
that occurred in Europe or North America and South East Asian Treaty Organisation
did not include conflicts in colonial territories. (SEATO)
In 1952, Greece and Turkey were admitted to In 1949 China turned into a Communist
NATO and West Germany joined in 1955. state under the leadership of Mao. Communism
was spreading from China to Korea. Alarmed by
the spread of communism in the Asian region,
in September 1951, a tripartite military alliance
was signed between the US, Australia and New
Zealand (known as the ANZUS treaty). In 1954
the US signed a Mutual Defence Treaty with
Nationalist China (Taiwan), providing the latter
with American support in the event of an attack
or invasion by Communist China.
In September of 1954, USA, France,
Great Britain, New Zealand, Australia, the
NATO Meet in 1950 Philippines, Thailand and Pakistan formed the
Warsaw Treaty Organisation Southeast Asia Treaty Organisation (SEATO).
When West Germany became a member of SEATO is seen as an Asian-Pacific version
NATO, USSR saw it as a direct threat and decided of NATO. Interestingly only two south-east
to make a counter arrangement. In May 1955, a Asian countries, the Philippines and Thailand,
“treaty of mutual friendship, co-operation and had taken up membership and the rest of the
mutual assistance” was signed by Soviet Union countries refused to be part of it. The alliance
and seven of its European allies. It was named was headquartered at Bangkok. SEATO existed

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 only for consultation, leaving each individual music, literature and art. While the ideology
nation to react individually to internal threats. of capitalism was promoted, communism was
SEATO was not as popular as NATO. With the condemned both as a political ideology and
end of Vietnam War, SEATO was disbanded in a social and economic system by the United
1977. States. In USSR propaganda was designed in
such a way that collective work and collective
leadership within the socialist frame were
encouraged. Democracy and market economy
was dubbed as a façade to mask an exploitative
capitalism.

(d) Espionage

SEATO Conference in Manila

Central Treaty Organisation (CENTO)
In February 1955, Iraq and Turkey signed
a "pact of mutual cooperation" at Baghdad.
The membership was open to all countries in
the region. In April, Great Britain joined the CIA Headquarters
Pact, followed by Pakistan and Iran. The aim
was to check communist influence. A series of Espionage or spying was a key ploy used
events took place in Middle East in 1958 which by the both super powers to get information on
threatened regional stability: the Egypt–Syria military secrets and access government records.
union, revolution in Iraq and civil unrest in During the Cold War both superpowers
Lebanon. In response to these developments, maintained strong intelligence-gathering
the United States intervened in Lebanon. The agencies. In the United States the Central
members of the Baghdad Pact except for Iraq Intelligence Agency (CIA) was established
endorsed the US intervention. Iraq left the pact. in 1947 and the Soviet Union’s Komitet
As a result, the other signatories of the Baghdad Gosudarstvennoy Bezopasnosti (KGB), or
Pact formed the Central Treaty Organisation ‘Committee for National Security’ was formed
(CENTO), moving its headquarters to Ankara, in 1954. The espionage wars fuelled a great
Turkey. United States continued to support amount of suspicion and hatred, and a huge
the organisation as an associate, but not as a amount of popular films and novels with spies
member. In 1979, the Iranian revolution led to as heroes and villains added to it (e.g. James
the overthrow of the Shah and Iran withdrew Bond films).
from CENTO. Pakistan also withdrew that year
after the organisation ceased to play an active
role. CENTO was formally disbanded in 1979.

(c) Propaganda
During the Cold War both the US and
the USSR used propaganda as effective tools
to glorify their ideology, while criticising the
opponents values and ideals. Pro-American
values were promoted in film, television, KGB Office
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 (e) Brinkmanship well. International opinion was mobilised in
Brinkmanship was a term that was these wars, and anti-Vietnam protests made a
constantly used during the Cold War. The word profound impact on the politics, society and
comes from U.S. Secretary of State John Foster culture of the US and western Europe.
Dulles. In an interview to Life in 1956, he claimed
that, in diplomacy, “if you are scared to go to 15.3  Third World Countries
the brink [of war], you are lost.” An example of and Non-Alignment
this policy was in 1962 when the Soviet Union
placed nuclear missiles in Cuba. This nearly In the aftermath of Second World War
brought about a nuclear war. The United States many colonial countries in Asia, Africa and
responded by putting a naval blockade around Latin America got their independence from
Cuba. Finally, after much negotiations, the imperial rule. The newly independent countries
missiles were removed from Cuba. were upset by the Cold War strategy of USA
and USSR. They viewed power blocs as another
form of imperialism and so decided to keep
Brinkmanship is the practice of trying
away from such politics. Calling themselves
to achieve an advantageous outcome by
countries of Third World, a term coined by
pushing dangerous events to the brink of
French demographer and historian Alfred Sauvy
active conflict. It occurs in international
in 1952, they decided to follow an independent
politics, foreign policy, and military strategy
and neutral policy in their foreign affairs.
and could involve even the threat of nuclear
weapons. Non-Aligned Movement (NAM)

Cuban Missile Crisis

Bandung Conference
(f) Surrogate Wars
In 1955 the first Afro-Asian Conference was
US and USSR engaged in surrogate or held at Bandung in Indonesia where 29 states,
proxy wars as part of Cold War strategy. The mostly new independent states, including Egypt,
Korean War of 1950–53 and the Vietnam Indonesia, India, Iraq and the People’s Republic
Wars of 1955–75 were classic examples of the of China, gathered to condemn colonialism,
Cold War period. In both cases Soviet Union apartheid and growing tensions due to Cold
supported the communist government in War. The conference adopted a 'Declaration on
North Korea and in North Vietnam and the Promotion of World Peace and Cooperation'
United States supported South Korea and South which included Nehru's Panchsheel and a
Vietnam. These wars resulted in huge casualties collective pledge to remain neutral in the Cold
and losses, and turned out to be civil wars as War. The ten principles of Bandung later became
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 the guiding principles of NAM. The term „„Recognition of the equality among all
"non-alignment" was coined by V. K. Krishna races and of the equality among all
Menon in 1953 at the United Nations. nations, both large and small.
Based on the Ten Principles of Bandung, „„Non-intervention or non-interference in
the First Summit of NAM was held at Belgrade, the internal affairs of another country.
the capital of Yugoslavia in 1961. Five members
„„Respect for the right of every nation
played a prominent role in the foundation of
to defend itself, either individually or
NAM: Jawaharlal Nehru of India, Sukarno
collectively, in conformity with the
of Indonesia, Gamal Abdel Nasser of Egypt,
Charter of the United Nations.
Kwame Nkrumah of Ghana and Josip Broz Tito
of Yugoslavia. The objective of NAM was to „„Non-use of collective defence pacts to
"create an independent path in world politics. benefit the specific interests of any of the
The most important objectives included ending great powers.
of imperialism and colonialism, promotion
of international peace and security and „„Refraining from acts or threats of
disarmament, ending of racism and racial aggression and use of force against
discrimination.” The statement issued at the the territorial integrity or political
end of the Belgrade conference also deprecated independence of any country. Non-use
military pacts with any great power or the of pressures by any country against other
permission for any super power to build a countries.
military base in its territories. „„Settlement of all international disputes
by peaceful means, such as negotiation,
conciliation, arbitration or judicial
settlement as well as other peaceful
means of the parties’ own choice, in
conformity with the Charter of the
United Nations.
„„Promotion of mutual interest and
cooperation.
„„Respect for justice and international
obligations.
During the Cold War period, NAM acted
as an alternative for the power bloc politics.
First Non-Aligned Conference, Belgrade With the disintegration of Soviet Union, NAM
The following goals and objectives were became irrelevant.
set by the proponents of the Non-Aligned
Movement at the 1955 Bandung Conference: The Panchsheel (five principles), policy
of Nehru, included 1. Mutual respect
„„Respect of fundamental human rights for each other's territorial integrity and
and of the objectives and principles of the sovereignty, 2. Mutual non-aggression,
Charter of the United Nations. 3. Mutual non-interference in domestic affairs,
„„Respect for the sovereignty and territorial 4. Equality and mutual benefit, 5. Peaceful
integrity of all nations. co-existence.

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 15.4  UNO and Global Secretary-General. In addition to its main organs
UNO has currently 15 specialised agencies. Some
Disputes of the prominent agencies are International
The Second World War Labour Organisation (ILO), Food and Agriculture
proved that the League of Organisation (FAO), International Monetary Fund
Nation was a failure. World (IMF), United Nations Educational, Scientific and
leaders realised the need for Q.R.Code Cultural Organisation (UNESCO), World Health
the creation of an effective Organisation (WHO), and World Bank.
organisation to prevent
another war. At Dumbarton Role of UNO in resolving Global
Oaks, a mansion in Georgetown, Washington, disputes
representatives of China, the Soviet Union, the
United States and the United Kingdom met "Since wars begin in the minds of men, it
(August 21–October 7, 1944) and formulated is in the minds of men that the defences of
proposals for a world organisation. The Moscow peace must be constructed". (Preamble to the
declaration of 1943 recognised the need for an Constitution of UNO).
international organisation to replace the League
of Nations. Subsequently, at the Yalta Conference
UNO Headquarters
held in February 1945, decisions on the voting
system in security council and a few other issues
were raised. After holding deliberations and
negotiations at the San Francisco Conference,
held in April, 1945, the Charter of the United
Nations was finalised.

UNO Headquarters
The birth of UNO coincided with the
beginning of the Cold War. During this period
Yalta Conference the UNO played an important role in preventing
wars. But in disputes involving the permanent
On 24 October 1945 the UNO came into members of the Security Council the UNO
existence with 51 members. The main organs of was a mute spectator. UN has an army known
the UN are the General Assembly, the Security as the UN Peace-keeping Force. Member states
Council, the Economic contribute soldiers to this force. The UN soldiers
and Social Council, the are referred to as Blue Helmets, because of their
Trusteeship Council, light blue helmets.
the International Court
of Justice, and the Problem of Palestine
UN Secretariat. The
Norwegian Foreign After the Second World War the Jews
Minister, Trygve Lie, demanded a homeland in Palestine. Arabs
was elected the first UN Trygve Lie opposed the demand and the matter was

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 on the Security Council. Since this was not
accepted USSR decided to boycott the Security
Council and all other UN organs. The People’s
Republic of China became a permanent member
in the Security Council only from 1971.

The Korean War (1950-53)

Korea, ruled by Japan since 1910, was
divided by the 38th parallel into two zones
Arab Refugees in 1945. The northern zone, with a third of
the population and most of the industry, was
referred to the UN. In May 1947, the UN
occupied by the USSR. The southern zone
General Assembly adopted a resolution of
with two-thirds of the population and most
establishing the U.N. Special Committee on
of the farming areas, was controlled by the
Palestine (UNSCOP) to investigate and make
United States. In the elections held under the
recommendations. According to the UNSCOP
supervision of UNO, in South Korea Syngman
report, Arabs were in possession of about 85
Rhee became president. In North Korea, USSR
percent of the land and only about 5.8 percent
set up the People’s Democratic Republic, a
was owned by Jews. Despite these facts, the
Communist government, headed by Kim Il
recommendation of the UNSCOP was that
Sung. Soon after, the Russians and Americans
Palestine should be partitioned into two states,
withdrew their forces. The South Korean
with the majority Arabs surrendering land to the
president openly proclaimed his ambition to
Jews for their new state. Under the proposal, 45
unite the whole country by force. Open warfare
percent of the land would be for the Arab state,
began on 25 June 1950 when North Korea
compared to 55 percent for the Jewish state. On
invaded South Korea.
14 May 1948 a new state called Israel was formed.
Recognition to Nationalist China

Chiang Kai-shek with Korean War

Roosevelt and Churchill The Security Council met immediately. In
In 1949, in the context of Mao Tse Tung the absence of the USSR, it passed a resolution
forming a Communist government in mainland calling for an end to the fighting. The members
China, Chiang Kai-shek fled to the island of of the UN were asked to help in the matter.
Formosa where he headed the Nationalist Sixteen members contributed forces, and
government. USSR then proposed that a forty-five countries gave aid in some form. The
representative of Communist China should American General MacArthur commanded the
replace the representative of Nationalist China United Nations forces. In August 1950, with the

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 USSR returning to the Security Council, the called UNEF. The force would not be a fighting
General Assembly at the initiative of US passed force, but a peace force sent with the consent of
the ‘Uniting for Peace’ resolution. This clearly both sides. On December 22 the UN evacuated
set the precedent that if the Security Council British and French troops and Israeli forces
could not reach an agreement to intervene in a withdrew in March 1957. Nasser emerged a
crisis, then the General Assembly should meet victor and a hero for the cause of pan-Arab and
in emergency session and recommend the use Egyptian nationalism.
of armed force if necessary. USSR regarded this
resolution as illegal. The fighting ended with Hungarian Crisis, 1956
the signing of an armistice in July 1953. The war
had increased the importance of the General
Assembly.
Suez Crisis, 1956

Hungarian Revolution
The Hungarian leader Rakosi, appointed
as premier during the regime of Stalin was
Suez Canal dismissed in 1953. It resulted in the election
Suez Canal connects the Red sea with of Imre Nagy as premier. But Nagy enjoyed
the Mediterranean Sea. It was constructed support neither from his government nor from
by Ferdinand de Lesseps, a Frenchman, after the Russians. Rakosi continued to control the
obtaining permission from the Egyptian Pasha. Communist Party. Writers and intellectuals
Soon the ownership passed on to the British. It led the protest, demanding the resignation
was the main link between Asia and Europe. In of Rakosi. Though Rakosi was removed from
July 1956, the Egyptian president Gamal Abdel power in July 1956, the opposition continued.
Nasser nationalised the Suez Canal, which was A rebellion organised by a few intellectuals
until then privately owned by the Anglo-French broke out in Budapest on 23 October. Though
Suez Canal Corporation. On 29 October, the it began as a peaceful demonstration it soon
Israeli army invaded the Sinai Peninsula. The developed into a national rising against Soviet
following day, French and British aircrafts Russia and its puppet regime in Hungary. On 26
bombed Egyptian air bases. On 5 November October the Russians agreed to Nagy becoming
1956, British and French troops landed at the premier again. On his assumption of office he
Egyptian town of Port Said. The issue was started introducing a multiparty system and
taken up by the Security Council but Britain set up a coalition government. Enraged by
and France vetoed the resolution. The General the development, Soviet Russia sent its army
Assembly, at the initiative of the US, which into Hungary on 4 November and crushed the
became apprehensive of Soviet invasion, called rebellion.
for an emergency session and condemned The Hungarian Uprising occurred
the invasion. Israel, Great Britain and France simultaneously with the Anglo-French-Israeli
stopped fighting and decided to withdraw their attack on Egypt in the Suez affair. The matter
forces from Egypt. The General Assembly voted was taken up at the Security Council which
to create a United Nations Emergency Force, decided to demand the immediate withdrawal of
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 Russian forces from Hungary. Russians vetoed the Israeli border. The UN told Nasser that he
the Security Council resolution and so the same could not ask for UN troop movement. So his
resolution was passed by the Assembly. But choice was to demand the complete withdrawal
nothing came out of the resolution. The failure of of the UN troop. On May 23 Egypt closed the
the United Nations to influence USSR’s actions Straits of Tiran to Israeli shipping. In early June
in Hungary showed that if a Great Power was Israel attacked Egypt, destroying virtually all of
determined to defy the UNO and had the power Cairo’s air force on the ground.
to do it, the UN was helpless.
Along with the leak of Khrushchev's
secret speech, this had a major impact on the
international communist movement, with large
numbers (especially of writers and intellectuals)
resigning from communist parties across the
world.

Arab–Israeli War
As the United Nations voted to partition
Palestine into a Jewish state and an Arab Arab-Israeli War
state in November 1947, conflict broke out
almost immediately between Jews and Arabs At the end of the Six Day War Israel
in Palestine. On the eve of the British forces’ occupied the remaining parts of Palestine,
withdrawal (May 15, 1948), Israel declared the West Bank, the Gaza Strip, and East
independence. The war came to an end with Jerusalem, plus the Syrian Golan Heights and
the intervention of the UN General Assembly the Egyptian Sinai. Two hundred fifty thousand
passing a resolution affirming the right more Palestinians were forced into exile, and
of Palestinian refugees from the 1947–48 a million more remain under Israeli military
war to return to their homes and to receive occupation even now. While referring to the
compensation for their losses. Israel joined the Palestinians only in the context of refugees,
UN the following year. From the start, when rather than reaffirming their national rights, the
Israel was created, there was little involvement resolution of the UN unequivocally called for
of the UN in making political decisions. UN the withdrawal of Israeli armed forces from the
peacekeepers were stationed on the Israeli– occupied territories. The resolution was drafted
Egyptian border, and the UN Refugee Works largely by the four powers of the Security
Agency (UNRWA) was established to provide Council – the limited reference to Palestinian
help for the refugees until such time as they rights was a reflection of US influence on the
returned home. proceedings.
By 1966 the U.S. providing began to Israel
with advanced planes and missiles. The Cold For years following the 1967 war, the UN
War had come to the Middle East, and the voted repeatedly in favour of an international
UN was out of the scene. Over the next few peace conference, under its own auspices, with
months, tensions increased between Israel and all parties to the conflict (including the Palestine
the surrounding Arab states. In April 1967 Liberation Organisation led by Yasser Arafat) to
there were artillery exchanges between Israel resolve the Israel-Palestine conflict once and for
and Syria. The U.S. Sixth Fleet remained off all. But the U.S. always vetoed it. In the Cold
the Syrian coast. Egyptian President Nasser War context, Moscow and Washington played
symbolically asked the UN to move its troops an increasingly larger role either in escalating or
and observers, then inside Egyptian territory, to containing tension in the region.
143 The World after World War II

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 and OEEC transformed itself into the OECD

 

 
N

    W

S
E

 
  (Organisation for Economic Cooperation and





 Development) in 1961, adding the USA and






 





   


Canada to the original membership of West




 









European countries. Japan joined in 1964.




  






 

 
 

 


 





   



Not to Scale
 

Palestine Liberation Organisation (PLO) was

formed in 1964 to federate various Palestinian
groups that previously had operated as OEEC Charter
clandestine resistance movements. It came
Today there are thirty-seven member
into prominence after the Arab-Israeli
countries in OECD from all around the
War of June 1967. The PLO was engaged
world. Most of them are developed countries.
in a protracted guerrilla wars against Israel
They are all committed to the concept of free
until the 1980s, before entering into peace
market economy and democracy. It has its
negotiations in the 1990s. Yasser Arafat was
headquarters in Paris.
its outstanding leader.
Towards European Union
15.5  Consolidation and
Council of Europe
Expansion of
One of the momentous decisions taken
European Community in the post-World War II era was to integrate
In pursuance of its policy of containment the states of western Europe. In May 1949 ten
of communism, as we have seen, the USA came countries met in London and signed to form a
out with the Truman Doctrine and Marshall Council of Europe. The Council of Europe with
Plan to support the war-torn European headquarters at Strasbourg was established with
countries to reconstruct their economy. a committee of foreign ministers of member
An organisation, OEEC (Organisation for countries and a Consultative Assembly, drawn
European Economic Cooperation) was formed from the parliaments of foreign countries.
in April 1948 to overseer the disbursement
European Coal and Steel
of Marshall Aid under the auspices of the
European Recovery Programme (ERP). The Community (ECSC)
OEEC disbursed aid to its sixteen member
countries. The US wanted the OEEC to remove
tariff barriers between themselves so that it was
easier for American companies to do business.
OEEC obliged and followed free trade in 1949
for obtaining further financial aid. With the US
aid, by 1950, the western European countries
had returned to their pre-war production
levels. The success made them to move forward Schuman Konrad

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 Robert Schuman, the French foreign European Economic Community
minister, realised that a reconciliation between (EEC)
France and Germany was good for both and
for reconstruction of post-War Europe. He
presented a plan known as Schuman Plan on
9 May 1950. Accordingly, he proposed that the
joint output of coal and steel in the two countries
be placed within the framework of a strong,
supranational structure, the High Authority.
This plan for sectoral economic integration
created mutual interests and automatically
linked the two countries. West Germany's
Chancellor, Konrad Adenauer, welcomed the
plan to come close to the Western world. EEC in Session
The EEC facilitated the elimination of
barriers to the movement of goods, services,
capital, and labour. It also prohibited public
policies or private agreements that restricted
market competition. A Common Agricultural
Policy (CAP) and a common external trade
policy were evolved. In 1960, Britain organised
a rival organ known as the European Free Trade
Association (EFTA) with Britain, Denmark,
Norway, Sweden, Switzerland, Austria and
ECSC members Portugal as members. But EFTA was weak since
there were no common economic policies and
On 18 April 1951 France, West Germany, no authority to intervene in the internal affairs
Italy, the Netherlands, Belgium and Luxembourg of states.
signed a treaty at Paris to establish the European
Coal and Steel Community (ECSC). All duties In 1961 Britain decided to join EEC but the
and restrictions on trade in coal, iron and steel French President Charles de Gaulle opposed the
between the six were removed. ECSC was the entry because the economy of Britain was weak.
first step towards European Integration. Britain After his resignation, British Prime Minister
refused to join ECSC since it would mean Edward Heath, with his skilful diplomacy,
handing over control of their industries to an made way for Britain's entry. Britain was finally
outside authority. Steel production rose by admitted on 1 January 1973 along with Ireland
almost 50 per cent during the first five years and Denmark.
of ECSC. The success made them to include
the production of all goods. Spaak, the Foreign Single European Act (SEA)
Minister of Belgium wanted gradual removal The Single European Act that came into
of all customs duties and quotas so that there force on July 1, 1987 expanded the EEC’s
would be free competition and a common scope further. It called for more intensive
market. Six countries belonging to ECSC coordination of foreign policy among member
signed the treaty of Rome which established the countries. According to the SEA, each member
European Economic Community (EEC) or the was given multiple votes, depending on the
European Common Market, with headquarters country’s population. Approval of legislation
at Brussels. Britain did not join the EEC. required roughly two-thirds of the votes of all
145 The World after World War II

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 members. The new procedure increased the The period from the late 1960s to the late
power of European Parliament, which had been 1970s is known as period of détente (temporary
functioning since 1952. Specifically, legislative stoppage of hostility). The period witnessed
proposals that were rejected by the Parliament increased trade and cooperation between the
could be adopted by the Council of Ministers by US and the Soviet Union. The Strategic Arms
a unanimous vote. Limitation Talks (SALT 1972 & 1979) and later
European Union (EU) the Strategic Arms Reduction (START, 1991)
treaties heralded an era of coexistence and
cooperation.

European Union Flag - Euro Currency

In December 1991 the members of
EC came together and signed the Treaty of
Gorbachev with Ronald Reagan in
Maastricht by which the European Union was
American Summit
established in 1993 with a single market. With
the establishment of European Union, the With the election of Mikhail Gorbachev as
members worked on other areas such as foreign the President of USSR in March 1985, there were
policy and internal security. This treaty paved phenomenal political and social changes in the
the way for the creation of a single European Soviet Union. Gorbachev committed himself
currency – the euro. In 2017, Britain voted to to reforms. In February 1986 he spoke in the
exit the EU (British Exit known as “Brexit”). Communist Party Congress, explaining the
Today the European Union has 28 member
need for political and economic restructuring,
states, and functions from its headquarters at
or perestroika, and called for a new era of
Brussels, Belgium.
transparency and openness, or glasnost. By
End of Cold War Perestroika Gorbachev loosened centralised
control of many institutions, allowing
The US and the Soviet Union had created
a bi-polar international structure. Initially the businesses, farmers and manufacturers to
Soviet military capabilities were weak. But decide for themselves which products to make,
by 1969 USSR had equalled US in terms of how much to produce, and what to charge for
nuclear capability. The threat of Mutual Assured them.
Destruction (MAD) created fear in both powers. Glasnost was instituted as a part of an effort
Moreover, the nuclear race was expensive and by Gorbachev to democratise the governing
cost them heavily. The earmarking of larger structure of Soviet Union. Fundamental
portions of their budgets for defence caused changes occurred in the political structure of
a resource crunch. Strong disarmament the Soviet Union: reduction of the power of the
movements in Europe also put pressure on Communist Party, and multicandidate elections
the ruling governments. This pushed the for assembly membership. Glasnost also
superpowers to the negotiating table. permitted criticism of government officials and
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 allowed the media freer dissemination of news
and people free expression of their opinions. Boris Yeltsin (1931–2007): Joining the
With glasnost, Soviet citizens no longer had Communist Party in 1961, Yeltsin became a
to worry about arrest and exile for articulating full-time worker in the party in 1968. In the
negative opinions against the State. These ideas seventies he emerged as a popular figure and
created a revolutionary wave of liberalism in began to occupy in key positions in the Party.
Soviet Union. At the same time, it eventually led After Gorbachev came to power, he chose
to the disintegration of Soviet Union. Yeltsin (1985) to eliminate corruption in the
Moscow party organisation. In 1986 Yeltsin
was elevated to the Politburo (the highest
policy making body of the Soviet Union).
Soon he was made the mayor of Moscow.
Yeltsin antagonised Gorbachev when he
began criticising the slow pace of reform
at party meetings. His popularity with the
people grew as he advocated democratisation
Boris Yeltsin Jimmy Carter
of governance and economic reform. He
1989 was a watershed year in the Cold succeeded in winning a seat in the USSR
War era. Free elections were conducted in Congress of People’s Deputies (the new
Poland. The Polish Solidarity movement won Soviet Parliament) in March 1989. A year
the election, routing the Communists. In July later, on May 29, 1990, the Soviet parliament
Gorbachev, speaking at the Council of Europe, elected him president of the Russian republic
remarked that he rejected the Brezhnev against Gorbachev’s wishes. He became the
Doctrine: “Any interference in domestic affairs first popularly elected leader in 1991, after
and any attempts to restrict the sovereignty of
the collapse of Soviet Union.
states, both friends and allies or any others,
are inadmissible.” In November 1989, one of
the most famous symbols of the Cold War, the      Summary
Berlin Wall came down. In late November 1989
West German Chancellor Helmut Kohl, without „„The devastated economy of Western
consulting any allies, suddenly announced a Europe in the aftermath of Second World
ten-point programme calling for free elections War and the emergence of bi-polar world
in East Germany and the eventual “German with US and USSR emerging as super
reunification". By the end of the 1989 a popular powers are explained.
uprising took place in Eastern Europe and most
„„Strategies of the competing super powers
of the leaders were ousted except in Bulgaria.
to establish hegemony through measures
Slowly Eastern Europe severed its affiliation
of economic aid and military pacts are
with communism. This was taken as a clue by
discussed.
many Soviet Republics and by mid-1990 many
of them declared themselves as independent „„Marshall Plan of the US and the USSR’s
states. On December 8, 1991, the Soviet Union Moltov Plan as a response, the formation
disintegrated. On 25th December Gorbachev of NATO and signing of Warsaw Pact by
resigned, Boris Yeltsin became the President of Soviet Union with its satellite countries
the Russian Republic. With the disintegration to counteract the former’s offensive are
of USSR the Cold War came to an end. highlighted.

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 „„The Third World countries and their (a) Both A and R are correct; R explains A
non-alignment movement are detailed. (b) Both A and R are correct; R does not
„„UNO and its role in resolving global explain A
disputes with focus on Korean War, Suez (c) A is correct and R is wrong
Crisis, Arab-Israeli Wars are dealt with.
(d) A is wrong and R is correct
„„Evolution of European unity culminating 5
Marshall aid was for the purpose of
in the establishment of European ___________
Economic Community that transformed
into European Union is traced. (a) Economic reconstruction of Europe
(b) Protection of capitalistic enterprises.
„„The end of the Cold War with the collapse
of Soviet Union is analysed. (c) Establishment of American hegemony in
Europe
(d) forming a military alliance against Soviet
EXERCISE Russia
Q.R.Code 6. Truman doctrine advocated ___________
I. C
 hoose the
correct answer (a) 
financial aid to stop the spread of
communism
1. By the end of 1947 the only
(b) supply of weapons to the insurgents in
country left out of the Soviet influence in
colonies
eastern Europe was ___________
(c) 
interference in internal affairs of east
(a) East Germany (b) Czechoslovakia
European countries
(c) Greece (d) Turkey
(d) 
permanent army to UN under US
2. Assertion (A): Stalin criticised Churchill as a Commander
warmonger.
7. Arrange the following in chronological order
Reason (R): Churchill had earlier called for a
1) Warsaw Pact 2) CENTO
western alliance against communism.
3) SEATO 4) NATO
(a) Both A and R are correct; R explains A
(a) 4, 2, 3, 1 (b) 1, 3, 2, 4
(b) Both A and R are correct; R does not
explain A (c) 4, 3, 2, 1 (d) 1, 2, 3, 4
(c) A is correct and R is wrong 8. 
The aim of the Baghdad Pact was to
___________
(d) A is wrong and R is correct
(a) 
protect England’s leadership in the
3. Th
 e term “Cold War” was coined by
Middle East
(a) Bernard Baruch (b) George Orwell
(b) exploit the oil resources in the region
(c) George Kennan (d) Churchill
(c) prevent communist influence
4. Assertion (A): The soviet foreign minister
(d) destabilise the government in Iraq
dubbed the Marshall Plan as "dollar
imperialism". 9. US intervention in Lebanon was opposed by
___________
Reason (R): In the Soviet view, Marshall
Plan was little more than a ploy to spread (a) Turkey (b) Iraq
American influence. (c) India (d) Pakistan
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 10. 
The term “Third World” was coined by Statement II: D
 uring the Cold War period,
___________ the UNO played an important
(a) Alfred Sauvy (b) Marshall role in preventing wars.

(c) Molotov (d) Harry Truman Statement III: B

 ut in disputes involving the
permanent members of the
11. Match and choose the correct answer from
Security Council, the UNO
the code given below
was a mute spectator.
(A) Indonesia 1. Jawaharlal Nehru
(a) I, II (b) II, III
(B) Egypt 2. Tito
(c) I, III (d) All the above
(C) Ghana 3. Kwame Nkrumah
16. Suez Canal connects the Red Sea with the
(D) Yugoslavia 4. Gamal Abdel Nasser ___________
(E) India 5. Sukarno (a) Gulf of Aden (b) Gulf of Khambat
A B C D E (c) Mediterranean Sea (d) Arabian Sea
(a) 5 3 4 2 1
(b) 1 3 2 4 5 17. Trygve Lie, the first Secretary General of the
(c) 5 4 3 2 1 UNO, belonged to ___________
(d) 1 2 3 4 5 (a) Burma (b) Japan
12. 
The first Summit of NAM was held at
(c) Singapore (d) Norway
___________
18. Assertion (A): In 2017, Britain voted to exit
(a) Belgrade (b) Beijing
the European Union.
(c) Bandung (d) Pali
Reason (R): Britain’s exit is known as Brexit.
13.Assertion (A): The Second World War
proved that the League of Nation was a (a) Both A and R are correct; R explains A
failure. (b) Both A and R are correct; R does not
Reason (R): World leaders realised the need explain A
for the creation of an effective organisation (c) A is correct and R is wrong
to prevent another war.
(d) A is wrong and R is correct
(a) Both A and R are correct; R explains A
19. Glasnost denotes ___________
(b) Both A and R are correct; but R does not
explain A (a) transparency and openness

(c) A is correct but R is wrong (b) democratisation of Communist Party of

Soviet Union
(d) A is wrong and R is correct
(c) 
restructuring of the Soviet Federal
14. On 24 October 1945, the UNO came into Assembly
existence with ___________
(d) reinventing communism
(a) 100 members (b) 72 members
20. Soviet Union disintegrated on ___________
(c) 51 members (d) 126 members
(a) November 17, 1991
15. Which of the following statement/s is/are
correct? (b) December 8, 1991
Statement I: Th
 e Birth of UNO coincided (c) May 1, 1991
with the beginning of Cold War. (d) October 17, 1991
149 The World after World War II

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 II. Write brief answers 3. In disputes involving the permanent members
of the Security Council, the UNO was a mute
1. Identify the espionage agencies of USA and
spectator. Elucidate this statement from the
USSR.
cold war period experiences.
2. 
Explain the concept of containment of
4. Sketch the political career of Boris Yetlsin,
communism.
focusing on his role in the collapse of Soviet
3. Point out the significance of the “Uniting for Union.
Peace” resolution passed by the UN General
V. Activity
Assembly.
1. On the UNO Day (October 24) students may
4. W
 hat do you know about Cominform?
be asked to simulate a session of General
5. Provide examples of Surrogate Wars in the Assembly and debate any of the disputes
cold war era. detailed in this lesson.
6. What was the background to the Hungarian 2. Students may be organised into two groups
Crisis? arguing for and against Capitalism.
7. W
 hat was Schuman Plan? 3. 
Teachers and students shall explore the
8. O
 utline the concept of Perestroika. Universal Declaration of Human Rights
Charter adopted by the UN on 10 December
III. Write short answers 1948.
1. Warsaw Pact was a response of the Soviet
Union to the US controlled NATO-Explain.
REFERENCES

2. Write about the different stages in the final „„Dan Stone (ed.), The Oxford Handbook of
adoption of UN Charter. Post-War European History, 2012.
3. Trace the background of the formation of „„Norman Lowe, Mastering Modern World
NATO. History, Palgrave Master Series, 2013.
4. G
 ive a brief account of Suez Canal Crisis. „„Peter Calvocoressi, World Politics Since
5. W
 hy SEATO was not so popular as NATO? 1945, Longman, 2008.

IV. Answer the following in detail „„Hans J. Morgenthau, Politics among

Nations: The Struggle for Power and Peace,
1. Highlight the goals and objectives of the Non- McGraw-Hill, 1993.
Aligned Movement.
„„Arjun Dev & Indira Arjun Dev, History of
2. Discuss the origin of Arab-Israeli conflict and the World, Orient BlackSwan, 2009.
show how subsequent developments caused a
major war between the two in 1967. „„Encyclopaedia Britannica.

The World after World War II 150

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 GLOSSARY

a person who advocates war or ப�ோரை ஆதரிப்பவர் அல்லது

warmonger
aggression towards other countries மற்ற நாடுகள் மீது ஆதிக்கத்தை
விரும்புபவர்
enticement attraction, temptation வசீகரம், வசப்படுதல், ஈர்த்தல்
devastated destroyed, ruined அழித்தது, சூறையாடியது
shattered exhausted, smashed தகர்த்தது

catastrophic disastrous, terrible, dreadful பேரழிவுமிக்க, பெருங்கேடு

விளைவிக்கின்ற
mass slaughter, indiscriminate
genocide
killing இனப்படுக�ொலை

a continuous attack with bombs,

bombardment
shells or other missiles சரமாரிக் குண்டுவீச்சுத் தாக்குதல்

ஒற்றறிதல், வேவுபார்த்தல்,
surveillance; the practice of using ஒற்றர்களைக் க�ொண்டு
espionage spies for close observation of an எதிரியைய�ோ அல்லது எதிரி
enemy or enemy country. நாட்டைய�ோ நெருக்கமாய்
கண்காணித்தல்
the practice of trying to achieve an
advantageous outcome by pushing
brinkmanship
a dangerous event to the brink of ப�ோரில் ஈடுபடா ராஜதந்திரம்
active conflict.
substitute; represent on behalf of
surrogate
others மாற்றாக, பதிலாள்
violent struggle of a group of
insurgency people who refuse to accept their கிளர்ச்சி, ஆட்சியை எதிர்த்து
கிளர்ந்தெழுதல்
government’s power
chaos complete disorder and confusion பெருங்குழப்பம், ஒழுங்கற்ற நிலை
detonate explode வெடி
involving three parties or consisting
tripartite
of three parts முத்தரப்பு
tactic or trick, action intended for சூழ்ச்சி, நிலைமையைச்
ploy turning a situation to one’s own சாதகமாக்கிக் க�ொள்ள எடுக்கும்
advantage நடவடிக்கை
a person who engages in population
demographer
studies. மக்கள்தொகை ஆய்வாளர்

the process of making two opposite

reconciliation
sides agree சமரச முயற்சி

earmark keep for a particular purpose குறிப்பிட்ட ந�ோக்கத்திற்காக

ஒதுக்கிவை
hegemony dominance, supremacy மேலாதிக்கம்

151 The World after World War II

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 ICT CORNER

The World after World War II

Through this activity you will know

about an interactive timeline on the
history of the Cold War.

Step - 1 Open the Browser and type the URL given below (or) Scan the QR Code.

Step - 2 Change language in top side menu and enter “cold war” into search box

Step - 3 Track the timeline scale in bottom side to see the historical events of
Cold war

Step1 Step2 Step3

Web URL: https://www.cvce.eu/en

*Pictures are indicative only

*If browser requires, allow Flash Player or Java Script to load the page

The World after World War II 152

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 Higher Secondary - Class XII - History - Volume II
List of Authors and Reviewers
Chairperson Academic Adviser & Expert ICT
Dr. A.R.Venkatachalapathy Dr. P. Kumar D. Nagaraj
Professor Joint Director (Syllabus) B.T. Asst. in History
Madras Institute of Development Studies SCERT, Chennai. GHSS, Rappusal
Chennai. Pudukottai District.

Co-chairperson Academic Co-ordinator QR Code Team

Dr. K.A. Manikumar P. Suresh R. Jaganathan, SGT,
Professor (Rtd), Dept. of History P.G. Asst. in History PUMS - Ganesapuram,
Manonmaniam Sundaranar University GGHSS, Attur Polur, Thiruvannamalai.
Tirunelveli. Salem District.
S. Albert Valavan Babu, B.T,
G.H.S, Perumal Kovil,
Paramakudi, Ramanathapuram.

M. Murugesan, B.T,
Authors Content Readers
PUMS. Pethavelankottagam,
Prof. Kanakalatha Mukund Dr. T.S. Saravanan Muttupettai, Thiruvarur.
Former Professor Deputy Director
Centre for Economic and Social Studies TNTBESC Layout
Hyderabad. Chennai.
Kamatchi Balan Arumugam
Dr. S. B. Darsana S. Gomathi Manickam Ashok Kumar
Asst. Professor B.T. Asst. in History Selvakumar Manickam
Central University of Tamil Nadu GHSS, Old Perungalathur
Tiruvarur. Kanchipuram District. Artist
Mathan Raj R
Dr. Venkat Ramanujam P. Balamurugan
Arun Kamaraj Palanisamy
Dept. of History P.G. Asst. in History
Madras Christian College, Tambaram, GBHSS, Thammampatti
Madras. Salem District. Wrapper Design
Kathir Arumugam
Prof. K.A. Manikumar V. Velmurugan
Dept. of History B.T. Asst. in History In-House QC
Manonmaniam Sundaranar University GHSS, Vellalagundam
Tirunelveli. Salem District. Kamatchi Balan Arumugam
Rajesh Thangappan
Dr. K. Ashok Dr. K. Suresh
Asst. Professor, Dept. of History B.T. Asst in History Co-ordinator
Madras Christian College, Tambaram, Kumara Rajah Muthiah HSS Ramesh Munisamy
Chennai. Chennai.

This book has been printed on 80 G.S.M.

Elegant Maplitho paper.
Printed by offset at:

153

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 NOTES

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 NOTES

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 NOTES

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