Revision for the Superpowers (Paper One)

The cause of the Cold War

Potential 16 mark question:

Causes of the Cold War/why relations deteriorated: use any of the key events below to help in the answer
Most significant event 1943 to 1947
Overall impact question

The conferences: concerns of the Grand Alliance

USSR USA Britain

Borders in Europe Security for the USSR. Keep control of the Pacific
Keep Estonia, Latvia and and Atlantic Oceans
Lithuania (taken during WW2).
Keep territory taken from
Finland in 1941
Take Bessarabia and Northern
Bukovina from Romania
Poland Keep land it had taken from Democracy in Poland –
Poland in 1939 and Britain had gone to war to
compensate Poland with land defend the country. It
taken from Germany. supported the London Poles
– gov leaders who had fled
to Britain in 1939.
Germany Reparations from Germany to Keep access to raw materials
rebuild the USSR. and the markets of Western
Europe and Asia.
Free trade across the world.
UN Maintain international Atlantic Charter 1941 which
cooperation with the USA and established the idea of a UN
Britain – Stalin had even where the Security Council
abolished the Comintern (an of the USSR, USA, Britain,
organisation which spread China and France would
communism across Europe) dominate.
Economic Reparations from Germany to Ensure capitalism is spread Britain was facing a real lack
rebuild the USSR. across Europe after WW2 of resources and was
not only to secure US jobs anxious to maintain the
Eastern European countries to but also because it will be a empire as a result
become satellites which would way of spreading freedom
provide raw materials to help and democracy and gain
the USSR rebuild. allies.
Empires Decolonisation; disliked the Maintain its empire – it felt
British Empire its second-class status very
keenly and wanted to be
considered a great power.
Politics after Victory over the Germans was Defeating Germany was to
WW2 a victory for socialism and defend the four freedoms
proved the superiority of such (freedom of speech,
a system. Given the sacrifices worship, from want and
made by the Russian people from fear) and democracy
and the fact the USSR had had to be supported after
borne the brunt of the war, WW2 and extreme political
the USSR had the right to vies like fascism and
establish communist govs communism had to be
across Eastern Europe and contained.
beyond.
Tehran Nov-Dec 1943
Who Background to the What was agreed Signs of tension
attended conference
Churchill The Atlantic Charter had War/Germany War
been agreed in 1941 A Second Front was to be opened to Stalin happy that the USA
Stalin between the USA and take the pressure off the USSR in June and Britain were to open a
Britain. It was intended 1944. second front as he felt they
Roosevelt to achieve collective had been delaying this wo
security, peacekeeping, Generally agreed that the complete weaken Communism.
and defend self- surrender of Germany should be bought
determination for about and it should remain weak after Churchill was less happy as
nations. the war. he had wanted to open a
second front in the Balkans
Jan 1942 the UN Japan and not the west. FDR sided
Declaration was signed. The USSR would declare was on Japan with Stalin over Churchill.
as soon as Germany was defeated.
The USSR was holding Colonialism
off the Germans alone Poland Some tension between
and wanted a second Stalin would claim all territories the Churchill and FDR over
front to be opened. USSR had annexed in Poland in 1939, British empire which FDR
and Poland would be compensated with saw as more of a threat to
German land. At this conference there peace than the USSR.
was no opposition from Churchill or FDR
and a kind of tacit agreement was Possible to see that the
reached. British were being pushed
out of world power status by
UN the other two countries
A UN was to be set up after the war.

Yalta Feb 1945

Who Background to the What was agreed Signs of tension
attended conference
Churchill Jan 1944 the USSR War/Germany War/Germany
annexed territory it had Germany should unconditionally Stalin wanted far more in
Stalin claimed in Sept 1939 in surrender and remain weak after the the way of reparations from
Poland. war. When Germany was defeated it Germany, but Churchill and
Roosevelt would be reduced in size, demilitarised Roosevelt didn’t want to
A second front was and to pay reparations in the form of punish Germany too harshly.
opened in June 1944. The materials, goods and labour.
allies were closing in on Britain and the US held men
Berlin and Germany was Plans began for the division of Germany from German-occupied
close to defeat. after WW2. Four zones and Churchill areas of the USSR who had
wanted France to be included. All either chosen or been forced
In Jul 1944 the USSR had amicable. to fight for the German
pushed Germany out of army. It was agreed they
its country and crossed The Nazi Party would be banned and would be sent back to the
into western Poland war criminal tried before an USSR – Stalin had 10,000
along the Curzon line and international court. executed and imprisoned
destroyed Polish the others.
resistance groups and There was no formal agreement but
created a Lublin these agreements in principle were Japan
Committee to administer made.
the area, undermining Eastern Europe
the London Poles. This Japan There were differences over
would form the basis of a The USSR would declare war on Japan what ‘democracy’ meant –
future pro-Soviet gov. three months after the defeat of Stalin felt Poland should
 Germany. only have a communist
In Aug 1944 the Warsaw There would be an outline of how lands party, but Roosevelt wanted
Uprising took place – held by Japan would be divided after multiple parties and free
Polish Home Army the war – the USSR would have land elections.
revolted against the that Japan had taken returned. It would
Germans in order to gain control of island territories north of FDR suggested that the
establish a non-USSR gov Japan. planned UN should make
which would be the final decision about
recognised by the Eastern Europe spheres of influence in
western govs. USSR A Declaration on Liberated Europe: Europe.
troops were 20 km away Countries after WW2 would be allowed
and did nothing to help. to choose their own governments along Poland
The uprising failed. This the lines of the 1941 Atlantic Charter. Churchill and Roosevelt
made it easier for Stalin The USA, USSR and Britain would assist were reluctant to agree to
to enforce his policy in the liberated states to set up Poland becoming
Poland. democratic govs. communist. Stalin wanted
Poland as a buffer between
Roosevelt was clearly Poland the USSR and the west.
very ill at the conference. Poland should be in the Soviet sphere of
influence, but be run on a ‘broader They disagreed over the
Stalin was clearly keen to democratic basis’. Stalin agreed to borders – Stalin wanted it to
keep the territory won in reorganise the Lublin provisional gov to be further to the west.
eastern Europe after July include a few politicians from Poland Churchill was worried that
1944. and London. Molotov would negotiate Poland was getting too much
details of the new Polish gov with of Germany ‘I do not want
Oct 1944 the Britain and France. Elections would be to stuff the Polish goose
percentages Agreement held ASAP. It was all very vague and did until it dies of German
was signed by Churchill not fix how much land Poland would indigestion’.
and Stalin, outlining their get.
spheres of influence after Stalin was forced to accept
WW2. This was not Poland would get German land – no that the London Poles be
agreed to by FDR –see exact details. USSR would gain Polish included in any Polish gov.
sheet which discusses the land from the east along the Curzon However, his idea of
deal line. democracy meant only one
party contesting elections.
UN
A UN would be set up to replace the UN
LoN. All the allies and those who had There were tensions over
agreed to join the UN on 8th Feb would the UN – the USA didn’t
be members. It would start in April agree that all 16 soviet
1945. republics should be given
individual membership of
The Soviet Republics of Ukraine and the UN – only two plus the
Belorussia were to be seen as separate USSR.
countries in the UN and have their own
voting rights. There were signs of tension
between Churchill and FDR
Each country would have a veto on the mostly over the British
Security Council (Stalin insisted on this). empire.

Declaration on liberated Europe

Three governments agreed to carry out
emergency measures to assist the
liberated areas and to encourage
democratic govs.
Potsdam July-Aug 1945
Who Background to the What was agreed Signs of tension
attended conference
Attlee Germany had been War/Germany War/Germany
defeated so there was The Nazi Party would be banned and Stalin felt he had been given
Stalin less holding them surviving Nazis would be prosecuted as fewer reparations than he
together. war criminals in a special court run by wanted because their zone
Truman the allies at Nuremberg. was less developed. He had
Jan 1945 the USSR to pay for the quarter from
recognised the Lublin Reduce the size of Germany. the other zones with coal
Committee as the etc.
provisional gov of Democracy to be established in
Poland. Britain and USA Germany including free elections, a free The USSR wanted to play a
did nothing as they did press and freedom of speech. part in the running of the
not wish to harm unity. German Ruhr and the US
Divide Germany into four zones to be refused.
Roosevelt died in April administered by Britain, France, the
1945 and Truman had USA and the USSR. Stalin was desperate to keep
taken over. He was keen hold of Berlin because he
to end the Japanese war An Allied Control Council would be set wanted to get hold of the
and considered ending up as an umbrella body for Kaiser Wilhelm Institute
aid to the USSR to administering Germany. which was the German
persuade Stalin to be nuclear programme HQ; the
more cooperative at the Divide Berlin into four zones to be run
fact the US now had the A
conference. He was far by the same four.
bomb was a worry.
more suspicious of Stalin.
Each ally would take reparations from
A couple of weeks later the zone they occupied. Japan
he had a row with The USSR wanted a share in
Russian foreign minister The USSR could have one quarter of the the occupation of Japan and
Molotov; Truman industrial equipment from the other this was also vetoed by the
accused Russia of three zones because its zone was the USA.
breaking its promises least developed industrially, but had to
over Yalta. Molotov was provide the other zones with raw
deeply insulted by materials such as coal and food (60% of Eastern Europe
Truman’s language. the value of the goods received). The USA and Britain asked
for a greater say in what
The USA had tested a Eastern Europe went on in Eastern Europe
nuclear weapon. Truman Agree to a Council of Foreign Ministers and this was refused.
had delayed the meeting to organise the rebuilding of Europe.
until the A bomb had Poland
been tested. However, Poland Truman objected to the
he had been aware of its Its frontier to be moved to the Oder and borders previously agreed
existence. Neisse rivers. However, mostly no for Poland. However, there
Arguably this had made agreement reached. was little that could be done
Truman far more given the USSR was in
confident. occupation and the Oder-
Neisse border was agreed to
Churchill lost the general for now. Truman also
election half way through wanted a gov in Poland with
the conference and was less communist influence.
replaced by Attlee. He
simply wanted to get
back to the UK to take
charge of the new gov.
Impact questions and the conferences
An easy way to answer impact questions on any of the conferences is to take a major theme and give details eg a key
theme of Potsdam might be that mistrust grew because they could not get agreement on Eastern Europe, elections
and Poland. Develop this and even perhaps what happened afterwards. Another theme might be that in the short-
term there was some agreement over what to do with Germany.

The impact of the A bomb

Isolated the USSR in the short-term
Helped western nations to feel more secure about putting themselves under US protection rather than trying to
reach an agreement with the USSR. Stalin was now more determined to make the USSR secure and create a buffer
zone of countries sympathetic to communism [give examples]. He also pushed to get the bomb for the USSR quickly
– its first test was August 1949; by 1964 many other countries also had nuclear weapons, eg Britain, France and
China.

In the long-term made war less likely?

It possibly also made it less likely that the two sides would go to war so contributed to the idea of a Cold War instead
eg arms race, spying and so on – but little actual physical conflict because the risks of mutually assured destruction
(MAD) were so high. This did not stop the build up of nuclear weapons on both sides [give examples from notes
below] but by themed-1950s they had such nuclear capability it was unlikely they would risk using them.

Worsened US-USSR relations?

Made US feel superior as they delayed Potsdam until the bomb was tested. Called the shots at the conference over
reparations (see above) and division of Germany. Truman shouted at Molotov in a meeting and said that the USSR
had to stop misbehaving. Containment possible. Made USSR feel more insecure and scared – hence ignored free
elections and carried on making buffer zones to be out of the reach of nuclear strikes etc.

The USSR in Eastern Europe

What were his methods?
1. Red Army left in occupation after liberation.
2. Coalitions set up with communist and non-communist parties.
3. Communists took over the civil service, media, security and defence.
4. Non-communist leaders like Jan Masaryk of Czechoslovakia were dealt with.
5. ‘Free’ elections were held which established communist regimes called ‘people’s democracies’. Voters
intimidated into voting communist.
6. Economic means used to stop satellite states being self-sufficient eg Poland did shipbuilding and Hungary
produced trucks.

Which countries does he take over?

1940 Latvia, Lithuania and Estonia
1944 Invade Poland to put a largely pro-USSR gov in place. By 1947 London Poles removed from the gov
1945 elections in Hungary allowed communist influence, in 1947 non-communists removed
1945 Also start taking over Bulgaria and Romania after the army had moved in
1948 Czechoslovakia - the only democracy in Eastern Europe.

Impact of the takeover of Eastern Europe

Satellite states and a stronger USSR

The USSR felt stronger as it now had buffer or satellite states between it and the west eg Poland, Hungary etc.
These states had governments controlled by the USSR and the followed the communist line; western influences were
removed eg the London Poles.
This split Europe into two camps. By 1948 this seemed confirmed, though the west was clearly strong at this point.
When both sides had nuclear weapons this seemed more dangerous.
Eventually Churchill would label this split as the Iron Curtain – see his speech below.
Western fears leads to change in foreign policy
It would change western foreign policy because of their worries about two sides developing. The Grand Alliance was
pulled apart by the takeovers.
It would lead to a policy of containment, confirmed by the telegram of a US diplomat to Truman in 1946 which said
that the USSR was dangerous and anxious to spread its influence. The actions of the USSR seemed to justify these
fears and the subsequent policy of the USSR to try and contain the spread.
In the longer-term it would pull the US into the European sphere and lead to NATO.

Three key communications

The Long Telegram, Feb 1946

An 8,000-word telegram from George Kennan, an Embassy official.

Contents
Russian leaders felt threatened and insecure because they know the west was more advanced.
Communism had made things worse and now the USSR perceived itself at perpetual war with capitalism.
USSR policy could not be altered in the short or medium term
The USSR would use controllable Marxists in the capitalist world as allies and would create a sphere of influence by
creating Buffer Zones.
The USSR was building up its military power.
However, importantly, Kennan argued that the USSR would back down if faced with strong resistance.

The impact of the telegram

Confirmed containment in the short-term

Because Truman asked the US military to assess the strength of the USSR’s army; he learned the USSR was in no
position to wage war. This enabled him to develop a new strategy on the back of information contained in the
telegram.
This led to the policy of Containment.
This meant that the USA would act so as to prevent the spread of communism, not only in Europe but also
elsewhere. Truman initially decided to help Greece and Turkey. He asked Congress for money to help them.

Longer-term this led to the Truman Doctrine and eventually the Marshall Plan (see details below)

The Iron Curtain Speech, March 1946

Contents
Churchill was invited to Westminster College in Fulton, Missouri where he gave this speech.
Churchill warned against the expansionistic policies of the Soviet Union. The USSR was a threat to freedom and
world peace. Compromise with the USSR had to end. A stronger Anglo-American alliance was needed.
In addition to the “iron curtain” that had descended across Eastern Europe, Churchill spoke of “communist fifth
columns” that were operating throughout western and southern Europe.
Drawing parallels with the disastrous appeasement of Hitler prior to World War II, Churchill advised that in dealing
with the Soviets there was “nothing which they admire so much as strength, and there is nothing for which they
have less respect than for military weakness.”

Impact

Confirmed containment
Truman and many other US officials warmly received the speech and it seemed to confirm their views about how to
deal with the Soviets.
Note that the presence of Truman on the platform probably means that it had been cleared by Truman beforehand;
already the US had decided that the Soviet Union was bent on expansion and only a tough stance would deter the
Russians. Churchill’s “iron curtain” phrase immediately entered the official vocabulary of the Cold War. It moved the
policy of containment further forward.
Upset the USSR
It split the USA and USSR even further apart. Use examples of the content of the speech to demonstrate why this
would have been the case
Stalin denounced the speech as “war mongering,” and referred to Churchill’s comments about the “English-speaking
world” as imperialist “racism.” USSR withdrew from the IMF. It increased anti-western propaganda.

The Novikov Telegram, Sept 1946

Contents
USSR ambassador to the USA
Following the death of FDR, the USA was no longer interested in cooperation with the USSR.
It said the US wanted to use their military power to dominate the world.
The US public were being prepared for war with the USSR.

Impact
The USSR withdrew even further away from the USSR – remember that the USA did not know about this document.
Added to previous communications, both countries were now convinced that there was a greater possibility of war.
The USSR believed that war was inevitable whereas the Americans had labelled Stalin as the new Hitler. The Grand
Alliance was over.

16 mark question
Was the Soviet Union’s behaviour in eastern Europe after 1944 the key reason for the Cold War starting?

Remember this question will give you a couple of bullet points to reflect upon. You must discuss the title factor.
Look back at your notes and think of the different points you could be ask about and then plan an answer using
two or three of them.

Introduction
Set out your argument and establish the criteria by which you will make your judgement

What the title Evidence to support this:

suggests was
a cause of
change
 Evidence against this view:

Weighing up this view/how far do you agree:

Alternative view (see bullet point): Alternative view (your own knowledge):

Evidence to support this: Evidence to support this:

Evidence against this view: Evidence against this view:

Weighing up this view/how far do you agree: Weighing up this view/how far do you agree:

Conclusion: how far do you agree that the view in the title is the one most responsible for change?
The development of the Cold War in the early years
Potential 16 mark question:

Causes of the Cold War/why relations worsened: use any of the key events above and below to help in the answer
Most significant event either 1943-49 or 1945-9 ie worsening the situation

The Truman Doctrine

Causes
Greece and Turkey
 It was believed that the USSR was hell bent on expansion. The Long Telegram confirmed Truman’s worst
fears about the aims of the USSR in terms of expansion
 Britain had used up its £3.75bn US loan by Jan 1947 and was unable to keep up its commitments in Greece
and Turkey – which left both vulnerable to communists. In Feb 1947 Britain announced it was pulling out.
 The US believed that the Soviet Union supported the Greek communist war effort and worried that if the
Communists prevailed in the Greek civil war, the Soviets would ultimately influence Greek policy.
 Soviet efforts to force the Turkish Government into granting them naval base and transit rights through the
Turkish Straits; in Aug 1946 the US blocked these plans and sent warships to the area.

Rotten apple scenario

 The administration believed that if Greece went communist it would undermine the Balkans and then
western Europe (especially France and Italy) and even Africa – the idea of a rotten apple spoiling the barrel
(Dean Acheson, Sec of State).

Poverty
 Truman knew the USSR did not have to go to war to spread its views – it could exploit poverty in Europe.
 1946-7 severe weather conditions including floods and droughts in Europe. The 1947 winter was very harsh
and people in eastern Europe were close to starvation. Communist parties were on the rise.

The ‘Doctrine’:
Economic
 12th March 1947 Truman appealed to Congress to find the money to strengthen non-communist govs
vulnerable to Soviet pressure. $400m was to go to Greece and Turkey).

Ideological
 It set out the differences between democratic and communist govs: majority rule and freedom from political
oppression versus the will of the minority being forced on the will of the majority.
 Choosing democracy over communism was like choosing good over evil.

Political
 It established that the priority of the USA was to support people who resisted communism, outside pressure
and armed minorities.
 The USA would help free people to work out their destiny in their own way.

Military
 Truman established that the United States would provide military assistance to all democratic nations under
threat from external or internal authoritarian forces.

Impact on superpower relations

End of isolationism/start of ‘containment’

Truman’s speech indicated that the world was becoming divided into two armed camps – capitalist and communist.
Truman had posed a stark picture of the post-war world and he was now prepared to be more active.
The USA became committed to the policy of containment and abandoned isolationism – some see it as becoming
‘the world’s policeman’.
The USA was committing the USA to a policy of supporting Europe and the world using its economic and military
strength.
It suggested that the US rather than the UN had a responsibility to protect the world.
The USA also set up the CIA and NSC in 1947 – national security organisations.
The Grand Alliance was finally over as the US had asked other nations to join it in opposition to the USSR.

Worsened the relationship with USSR?

To get it passed Congress the administration had to exaggerate the ideological differences and the military threat
posed by the USSR. This would inevitably worsen relations.
The rivalry between the USA and USSR increased as Stalin became more suspicious of the west and believed the USA
was out to crush the USSR.
Stalin reacted by setting up Cominform to link communist parties in Eastern Europe and worldwide into common
action

Marshall Plan (European Economic Recovery Plan)

Truman called the Marshall Plan and Truman Doctrine ‘two halves of the same walnut’. The US would provide
additional money to that given in the Truman Doctrine to revive western European economies.

Impact of the Marshall Plan

Economic divide
As the USSR would not let its states join, western nations grew richer and eastern ones poorer, which increased the
divide. Western nations were also more dependent on the USA. Stalin accused the US of ‘dollar diplomacy’ and using
the plan to boost the US economy and extend its influence in Europe.
The US spent $17bn by 1953 ($12.7bn in Marshall Aid plus additional aid).
Western Europe began to recover: Total European GNP increased by 32%; Agricultural production rose 11%
compared to pre-war levels; Industrial output exceeded 1938 by 40%.
Countries were given targeted help eg Norwegian fishing nets, mules for Greek farmers and food.

Political divide
The Grand Alliance was now officially over. It clearly demonstrated how divided the east and west were. The US had
put itself in direct opposition to the USSR and Stalin’s suspicions that the USA was trying to destroy it were
strengthened.
It also accused it of undermining the international role of the UN by suggesting it was the US’ job to protect the
world. Stalin said it was the first step in creating a military alliance that would wage war on the USSR

Longer-term led to Comecon 1949 and Cominform 1947 (see later notes for details).

Cominform Sept 1947 (the Communist Information Bureau)

Cominform coordinated policies and tactics of communist parties in both satellite states and in western Europe.
There were 9 initial members, reduced to 8 in 1948 when Yugoslavia left: USSR, Bulgaria, Czechoslovakia, Hungary,
Poland, Romania, France and Italy. Its HQ was in Romania.

Bought the Eastern Bloc closer together in the short-term

It ensured the loyalty of Eastern European governments/communist parties by investigating them and removing any
considered disloyal to Stalin. All policies must follow the Soviet line. Cooperation with moderate/liberal governments
in Hungary etc would end.
Satellite states were encouraged to cut themselves off from the west. They were forced to reject the Marshall Plan.
In France workers went on strike in 1947 demanding their gov reject the plan – egged on by the Cominform.
It spread propaganda about the USA.
Longer term led to problems in the Eastern bloc
Could be violent, eg in Hungary 5% of the population were in prison by 1953. Tito and Yugoslavia left after they
refused to accede to the rules.
Oddly therefore it may have split the Eastern bloc as well.
May have contributed to uprisings in 1956 in Hungary and 1968 Czechoslovakia – partly both states were reacting to
the control the USSR had over their governments and policies.

Comecon (Council for Mutual Economic Assistance) 1949

This co-ordinated industries and trade of Eastern Europe and involved a series of bilateral trade agreements with
eastern Europe and the USSR.
The idea of it was to trade with each other and not the West.
The USSR, Bulgaria, Czechoslovakia, Hungary, Poland, Romania, East Germany and Albania joined by 1950.

Impact

Economic impact in the short-term

It favoured USSR-produced goods and guaranteed a cheap supply of raw materials for the USSR. Any benefits of
economic recovery would stay in eastern Europe. Communist govs must introduce Soviet-style economic policies eg
collectivisation and nationalisation.
Encouraged economic specialisation eg Romania and Hungary and Bulgaria concentrated on food and raw materials
and Czechoslovakia on heavy industry which made them more dependent on each other. It gave the USSR greater
control over them.

In the longer-term
Trade with each other increased hugely eg Bulgarian trade with Comecon countries increased from 10% to 90%
1930s to 1951.
The forceful economic ties to the USSR may well have contributed in some ways to longer-term issues in Hungary
and Czechoslovakia, which resisted rule in the 1950s and 1960s. Partly they resented the lack of economic
development.

Overall
As a result of Comecon and Marshall Aid, Europe was now politically and economically divided into two camps.

Germany 1945-48: the background to the Berlin Blockade

Berlin
2.1m people live in Berlin. It was isolated in the Soviet sector and by closing road, rail, canals and shutting off
electricity it would be possible to starve the population. Berlin would need 4,000 tons of supplies a day to survive.

Impact
Jan 1947 British and US zones USSR saw Bizonia as the US creating a capitalist Germany; they
Bizonia were merged thought it was just a delay of reparations and that it and France
economically. should have been consulted.
The USSR also thought that the US and Britain would attempt to
establish a separate German state in the west, and Bizonia was the
first step.
March 1948 France joined Bizonia. The USSR walked out of the Allied Control Commission which
Trizonia administered Germany, complaining that western attitudes made it
unworkable.
They thought Trizonia would force the eastern zone into poverty.
Soviet troops began to hold up and search road and rail traffic
entering West Berlin.
20th June 1948 20th June 1948 without Stalin thought the new currency was another example of the west
Currency consulting the USSR, ganging up on the USSR.
reform western allies It created a separate economic unit from the East and it more or less
 introduced a new confirmed there were now two Germany’s – east and west. Stalin
currency, the accused the west of interfering in the Soviet Zone. He cut off road,
Deutschmark into rail, and canal traffic to starve out Berlin. Stalin knew it would be a
Trizonia. huge propaganda success if he could run a successful blockade.

Short-term impact of the airlift

It raised tensions even further

101 people died – it could have gone badly wrong and certainly it was the closest the east and west came to
confrontation after 1945.
It was a propaganda coup for the USA and the west and it humiliated the USSR.
Stalin tried to persuade people to move from West to East Berlin – the west portrayed it as an attempt by Russia to
drive the allies out of West Berlin prior to taking over the zones.
There had been attempts at mediation but these had failed and it was clear that the Cold War was here to stay. It
could even become more dangerous.

It helped split Germany permanently.

The airlift changed the relationship between the members of the Allied Occupation and the people of West Berlin
and by implication the people of Western Germany. Whatever the politicians believed the soldiers and airmen of the
allied forces looked upon the airlift as a humanitarian mission. Airmen died bringing them goods.
It probably speeded up the establishment of a West German state. It strengthened the position of conservative anti-
communist politicians like Konrad Adenauer and the head of the German states also came to believe that they
needed to form a separate west German state in order to have US protection against the USSR.
At the end of the blockade in May 1949 the FRG was announced.
In October Adenauer’s Christian Democrats won the first elections in west Germany.
By October Stalin has set up the GDR.

Longer-term
Encouraged the establishment of NATO.
This is because the British felt the need for more security/help in Europe from the USA. See later notes for some
details of this and what NATO was/membership etc.
This was then followed up in 1955 by the Warsaw Pact which meant there were now two security pacts in Europe,
both heavily armed.

Berlin Wall
Following the lifting of the blockade political relations became more and more divided. The western sector
continued to prosper as a result of 'Marshall Aid' and the economic gap between East and West was very evident in
Berlin. Every day large numbers of skilled workers and professionals commuted from East to West Berlin. As a result
of seeing what was on offer in the West in terms of employment, wages and the standard of living many decided to
move to West Berlin. By the middle of 1961 as many as 30,000 East Germans a month were moving to the West. The
East German government had to act to stem this flow as these were the very people they couldn't afford to lose.
These were the people on whom they were relying to help build a revitalised East Germany. It was perceived that
the survival of East Germany was threatened and so the government solution to this problem was to build the
BERLIN WALL.

North Atlantic Treaty Organisation (NATO) 1949

Why NATO?
Prague coup Feb 1948 led to the creation of the Brussel’s Treaty Organisation (BTO), which was a western European
defence alliance (no US involvement)
Berlin airlift increased European fears of the USSR and convinced the BTO countries that only the USA could maintain
a balance of power in Europe as it had nuclear weapons, economic power and had recently increased the size of is
army/introduced more military training
UK Foreign Secretary Ernest Bevin especially pushed for a US-European military alliance after the airlift. He made a
speech in Parliament in which he said European countries would welcome American involvement and called on
other western European countries to connect with the USA.
Impact

The US was now committed to the defence of Western Europe

The TD had not been a full military commitment and the Marshall Plan had just been economic. This was a leap
forward in terms of US involvement. This was a significant break with previous foreign polic as they had not
committed to a peacetime military allliance before. By 1952 five divisions of US troops were based in Germany.
Defensive alliance against armed attack by communists – an attack on one was perceived to be an attack on all.
Members agreed to place their defence forces under a joint NATO command which would coordinate the defence of
the west.

USSR reaction was negative

Stalin saw it as an aggressive alliance aimed at the USSR. Comecon was formed. See notes above.
It led eventually to the formation of the Warsaw Pact in 1955 – two armed sides. Develop Warsaw Pact using notes
below.

Arms race
It intensifed the arms race because the USSR felt threatened by the increase in military activity in Western Europe
and the bigger US presence. Both countries built more nuclear weapons nad conventional forces were increased.
US eventually established missile bases in Western Europe. Look at later notes on the arms race to develop the point
with some facts about arms.

Warsaw Pact 1955

Impact

It meant Europe was now militarily divided

A mutual military assistance alliance that included the USSR and all the Eastern European alliances (the Eastern Bloc).
Members included USSR, Poland, Czechs, Hungary, Romania, Bulgaria, Albania, GDR.
There were also ‘two Europes’, east and west; one was under the protection of the USSR and communist, one under
the protection of the USA and seeking to defeat communism.

Longer-term
It played an important role in the Czech crisis of 1968.
It encouraged further militarisation. Look at the notes on the arms race to add to this point.
However, note that Article 11 contained a clause that said if any general European treaty on collective security was
signed, the Warsaw Pact would be dissolved. This was part of Khrushchev’s policy of peaceful co-existence.

FRG and GDR

West Germany – the Federal Republic of Germany East Germany – the German Democratic Republic, Oct
May 1949 1949
Formed three days after the end of the airlift. Stalin resisted this as long as possible.
In August a new government was elected and in Sept
Konrad Adenauer became its first Chancellor. He made FRG contained the wealth and industry and so he tried
Bonn its capital. to get the SED to write a constitution and look as
It was not fully independent as an Occupation Statute democratic as possible in the eastern sector.
came into force in Sept which gave the three powers a However, the Aug elections in the FRG gave the KPD
lot of control over foreign policy and so on. only 5.7% which convinced Stalin unity was not
West Berlin was not technically a part of the new possible.
country though it was allowed to send representatives Only recognised as a country by the Soviet bloc.
to the new parliament. East Berlin became the capital.

16 mark question
The founding of NATO was the key reason why relations between the USSR and USA worsened, 1947-49?

Remember this question will give you a couple of bullet points to reflect upon. You must discuss the title factor.
Look back at your notes and think of the different points you could be ask about and then plan an answer using
two or three of them.

Introduction
Set out your argument and establish the criteria by which you will make your judgement

What the title Evidence to support this:

suggests was
a cause of
change

Evidence against this view:

Weighing up this view/how far do you agree:

Alternative view (see bullet point): Alternative view (your own knowledge):

Evidence to support this: Evidence to support this:

 Evidence against this view: Evidence against this view:

Weighing up this view/how far do you agree: Weighing up this view/how far do you agree:

Conclusion: how far do you agree that the view in the title is the one most responsible for change?

The Korean War 1950-53

Potential 16 mark questions
Most important impact of Korean War on international relations/ Did relations improve or worsen
Significant event 1949-53

Impact of China becoming Communist

Impact on the USA’s foreign policy

It led to a review of Truman’s cold war policies which led to the April 1950 NSC-68 National Security Council Report.
It confirmed that the USSR was a military threat because of its commitment to world-wide revolution.
The USA needed a huge increase in the military which would be a change from relying on its dominant economic
position. The report urged immediate acceleration of the H bomb. This was a cheaper option and went ahead.
China was a potential third superpower and had the potential to encourage others in the area to go communist.
The US also banned all trade and travel links with China until the early 1970s.

Impact on Superpower relations – worsened because

The US decided that it should support Taiwan which is where the nationalists fled to after Oct 1949
It refused to accept the CCP as the legal gov of China. The US supported Chiang’s claim to hold the China seat at the
UN, whilst the USSR supported Mao’s claims to take over the seat as the official government of China.
The USSR boycotted the UN because of the issue of Taiwan claiming the China seat.
The US thought it was a disaster and believed Mao’s rise to power was masterminded by the USSR.
The Sino-Soviet Treaty of 1950 was too much for the Republicans. This gave China financial and technical aid from
the USSR and was partly aimed at encouraging China to build up industry and develop into a major power.
Impact of Korean War on Cold War/international relations

The Korean War balance sheet

Gains Losses
Korea None 1.3m South Korean military losses
520,000 North Korean military losses
Much industry destroyed, agriculture ruined
Millions of refugees
UN Gained respect by taking prompt 17,000 casualties
action Conduct of war almost entirely controlled by US
Used combined force to stop Decisions weakened by power of veto
aggression
Achieved joint action by members
America Saved South Korea from 38,000 US troops killed or missing; 105,000 US troops
Communism injured
Containment policy seen to work Rise in defence spending,
against Asian Communism. The US decides to implement NSC-68
The USA spent $67bn on the war Failed to liberate North Korea

Impact of Korean War on Cold War/international relations

The USA’s expanded role/containment in the Far East The USSR/relations

and Middle East
The US had a new role in Asia; it expanded the idea of The war worsened relations between the USA and
containment into the region USSR. Effectively they were taking part in a proxy
This led to the USA building more global alliances war – the US were directly involved through the UN
designed to stop the spread of communism. South-east and the USSR through China. It provided material
Asian countries were keen to join because they had seen and medical services, as well as Soviet pilots and
what had happened in the Europe to satellite states, aircraft, most notably MiG 15 fighter jets, to aid the
which were not allowed elections or economic freedom, North Korean-Chinese forces.
and they were keen this did not happen to them.
The USSR was also isolated. It actually drove China
1951 the US and Philippines agreed a military alliance and the USSR further apart as Mao resented the cost
of the equipment and that it had to bear the brunt
1951 ANZUS Pact – Australia and New Zealand agree to of the fighting. This made the USSR more vulnerable
help the US stop communist growth in the region and more likely to behave in a hostile manner if
threatened. This would worsen relations.
1954 SEATO (South East Asian Treaty Organisation) which
consisted of US Britain, France, Australia, Philippines,
Thailand and Pakistan

1955 CENTO (Central Treaty Organisation or the Baghdad

Pact)

NATO and the US alliance in the west Arms race

It strengthened NATO because the US were now more It increased the arms race between the two because
concerned about conflicts breaking out in Europe. the US had been spending huge amounts on the
Greece and Turkey were persuaded to join. military and the USSR felt they had to try and catch
Plans were made to increase NATO forces from 14-50 up.
divisions. The US military budget grew hugely from around
Truman also decided to station US troops permanently in $13bn in 1950 to around $50bn in 1953
Western Europe and re-arm West Germany. It was
decided that by 1955 West Germany would also join The USSR was also forced to divert money to the
NATO. military, which hurt its economy and social changes.
In 1950 there had been 2.8m soldiers in the Red
When West Germany entered NATO the USSR responded Army and by 1955 it was 5.6m.
 with the Warsaw Pact. This meant there were now two
armed camps. Truman now fully accepted NSC proposals for a
massive re-armament programme and tripled the
military budget (initially he had thought this too
expensive when it was put to him in April 1950).
Truman doubled the draft quota and trebled the size
of the US airforce in Britain and augmented it with
jet fighters and B50 bombers.

Arms race
The impact of Sputnik 1957
 The first rocket in space. It could be fitted with a nuclear warhead and missiles could fly thousand of miles
away.
 The launch of Sputnik 1 surprised the American public and shattered the perception, furthered by American
propaganda, of the United States as the technological superpower and the Soviet Union as a backward
country.
 Public reaction led to the creation of the Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency, and the National
Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA).
 Sputnik also contributed directly to a new emphasis on science and technology in American schools. With a
sense of urgency; the1958 National Defense Education Act provided low-interest loans for college tuition to
students majoring in maths and science.
 The US increased the number of B52 bombers and equipped more submarines with nuclear weapons and
placed missile bases in Europe.

What was the impact of the arms race?

Increased rivalry and tensions:

 U2 crisis 1960
 Berlin 1961
 Cuba 1962
Also, the quick technological advances contributed to the rivalry as each was trying to stay ahead of the game.
Led to spying, espionage and so on.

Idea of ‘deterrent’:
A single bomb could destroy an entire city. By the mid-1950s B-52 bombers equipped with H bombs could wipe out
Moscow. One argument is that the USSR did not invade western Germany because it was scared of nuclear
retaliation. The idea of deterrence persuaded both sides they needed more weapons so they could threaten
‘Mutually Assured Destruction’; this meant new thinking about the idea of war – each side trying to ensure they had
so many weapons that the other side wouldn’t dare risk war

New leaders
Eisenhower and the ‘New Look’ 1953
Strongly anti-communist but he hoped for a new start in the cold war and wanted a solution to the arms race.
His ‘New Look’ foreign policy appeared to be a change from that followed by Truman. It was symbolised by the
appointment of John Foster Dulles as secretary of state.
Dulles talked of brinkmanship and massive retaliation. The policy was meant to take a tougher line towards the
USSR, but in many ways this was in order to begin negotiations. He meant that the USA should adopt a more
confrontational and aggressive stance towards the USSR, including the use of nuclear weapons. He thought US
weapons’ superiority would force concessions.
Dulles attacked containment as an immoral policy that had abandoned those living in the Soviet bloc and called for
the rolling back of communism and liberation of people living in Eastern Europe.
The nuclear policy of Dulles was linked to the Republican’s desire to reduce taxation – nuclear weapons were
cheaper ‘a bigger bang for the buck’.

Nikita Khrushchev and peaceful co-existence

The USSR was spending too much money on defence – around 30% of its budget and this was holding back
modernisation elsewhere. Living standards were very low. When Khrushchev came to power in 1955 he was
determined to improve living standards and dismantle the worst of the terror state. He therefore needed a more
relaxed international climate so the country could spend less on arms.
He also believed that capitalism would eventually collapse, so there was little point risking nuclear war.
Khrushchev actually took more risks in foreign policy than Stalin, but he did also try and achieve some kind of
détente and avoid nuclear war.
The Warsaw Pact even had a clause, called Article 11, which stated that if a general European treaty on collective
security was signed, then the pact would be dissolved.

The impact of the Secret Speech Feb 1956

Peaceful co-existence had a real impact in the Soviet satellite states.
Khrushchev’s Secret Speech, Feb 1956 also was part of this. This was only intended to have an effect in the USSR, but
it caused serious problems in Eastern Europe.
In the speech he talked about the rights of satellite states to find their own way to socialism.
It was unofficially circulated in Eastern Europe after the CIA obtained a copy and broadcast it over Radio Free
Europe, and gave hope that there would be a reduction in soviet control over satellite states.
After a revolt in Poland, Khrushchev agreed to promote reform-minded communist leaders such as Gomulka and did
not purge the Polish leadership for its behaviour.

What was the impact of the new leaders on international relations?

Tension reduced in some ways?

Geneva Summit 1955
Khrushchev accepted an invitation from the west to meet in Geneva I May 1956 in the first major summit since 1945.
The US, USSR, Britain and France met and agreed a common agenda:
Reunification of Germany
European security
Disarmament
Development of contacts between east and west
However, better cooperation at the meeting led to reduced tension. This was known as the Geneva Spirit.
The USSR did agree to evacuate Austria which had been divided into four zones. It remained neutral and did not join
NATO.

Perhaps little changed in practice

Despite rhetoric, Ike wouldn’t use nuclear weapons in Korea as it was too dangerous.
Despite talk of peaceful co-existence, West Germany joining NATO in May 1955 upping the tension again and led to
the Warsaw Pact, which meant the world was still divided into two hostile camps.
The arms race continued and both sides moved to create H bombs and ICBMs and satellite technology.
Though they entered talks in Geneva, there was little agreed over disarmament and the future of Germany.

16 mark question
Korea was the most significant event to worsen relations between the USSR and USA between 1950 and
1955

Remember this question will give you a couple of bullet points to reflect upon. You must discuss the title factor.
Look back at your notes and think of the different points you could be ask about and then plan an answer using
two or three of them.

Introduction
Set out your argument and establish the criteria by which you will make your judgement

What the title Evidence to support this:

suggests was
a cause of
change

Evidence against this view:

Weighing up this view/how far do you agree:

Alternative view (see bullet point): Alternative view (your own knowledge):

Evidence to support this: Evidence to support this:

 Evidence against this view: Evidence against this view:

Weighing up this view/how far do you agree: Weighing up this view/how far do you agree:

Conclusion: how far do you agree that the view in the title is the one most responsible for change?

Hungary 1956
Potential 16 mark question
Causes of Hungary
Impact of Hungary
As part of most significant events to 1961

Why did Khrushchev intervene in Hungary in November 1956?

Timeline
June 1956 – protests after publication of secret speech; Moscow replace the gov of Rakosi with Gero
23rd October – the new leader was also unpopular and students took to the streets and were supported by the workers and the
Hungarian army.
25th Oct – USSR tanks sent in and 12 people killed
26th Nov – Nagy appointed. Some moderate reforms and the religious leader Cardinal Mindszenty is let out of prison is let out of
prison
27th November – Dulles of the USA seems to offer support
28th Nov – tanks withdrew.
1st Nov – Nagy announces he will leave Warsaw Pact and hold free elections. Some members of his gov withdraw in disgust.
4th Nov – tanks return

Cause Explanation/evidence How important do you think this

cause might be?
Domestic reasons Khrushchev's de-Stalinisation (eg Secret Unlikely that he would take notice of China
Speech) pleased many people in the USSR as they were not getting along after Korea.
who were happy at the release of political Anyway China’s views seem a bit contrary
prisoners and relaxation, but it had angered as they change their mind on the issue.
many hard-line Communists in the USSR who
blamed events in Hungary on the speech. Khrushchev had only just taken power and
Khrushchev needed to impose his authority at so there is little sense he was in danger
home. back home quite yet. In fact his views were
Mao Zedong, whose views still held weight in popular.
parts of the Kremlin favoured an intervention
in Hungary. Earlier, he had recommended
Khrushchev not to intervene.

Because Hungary On October 23rd October some 20,000 The USSR did react quite violently:
had had an protesters, mostly students, gathered near the Khrushchev sent 30,000 troops plus
uprising in October statue of Jozsef Bem and started the protests. artillery and tanks troops to Budapest and
The Poles had won reforms a few days earlier secured the Parliament building and
in what was described as Polish October. The important bridges.
Hungarians aimed to do the same and laid On 25th October they opened fire and
down a set of 16 demands. killed twelve and wounded more than a
They also wanted a different gov under Imre hundred people.
Nagy who advocated reforms similar to those Gero was forced to resign and briefly Janos
carried out in Yugoslavia and had been briefly Kadar took over.
PM in 1953-5 after the death of Stalin. However, on 26th October Imre Nagy was
Soon the protests swelled into 200,000. appointed. This suggests that the USSR
People tore out the communist insignia from was prepared to negotiate and
the centre of the national flag. They also tore compromise with Hungary.
down a statue of Stalin. This became the
symbol of the revolution.
They reburied a former PM, Laszlo Rajik, who
had been executed by the Soviets in 1949 with
a state funeral.
They attacked the state radio station.

Because Hungary Nagy’s October reform proposals had been: Khrushchev could not have been too upset
was too liberal and  An impartial legal system with fair with these reforms because he did agree
this would send trials to withdraw troops from the country on
the wrong  Hungary should become a democracy 28th October. He only sent them back again
message to other with elections and many political when Nagy went too far and announced
nations parties free elections and leaving the Warsaw Pact
 USSR troops should withdraw from on 1st Nov.
Hungary
 Hungary should develop trade links
with the west
 Freedom of press, speech, worship
 Free trade unions
This would have serious implications for the
USSR and other satellite states, though Poland
had already been allowed some measures of
reform in 1956.
Threats to the The interim Hungarian government led by This is very serious. If states left the
Warsaw Pact in Imre Nagy decided to withdraw from the Warsaw Pact then the strategy of securing
particular Warsaw Pact on 1st Nov. Nagy stated to protection for the USSR by surrounding it
Soviet representatives Anastas Mikhoyan and with pro-Communist govs would be under
Mikhail Suslov that neutrality in the Cold War threat.
was the main long-term goal of Hungary.
 The fear that this would result in similar
movements in other parts of Eastern Europe,
especially in East Germany and Poland.

Because of the When Nagy had proposed leaving the Warsaw It is likely give the Suez crisis and that
USA Pact he and his fellow rebels expected that containment never included countries
the USA would help. Dulles of the USA said which were already communist that this
‘You can count on us’. wouldn’t happen. The USA wouldn’t risk a
Radio Free Europe had regularly broadcast confrontation either.
supportive messages to Eastern Europe and
the US had previously offered financial aid via
the Marshall Plan.
Khrushchev might expect that the USA would
offer support therefore given the policy of
containment and the bolder line taken by Ike
and Dulles after 1953.

The impact of the Hungarian uprising

The crushing of Hungarian resistance

The second Soviet intervention decisively crushed the Hungarian resistance. 200,000 troops and 6,000 tanks
returned.
Troops captured airports, bridges and key road junctions.
Hungarians responded with guerrilla tactics.
They were able to communicate with the west via radio and pleaded for help.
None was forthcoming though the US offered $20m worth of food and medical aid to the Nagy government and
encouraged the people to fight on.
A ceasefire was arranged on 10th Nov though some fought on into 1957.

Around 3,000 people were killed and 20,000 wounded

Around 200,000 Hungarians fled to the west.
Around 700 Soviet troops were killed and 1,250 wounded.

Imre Nagy was ousted and replaced with Janos Kadar, a Soviet puppet.
Nagy sought protection in the Yugoslav embassy.
The Yugoslavian ambassador agreed with the USSR that Nagy was free to leave Hungary but as soon as he left the
embassy he was arrested.
He was accused of treason and hanged in June 1958.
His body was buried face down in an unmarked grave in a municipal grave outside Budapest. The body was exhumed
and reburied with honours after the collapse of communism in the 90s.
It discouraged other communist nations from rebelling.

On the USA and west

It perhaps weakened the US and western nations: they were not prepared to back up their words with action. The
US offered $20m worth of food and medical aid to the Nagy government and encouraged the people to fight on.
The US was not prepared to interfere in the affairs of an existing communist state. They had suggested they might –
see Dulles quotes and Radio Free Europe – but in the end did not follow through words with action
The UN condemned the invasion but did nothing more. They condemned the Kadar regime. It was a blow to their
reputation
Britain and France were engaged in Suez and the US was also diverted by this event.
People in the West were horrified - many Communists left the Communist Party - and Western leaders became more
determined to contain communism. Communist parties split in Italy, France and Britain.
Time Magazine named the Hungarian freedom fighter its man of the year. The US people raised $6m for Hungarian
refugees.
Some European countries boycotted the 1956 Olympics. There was a famous water polo match between Russia and
Hungary at the games.

The strengthening of Khrushchev

It made Khrushchev’s position in the Soviet Union more secure and gave him a stronger position in the Warsaw Pact.
Members knew they had to do as they were told.
Khrushchev perhaps also felt more confident about challenging the USA in the future – see Berlin Wall and Cuba for
instance. Following Nagy’s execution, Khrushchev said it was a lesson to all the leaders of socialist countries.
The regime in Hungary slowly reformed but was firmly under USSR control. Kadar had little real power, but
published a 15-point programme
 The re-establishment of Soviet control over Hungary
 Using Hungarian troops to stop attacks on Soviet forces
 Remaining in the Warsaw pact
 Negotiation of the withdrawal of Soviet troops

The most significant crisis in superpower relations between 1948 and 1956 was the
Hungarian Uprising. How far do you agree? Use your own knowledge.
Remember that key to this will be to look at how you are going to define ‘significant’ and therefore make your
judgement. This will come down to the way you judge the factors. You could think of:

 Long-term or short-term impact

 Number of people affected/harmed
 Permanence of impact
 Danger in terms of worsening cold war relations

Factor Evidence Evaluation – what criteria will you

use the judge the factor?
Berlin Airlift 101 people died and it was very confrontational. Had a very long-term impact both in
1948-9 Propaganda coup for USA over USSR as they had terms of Berlin and NATO – which
successfully supplied Berlin for a year. Showed put US into a defensive alliance for
perhaps the wealth and superiority of the West. the first time. A permanent impact
Led to split Germany and creation of GDR and FRG as well.
which was a blow to the USSR.
Led to the creation of NATO to protect the region Could have been very dangerous if
against communism in 1949. Members put armed USSR had tried to intervene with
forces under joint control and this was the US’s first flights.
military alliance ever.
US created Comecon and Cominform – establishing But actually neither side ever looked
greater control over its satellite states politically and like they would come to blows over
economically. the issue.
Would lead to events like the Berlin Wall in 1961.

Korean War Hot war in the region against UN, China and North Given that both were involved and
1950-53 Korea. 38,00 US died, more than 400,000 Chinese the USSR sent jets and pilots, this
deaths and 1.43m North Koreans was perhaps the most dangerous.
Militarisation of NATO and more members such as At one point there was even talk of
Greece and Turkey, US troops in West Germany and using the nuclear bomb over China.
the country be re-armed and joined NATO; led to
Warsaw Pact in 1955 – two armed camps. Huge implications in long term over
Contributed to the development of an arms race arms race and North Korea
because of the US build up of weapons during the war. remained communist.
Development of H bomb on both sides, satellites and
Sputnik as well as ICBMs which both have by 1957.
Expansion of US into areas like far east eg SEATO in
 1954 with Britain, France, Australia, Philippines,
Thailand and Pakistan and CENTO in 1955 which
involved the Middle East.
Hungarian It led to around 3,000 deaths and 20,000 wounded, Since it demonstrated that the USA
Uprising 1956 and the killing of Nagy. Control was reasserted over would not intervene in a country
Hungary. that was already communist then
It strengthened the USSR and the Warsaw Pact – perhaps it was less significant. The
Eastern Europe settled down and there were no more outrage in Europe was hardly
uprisings until 1968 (Czechs). Khrushchev said they significant as it changed nothing.
had been taught a lesson.
It weakened the USA because they did nothing, It did not stop Eastern European
despite Sec of State Dulles claiming they had US countries being angry and the
support. Czechs will try and rise up in 1968
European nations were outraged – Hungary was despite what happened here. Thus
named Time ‘Man of the Year’. The blood in the water the victory for Khrushchev was not
match at the Olympics was an international event. long lived.