Lemba 1650 1930 A Drum of Affliction in PDF

Notes,
Sources,
Index
Notes
Chapter 1
1. De Jonghe wrote widely on African religion and ethnology, and his
views on "secret societies" and ethnological theory are found condensed in
the following works: Les sociétés secrètes au Bas-Congo (Bruxelles, 1907);
"Les sociétés secrètes en Afrique," Semaine d'Ethnologie Religieuse Ser. 3
( 1923); "Formations récents de sociétés secrètes au Congo Belge," Africa 9,
no. 1 (1936): 56-63. Unless otherwise indicated, the review of works is
drawn from De Jonghe's 1923 article.
2. H. Schurtz, Altersklassen und Männerbünde (Berlin, 1902).
3. S. Freud, Totem and Taboo (New York, 1950). See especially the
introduction for explicit mention of this influence.
4. W. Wundt, Völkerpsychologie, 10 vols. (Leipzig, 1910-20).
5. A. Kuper, Anthropologists and Anthropology: The British School
1922-72 (New York, 1973), p. 24.
6. J. Frazer, The Golden Bough, 2 vols. (London, 1890); Totemism
and Exogamy, 4 vols. (London, 1910).
7. A. Van Gennep, Les rites de passage (Paris, 1909).
8. L. Frobenius, Die Masken und Geheimbünde (Halle, 1898).
9. K. Laman, The Kongo, III (Uppsala, 1962), p. 67.
10. F. Gräbener, "Kulturkreise und Kulturschichten in Ozeanien,"
Zeitschrift für Ethnologie 37 (1905): 84-90.
11. De Jonghe, Les sociétés secrètes au Bas-Congo.
12. De Jonghe, "Les sociétés secrètes en Afrique."
13. De Jonghe, "Formations récents de sociétés secrètes."
14. J. Van Wing, Etudes BaKongo (Bruxelles, 1959), pp. 426-508.
15. L. Bittremieux, La société secrète des Bakhimba au Mayombe
(Bruxelles, 1936).
16. V. Turner, Drums of Affliction (Oxford, 1968), p. 15.
17. Certainly E.E. Evans-Pritchard's classic Witchcraft, Oracles, and
Magic among the Azande (Oxford, 1937) set the tone for recognition of a
system of explanation of misfortune and the means of dealing with it Recent
regional studies in Bantu-speaking Africa that illuminate the general lines of
this system include the following: from Tanzania, M.L. Swantz, Ritual and
Symbol in Transitional Zaramo Society (Uppsala, 1970); from Uganda, J.
Orley, "African Medical Taxonomy," Journal ofthe Anthropological Soci-
ety of Oxford 1, no. 3 (1970): 137-150; from Zimbabwe, GX. Chavunduka,
Interaction of Folk and Scientific Beliefs in Shona Medical Practices
(London, 1972); from South Africa, H. Ngubane, Body and Mind in Zulu
Medicine (London, 1977); from Western Zambia, G. Prins, "Disease at the
331
332 NOTES
Crossroads: Towards a History of Therapeutics in BuLozi since 1876,"

Social Science and Medicine 13B (1979): 285-315, and W.M.J. Van
Binsbergen, "Regional and Non-Regional Cults of Affliction in Western
Zambia," in R P . Werbner, ed., Regional Cults (London, 1977), pp. 141—
175; from Western Congo (Zaire), J.M. Janzen, The Quest for Therapy in
Lower Zaire (Berkeley, 1978), and Janzen, "Ideologies and Institutions in
the Precolonial History of Equatorial African Therapeutic Systems," Social
Science and Medicine 13B (1979): 317-326. For an essay that seeks to
describe the historical subcontinental system, see W. DeCraemer, J.
Vansina, and R. Fox, "Religious Movements in Central Africa," Compara-
tive Studies of Society and History 18 (1976): 458-475.
18. I am drawing these phrases from my own work, but they appear in
most of the above-mentioned publications, frequently using the very same
cognates from region to region.
19. The phrase is drawn from Y. Kusikila, Lufwa evo Kimongi e?
(Kumba, 1966), published in English translation in J.M. Janzen and W.
MacGaffey, eds., Anthology of Kongo Religion (Lawrence, 1974), pp. 48-
55, although the idea is widespread in Bantu Africa.
20. These terms are drawn from Kongo, although the verbal stem of
n ganga appears across the entire Bantu-speaking region, as do other terms
associated with the therapeutic system under consideration. M. Guthrie's
Comparative Bantu, 4 vols. (Hants, 1967) is an important reference for
tracing the distribution of verbal concepts connected with this system.
21. Janzen, The Quest for Therapy, 1978.
22. Prins, "Disease at the Crossroads," has demonstrated the effective
ness of this approach in reconstructing intellectual history. Long-term sur
viving values and categories, amidst changes, indicate for him the "core" of a
culture. He has used therapeutics as such a barometer of Lozi culture in the
long term in his historical study Hidden Hippopotamus (Cambridge, 1980).
23. Nsemi, "Min'kisi: Sacred Medicines" in Janzen and MacGaffey,
Anthology of Kongo Religion, pp. 34-38.
24. This is especially true of the work in Werbner, Regional Cults, and is
5
exemplified in Werbner s introduction, pp. ix-xxxviii.
25. Ibid. Werbner bases his analytical perspective on regional cults in
large measure on V. Turner, "Pilgrimages as Social Process," Chapter 5 in
his Dramas, Fields, and Metaphors (Ithaca, 1974), p. 185.
26. Turner, "Pilgrimage as Social Process," pp. 185ff.
27. Werbner, Regional Cults, p. ix.
28. VanBinsbergen,"RegionalandNon-RegionalCults,"pp. 141-175.
29. J.M. Schoffeleers, "Cult Idioms and the Dialectics of a Region" in
Werbner, Regional Cults, pp.- 219-239.
30. J. Vansina, The Tio Kingdom of the Middle Congo, 1880-1892
(Oxford, 1973), pp. 221-243.
31. K. Garbett's "Disparate Regional Cults and a Unitary Ritual Field
in Zimbabwe" in Werbner, Regional Cults, pp. 55-92, is an exception to
Notes 333
this. Garbett, in his analysis of the Mutota cult of Zimbabwe, develops a clear
picture of several cults interpenetrating in a single region. Alongside the
centralized, hierarchic ancestor cults he finds other nonhierarchic and ter
ritorially undefined cults (p. 58).
32. Werbner, Regional Cults, pp. xvii-xxii.
33. Van Binsbergen, "Regional and Non-Regional Cults," p. 144.
34. B.T. Van Velzen, "Bush Negro Regional Cults: A Materialist
Explanation," in Werbner, Regional Cults, pp. 93-116.
35. Ibid., p. 94.
36. K. Burridge, New Heaven, New Earth (Toronto, 1969), says that
millenarian activities provide a test case in social analysis for the joining of
statements valid for both participants and investigator. "Beyond their intrin
sic human interest.. . millenarian activities constitute an acute theoretical
challenge. They invite a statement through which particular actions and
rationalizations may be given a more general validity" (p. 2).
37. C. Geertz, in "Religion as a Cultural System," in M. Banton, ed.,
Anthropological Approaches to the Study of Religion (New York, 1966),
cites Santay ana to the effect that" any attempt to speak without speaking any
particular language is not more hopeless than the attempt to have a religion
that shall be no religion in particular.... Thus every living and healthy
religion has a marked idiosyncracy" (p. 1).
38. T.O. Ranger, "Healing and Society in Colonial Southern Africa."
Unpublished MS, 1978.
39. J. Vansina has developed models of state formation specific to the
Tio and Kuba kingdoms in his The Tio Kingdom, and in The Children of
Woot: A History of the Kuba Peoples (Madison, 1978).
40. J. Goody, in his Technology, Tradition, and the State in Africa
(London, 1971), develops an analysis of state formation for Africa. He
acknowledges the importance of Southall's concept of the" segmentary state"
in which central and local powers have equal weight, a condition that has
often arisen as larger empires or states disintegrate (pp. 9-10). For reasons of
technological small scale in food production (the use of the hoe rather than
horse- or ox-drawn plow), Goody rejects a "feudal stage" in state formation
for most of West and Central Africa, arguing instead for a variety of historical
types: the hereditary structuring of ritual powers; the ability to attract and
keep a following (privileged descent groups); conquest; diffusion of the insti
tution and idea of a state; the emergence of a central state from a nucleus in
lineages, age sets, cult associations, and other institutions in acephalous
society; in opposition to slave raids; or the need to move trade goods across
long distances occupied by peoples lacking chiefs (pp. 12-18). Goody would
then concur, perhaps, that it is difficult, even unnecessary, to make a sharp
distinction between " state" and " cult," and that either can fulfill the functions
of centralized or regional institutions.
41. J. Miller, in Ms Kings and Kinsmen: Early Mbundu States in
Angola (Oxford, 1976), has reviewed models of state formation in Central
334 NOTES
Africa, arguing that generally "state" institutions are created in response to

the need and desirability of contact between unrelated lineages. Relationships
created are by definition political. They may come about in one or several of
the following ways: to control scarce but valuable resources such as salt, iron
and copper ore, or trade advantages; military or strategic advantage; as
innovations capable of attracting manpower, for example, the Mbundu and
Imbangala kilombo war camp, a converted initiation camp used to overcome
particularistic loyalties of descent groups; ideological innovation relating to
large-scale institutional integration; the assistance of outside allies; the con
trol of commercial monopolies such as those taken over by so-called "broker
states" like Angola, between Kasanji and Portugal and Brazil; agricultural
surpluses, a necessary but not sufficient factor in state formation; techno
logical superiority; and individual genius. Most of these factors could be cited
as elements in the emergence of Lemba, suggesting the pitfalls of reading into
a combination of them any teleological tendency to political consolidation.
42. L. de Heusch, in "Structures de réciprocité et structures de subor
dination," in his Pourquoi l'épouser? (Paris, 1971), has studied the Nyimi
(kingship) institution among Bushong peoples—Kuba, Lele—and has sug
gested that centralized "statehood" is but a variation of several possibilities
found throughout the cluster of Bushong peoples. This leads him, in the
explanation of state formation, to emphasize a rather willful historical event
such as the murder of a kinsman, the act of royal incest, or similar break with
the past, to destroy the "structure of reciprocity" having existed in a society
and to establish in its place a "structure of subordination." This sheds much
light on transformations of authority symbolism in the Lemba region and
related centralized systems. Extensive experimentation occurred to reach
appropriate combinations of "subordination" and "reciprocity."
43. H. Maine, Ancient Law (London, 1917).
44. M.G. Smith, Corporations and Society (London, 1974).
45. W. MacGaffey, "The Religious Commissions of the BaKongo,"
Man, n.s. 5, no. 1 (1970): 27-38; "Corporation Theory and Political
Change," in S. Newman, ed, Small States and Segmented Societies (New
York, 1976), pp. 121-138; "Economic and Social Dimensions of Kongo
Slavery," in S. Meirs and I. Kopytoff, eds., Slavery in Africa: An Historical
and Anthropological Perspective (Madison, 1977), pp. 235-257.
Chapter 2
1. H. Koch, Magie et chasse au Cameroun (Paris, 1968).
2. C. Droux and H. Kelly, "Récherches préhistoriques dans la région
de Boko-Songho et à Pointe-Noire (Moyen-Congo)," Journal de la société
des Africanistes 9 (1939): 71-87.
3. P. Martin, The External Trade of the Loango Coast, 1576-1870
(Oxford, 1972), p. 57.
4. Globus (1876), p. 307. Ambriz alone exported 185 tons of ivory in
1874, at 150 pounds per tusk, which represented 1295 elephants that year.
Notes 335
5. E. Dupont, Lettres sur le Congo (Paris, 1889), p. 340.

6. Ibid., p. 345.
7. H.M. Stanley, Through the Dark Continent (London, 1877), p.
182.
8. Kwamba, Text 1 (Chapter 4, below), line 68.
9. Dupont, Lettres sur le Congo, pp. 338-339.
10. J. Vansina, The Tio Kingdom of the Middle Congo, 1880-1892
(London, 1973), p. 326.
11. Martin, The External Trade, p. 57.
12. Ibid., p. 59.
13. Vansina, The Tio Kingdom, p. 282.
14. Ibid., p. 326.
15. Ibid., p. 287.
17. Ibid., p. 94.
18. Ibid., p. 86.
19. Ibid., pp. 113, 107.
20. Ibid., p. 107.
2 1 . Vansina, The Tio Kingdom, p. 448.
22. Martin, The External Trade, pp. 113-114, 132. See also W.
Randies, L'ancien royaume du Congo (Paris, 1968), p. 203, for similar
figures.
23. Vansina, The Tio Kingdom, p. 304; P. Bohannan, "The Impact of
Money on an African Subsistence Economy," Journal of Economic History
19, no. 4 (1959): 491-503.
24. Vansina, The Tio Kingdom, pp. 288-292.
25. M. Soret, Les Kongo Nord-Occidentaux (Paris, 1959); G.P.
Murdock, Africa, Its People and theirCulture History (New'York, 1959); J.
Maes and O. Boone, Les peuplades du Congo belge (Bruxelles, 1935).
26. Stanley, Through the Dark Continent, p. 183.
28. Dupont, Lettres sur le Congo, pp. 330-340.
29. The intellectual source of this simplistic notion of homogeneous
ethnicity is the "culture-area" {Kulturkreis) school inspired by Gräbener,
Wissler, Frobenius, and perhaps Murdock. Lacking in understanding of the
dynamics of social organization, the adherents of this approach map out
cultural units on the basis of features such as language, dialect, or material
culture affixing them to a given territory. By definition, a culture area defined
by its most "characteristic" elements or complex of elements is therefore
"pure." An improvement in the Africanist literature is the work of Baumann
and Westermann of the so-called "historical" school. In their maps and
ethnographies, one can note the superimposition of one identity over another,
the accretion within a population of successive historical trends and polities.
See H. Baumann and D. Westermann, Les peuples et civilisations de
VAfrique (Paris, 1967).
336 NOTES
30. H. Deleval, "Les tribus Kavati du Mayombe," La Revue Congo-

laise 3 (1912): 34.
31. E. de Cleene, "Les chefs indigènes au Mayombe," Africa 8, no. 1
(1935): 63-75; Deleval, "Les tribus Kavati," p. 33; L. Bittremieux, "Un
vieux chef," Missions en Chine, au Congo, et aux Philippines 6 (1909):
121-123.
32. Vansina, The Tio Kingdom, on the Tio ndzo.
3 3. P.-P. Rey, " L'esclavage lignager chez les tsangui, les punu et les kuni
du Congo-Brazzaville," in C. Meillassoux, éd., L'esclavage en Afrique
précoloniale (Paris, 1975), pp. 509-528. Rey's approach to defining the
levels of Kunyi organization concentrates on the large territorial estate
(mukuna) comparable to the nsi. However, because he is interested mainly
in the visible unit of production, the lineage (diku), ignoring other levels of
categorial classification, he is led to make the statement that the clan
(ifumba) may span ethnic boundaries of such peoples as the Kunyi, Tsangui,
and Punu which are therefore presumably territorial and discrete. This
approach stops short of solving problems inherent in the view of one ethnic
unit seen as territorially discrete.
34. W. MacGaffey, "Economic and Social Dimensions of Kongo Slav
ery," in S. Meirs andl. Kopytoff, eds., Slavery in Africa: An Historical and
Anthropological Perspective (Madison, 1977), p. 243.
35. M. Gluckman, The Ideas in Barotse Jurisprudence (New Haven,
1965), pp. 88-90.
36. Foremost is C. Levi-Strauss's classic, Les structures élémentaires
de la parentée (Paris, 1949).
37. De Cleene, "Les chefs indigènes," pp. 63-75; Deleval, "Les tribus
Kavati," pp. 34-36.
38. See for example Martin, The External Trade, pp. 3-5, who reviews
the sources.
39. A. Battel, "The Strange Adventures of Andrew Battel," in J.
Pinkerton, ed.,^4 General Collection of the Best and Most Interesting
Voyages and Travels in all Parts of the World (London, 1814), p. 331.
40. J. Cuvelier, "Traditions Congolaises," Congo 10, no. 1 (1931):
203.
41. Ibid.
42. Battel, quoted in Martin, The External Trade, p. 19.
43. A. Bastían, Die Deutsche Expedition an der Loango-Kuste, 2 vols.
(Jena, 1874), p. 238.
44. C. Tastevin, "Idées religieuses des indigènes de l'enclave de
Cabinda," Etudes missionaires (1935), pp. 105-111, 191-197, 257-273.
45. Martin, The External Trade, pp. 24-25, 162.
46. Bastian, Die Deutsche Expedition, p. 327.
47. F. Hagenbucher-Sacripanti, Les fondaments spirituels du pouvoir
au royaume de Loango (Paris, 1973), p. 21.
Notes 337
49. R Visser, "Der Kaufmann unter Wilden (Entwicklung des Handels

am Kongo)," Jahresbericht des Naturwissenschaftlichen Vereins zu Kre-
feld (1907-8), pp. 59-60.
50. Delevai, "Les tribus Kavati," p. 33.
51. De Cleene, "Les chefs indigènes."
52. L. Bittremieux, Mayombish Idioticon (Gent, 1923), map.
53. De Cleene, "Les chefs indigènes"; A. Doutreloux, L'ombre des
fétiches (Louvain, 1967), pp. 176-208.
54. Bittremieux, "Un vieux chef."
56. A. Proyart, "Histoire de Loango, Kakongo, et autres royaumes
d'Afrique," in Pinkerton, ,4 General Collection of... Voyages, p. 579.
57. Hyacinthe de Bologne, La pratique missionaire des PP. Capucins
Italiens dans les royaumes de Congo, Angola et contrées adjacents
(Louvain, 1931), pp. 102-103.
58. Ibid., pp. 109-110.
59. Ibid., p. 118.
60. Suggested by L. Bittremieux in his Société secrète des Bakhimba
(Bruxelles, 1936), p. 187.
61. Deleval, "Les tribus Kavati " p. 147.
62. O. Dapper, Umständliche undEigenliche Beschreibung von Afrika
(Amsterdam, 1670), p. 536.
63. Ibid., pp. 534-535.
64. Ibid., pp. 535-537.
65. In addition to Bastian, Die Deutsche Expedition, the Loango expe
dition was published in P. Güssfeldt, J. Falkenstein, and E. Pechuel-
Loesche, Die Loango Expedition 1873-6 (Leipzig, 1879), and in E.
Pechuel-Loesche, Volkskunde von Loango (Stuttgart, 1907).
66. Pechuel-Loesche, Volkskunde von Loango, p. 380.
67. Ibid., pp. 383-384.
68. Ibid., p. 382.
69. Bastian, Die Deutsche Expedition, pp. 162-163.
70. Ibid., p. 163; Pechuel-Loesche, Volkskunde von Loango, p. 381.
72. R Lehuard, Les phemba du Mayombe (Paris, 1977).
73. Bastian, Die Deutsche Expedition, p. 164.
75. Ibid., p. 377.
76. Güssfeldt, et al., Die Loango Expedition, p. 71.
77. Bastian, Die Deutsche Expedition, pp. 170-173.
78. Vansina, The Tio Kingdom, pp. 439-443.
79. Ibid., pp. 323-324.
80. Ibid., p. 330.
81. Ibid., p. 331.
82. Ibid., p. 332.
338 NOTES
83. Ibid., p. 396.

84. Ibid., p. 384.
85. Ibid., p. 456.
86. Ibid.
87. Ibid., p. 324.
88. Ibid., p. 326.
89. J. Van Wing, Etudes Bakongo (Bruxelles, 1959), Map I.
90. Ibid.; J. Vansina, Kingdoms of the Savanna (Madison, 1965), p.
236; J. Cuvelier, L'ancien royaume de Congo (Bruxelles, 1946), Map I.
91. Vansina, Kingdoms of the Savanna, Chapter 3.
92. Montesarchio, in Cuvelier, L'ancien royaume de Congo, pp. 298-
299.
93. Ibid., Map I, and Montesarchio's list, p. 301.
94. K. Laman, The Kongo II (Uppsala, 1957), pp. 140-142.
95. Ibid.
96. W. MacGaffey, Custom and Government in the Lower Congo
(Berkeley, 1970).
97. Cuvelier, L'ancien royaume de Congo, p. 304.
98. Vercraeye, Dossier No. 129, Luozi Territorial Archives, 31 Aug.
1932.
99. Bittremieux, Mayombish Idioticon; K. Laman, The Kongo I
(Uppsala, 1953), Chapter 1; Maillet, Luozi Territorial Archives, n.d.
100. Maillet, Luozi Territorial Archives.
101. Ibid.
102. Ibid.
103. Ibid.
104. Rapport annuel Affaires Indigènes et Main d'Oeuvre, "Etat d'esprit
de la population," Luozi, 1938.
105. J. Munzele, Bakulu Beto ye Diela Diau (Kumba, 1965), p. 12.
106. Pierre Nzuzi of the Kimbanga clan of Kisiasia, Luozi Territory,
narrated this to me in 1969.
107. Munzele, Bakulu Beto, p. 19.
Chapter 3
1. E. Dupont, Lettres sur le Congo (Paris, 1889), pp. 330-340.
2. C. Coquery-Vidrovitch, Le Congo au temps des grandes com-
pagnies concessionnaires, 1898-1930 (Paris, 1972), p. 187.
3. O. Stenstrôm, "The Lemba Cuit," Ethnos (1969), pp. 1-4.
4. Reports, Luozi Territorial Archives, 1930.
5. L. Bittremieux, Van Een Ouden Blinden Hoofdman (Antwerpen,
1925).
6. J. Ndibu, Notebook 345, Laman Collection, Svenska Missionsfor-
bundet, Lidingô, n.d.
Notes 339
7. For example the introduction to J.M. Janzen and W. MacGafFey,

Anthology of Kongo Religion (Lawrence, 1974); and Janzen, "Deep
Thought: Structure and Intention in Kongo Prophetism, 1910-21," Social
Research 46, no. 1 (1979): 106-139.
Introduction to Part II
1. V.W. Turner, "Colour Classification in Ndembu Ritual," in M.
Banton, ed., Anthropological Approaches to the Study of Religion (New
York, 1966), pp. 47-84; A. Jacobson-Widding, Red-White-Black as a
Mode of Thought (Uppsala, 1979).
2. For present purposes, V.W. Turner's Drums of Affliction (Oxford,
1968) is the leading example of this approach in the area of African thera
peutics. More generally, C. Geertz's work on religion as a symbol system
characterizes it, as for example in his "Religion as a Cultural System" in
Banton, Anthropological Approaches to... Religion, pp. 1-46. This ap
proach is given historical depth and critical justification in J.L. Dolgin, D.S.
Kemnitzer, andD.M. Schneider, eds., Symbolic Anthropology (New York,
1977).
3. C. Geertz, "Deep Play: Notes on the Balinese Cockfight," Dae-
dalus 101, no. 1 (1972): 1-38.
4. C. Geertz, The Social History of an Indonesian Town (Cambridge,
1965), pp. 153-202.
5. V.W. Turner, Revelation and Divination in Ndembu Ritual (Ith
aca, 1975).
6. V.W. Turner, Dramas, Fields, and Metaphors: Symbolic Action in
Human Society (Ithaca, 1974).
7. See Turner, Drums of Affliction, and accounts of the Isoma and
Wubwang'u rituals among the Ndembu in Turner, The Ritual Process
(Chicago, 1969).
8. Turner, "Symbols in African Ritual," in Dolgin, et al., Symbolic
Anthropology, pp. 183-194.
9. Exemplified in R.P. Armstrong, The Affecting Presence (Urbana,
1971); but see also J. Fernandez, "Persuasions and Performances: Of the
Beast in Every Body . . . and the Metaphors of Everyman," Daedalus 101,
no. 1 (1972): 39-60.
10. I am thinking primarily of the work of C. Lévi-Strauss, La pensée
sauvage (Paris, 1962); Mythologiques, Z-JTF (Paris, 1964-71); and that of
P. Maranda and E. Kòngàs-Maranda, eds., Structural Analysis of Oral
Tradition (Philadelphia, 1971).
11. D. Sperber, Rethinking Symbolism (Cambridge, 1974); also
Fernandez, "Persuasions and Performances."
12. Primarily I have in mind the semiotics of R Barthes as formulated
in Système de la mode (Paris, 1967), or his literary essays such as S/Z
340 NOTES
(Paris, 1970), with its emphasis on levels or codes, and the relationship
between these codes, although I am aware of the theoretical sophistication of
C.S. Peirce's much earlier work.
13. G. Bateson, Steps to an Ecology ofMind (New York, 1972), and E.
Leach, Culture and Communication: The Logic by which Symbols are
Co nnected (Cambridge, 1976), are two examples of the kind of work I have in
mind.
14. An issue raised by most of the above writers and resolved or
formulated in a great diversity of ways too involved for further discussion in
this study.
Chapter 4
1. Text 1 by E. Kwamba is taken from Notebooks 142 and 143, dated
about 1910, of the Catechists' Cahiers section of Karl Laman's collection in
the Svenska Missionsforbundet Archives (SMF), Lidingo, Sweden. Parts
of the full text presented here have appeared in English in Laman, The Kongo
III (Uppsala, 1962), pp. 113-116, and in J.M. Janzen and W. MacGaffey,
An Anthology of Kongo Religion (Lawrence, 1974), pp. 97-102.
2. Text 2 by M. Lunungu is drawn from Notebook 181 of the Laman
Collection, SMF, Lidingo, and may be dated at about 1915.
3. I have elsewhere discussed the origin and fate of this extensive
KiKongo corpus: see my'' Laman's Kongo Ethnography: Observations on
Sources, Methodology, and Theory," Africa 42, no. 4 (1972): 316-328.
When Laman returned to Sweden in 1919 with the notebooks, they provided
him with the basis in idioms and vocabulary to produce his masterful
Dictionnaire KiKongo-Francais (Bruxelles, 1936). He also translated (into
Swedish) passages on Kongo custom using categories of his original ques
tionnaire, selecting from the notebooks what he regarded as most represen
tative and best written. Posthumously, Laman's Swedish text was translated
into English, under the direction of S. Lagerkrantz, and published in the
Studia Ethnographica Uppsaliensia series as The Kongo I-IV (Uppsala,
1953, 1957, 1962, 1968). Fortunately scholars of Kongo and Central-
African studies have had access to these English sources although they have
been difficult to work with because of the lack of reference in them to place,
context, and authorship. Also, some of the materials having gone through
double translation have lost their original meaning or have become very
elliptical. The reader may wish to compare Kwamba's original text on
Lemba given here with the version offered in Laman, The Kongo III, pp.
113-116.
Lunungu's description of Lemba (Text 2) has not been published anywhere
to my knowledge.
4. R. Rappaport, Pigs for the Ancestors (New Haven, 1968).
5. For such a rewriting, used as partial model in this work, see A.
Dundes, E. Leach, P. Maranda, andD. Maybury-Lewis, "An Experiment:
Suggestions and Queries from the Desk, with a Reply from the Ethnogra-
Notes 341
pher," in P. Maranda andE. Köngäs-Maranda, eds., Structural Analysis of

Oral Tradition (Philadelphia, 1971), pp. 292-324.
Chapter 5
1. Kimbembe, Notebook 80, Laman Collection, Svenska Missions-
forbundet(SMF), Lidingö, ca. 1915.
2. O. Stenström, "The Lemba Cult," Ethnos (1969), pp. 37-57.
3. E. Andersson, Contribution à l'ethnographie desKuta / (Uppsala,
1953), pp. 247-249.
4. J. Malonga, "La sorcellerie et l'ordre du Lemba chez les Lari,"
Liaison 62 (1958): 45-49; 63 (1958): 51-61.
5. Ibid., p. 53.
6. Ibid.
7. Ibid., p. 59.
8. Ibid., p. 60.
9. Ibid., p. 54.
10. J.M. Janzen, The Quest for Therapy in Lower Zaire (Berkeley,
1978), pp. 196-203.
11. Malonga, "La sorcellerie et l'ordre," p. 61.
12. M. Douglas, Purity and Danger (New York, 1966).
13. Stenström, "The Lemba Cuit," p. 38.
14. Ibid., p. 41.
15. Malonga, "La sorcellerie et l'ordre," pp. 54, 61; also, V. Turner,
"Colour Classification in Ndembu Ritual," in M. Banton, ed., Anthropolo-
gical Approaches to the Study of Religion (New York, 1966), pp. 47-84;
Fukiau, N'kongoyeNza/Cosmogonie-Kongo(Kinshasa., 1969), pp. 35-39.
16. Stenström, "The Lemba Cult," p. 41.
18. Ibid., p. 55.
19. Ibid., p. 56.
20. Stenström, "The Lemba Cult," p. 44.
21. Malonga, "La sorcellerie et l'ordre," pp. 59-60.
22. Andersson, Contribution, pp. 247-248, based on notes taken 1930-
31 at Madzia from Milonga Jean and Muyakidi, at Musana from Masamba
Philippe and Ngusa Ruben, a Lali. It is noteworthy that this origin account
traces Lemba to a founder with the "Nga" title, similar to most of the
Teke nkobi holders.
23. Stenström, "The Lemba Cult"
24. Ibid.
25. Ibid.
Chapter 6
1. Fukiau, N'kongo ye Nza/Cosmogonie-Kongo (Kinshasa, 1969).
2. Batsikama ba Mampuya, "A propos de i a cosmogonie Kongo,' "
Cultures au Zaire et en Afrique 4 (1974): 239-264.
342 NOTES
3. Solomo Nitu, noted storyteller and catechist of Cabinda, narrated

these Mavungu texts (5, 6, 7) to Charles Harvey in 1961 at the age of 75
years. I am indebted to Harvey for recording Nitu's narrative treasure as well
as for the generosity of allowing me to use them here. Nitu lived in the village
of Masala, near the Portuguese administrative post of Luadi, also near the
mission of M'boku, on the banks of the Mbika River, in the so-called Zala
area, in tall forest country.
4. Fukiau, N'kongo ye Nza, pp. 41-56.
5. Ibid., p. 47, my translation.
6. Ibid., p. 46.
7. Ibid., p. 50.
8. Ibid., p. 43.
9. Ibid.
10. Ibid.
11. Ibid., pp. 43, 49.
12. K. Laman, Dictionnaire KiKongo-Francais (Bruxelles, 1936).
13. Fukiau, Nkongo ye Nza, pp. 18-21.
14. Batsikama, "A propos... Kongo," pp. 250-252.
15. Fukiau, N'kongo ye Nza, pp. 19-21.
16. Nitu, Text XXIIIa, MS.
17. Nitu, Text XXXIX, MS.
18. Nitu, Text XLIV, MS.
19. J. Malonga, La legènde de M'pfoumou ma Mazono (Paris, 1954).
20. C. Lévi-Strauss, "The Structural Study of Myth," Journal of Ameri-
can Folklore 67 (1955): 428-444.
Chapter 7
1. J. Konda, Notebook 119, Laman Collection, Svenska Missionsfor-
bundet(SMF), Lidingö, ca. 1915.
2. T. Babutidi, Notebook 16, Laman Collection, SMF, Lidingö, ca.
1915. This account of a Lemba initiation is identified as having occurred at
Mamundi, "westward of Kinkenge." I have been unable to locate this site
exactly, but Kinkenge is at the boundary of the Yombe area, therefore I have
identified it as Eastern Mayombe. Parts of this text have been published in K.
Laman, The Kongo III (Uppsala, 1962), p. 116.
3. L. Bittremieux, Mayombsche Namen (Leuwen, 1934), pp. 41-42.
4. Ibid., p. 41.
5. Paul Güssfeldt, Julius Falkenstein, and Eduard Pechuel-Loesche,
Die Loango Expedition, 1873-6 (Leipzig, 1879), p. 71.
6. A. Bastian, Die Deutsche Expedition an der Loango-Küste, 2 vols.
(Jena, 1874), pp. 167, 169.
7. L. Bittremieux, Van Een Ouden Blinden Hoofdman (Antwerpen,
1925), pp. 31-34.
8. Based on Belgian Colonial Ministry economic reports on the Bas-
Notes 343
Congo, in Congo (1925), II, pp. 651-676; (1928), p. 691; (1929), II, pp.
714-726; (1932), II, pp. 293-313.
9. Bastian, Die Deutschen Expedition, vol. I, p. 258.
10. Bittremieux, Mayombsche Namen, pp. 42-44.
11. A. Jacobson-Widding, in hex Red-White-Black as a Mode of
Thought (Uppsala, 1979), pp. 250-251, makes much of the discrepancy
betweenthe"white"nameMpemba Lemba andthe"red" tukula ingredients
in Babutidi's report, from which she is working in Laman's Kongo ethnog
raphy, possibly without realizing it. She relates this to her theory of the need
to reconcile what she speaks of as the "inner" with the " outer" man, and with
the "matrilineal principle of inheritance of male characteristics." Unfortu
nately, this elaborate theory is based on the perpetuation of a simple phonetic
error by Babutidi who, not being a.Lemba initiate, confused/?/èmZ>a or
phemba for mpemba. The same mistake was made by Lehuard, and before
him by Maes, and before him by Bastian and Pechuel-Loesche. Bittremieux's
research ( see note 12 below) and circumstantial evidence in Lehuard's mono
graph and in Pechuel-Loesche's account of n'kisi Phemba permit a correct
interpretation.
12. Bittremieux's original research on the distinction oîpfemba (or
phemba) and mpemba is reported in unpublished letters written in 1939 to
the then director of the Musée d'Afrique Central, at Tervuren, J. Maes, from
Kangu where he had collected two nkobe Lemba, including the one sketched
in figure 21 and pictured in plates 5-7.
13. E. Pechuel-Loesch, Volkskunde von Loango (Stuttgart, 1907), p.
385.
14. R. Lehuard, Les phemba du mayombe (Paris, 1977), is an excellent
presentation of this sculptural genre, except for the confusion of mpemba
with phemba, which I have discussed at greater length in my review of this
monograph m African Arts 11, no. 2 (1978): 88-89.
15. J.M. Vaz, Filosofia Tradicional dos Cabindas (Lisboa, 1969).
Figures 30, 103, 140, 142, 143, 160, 187-A, 199, 216, 230, and 242
show Lemba as a drum in the company of other min 'kisi, includingMbondo-
Fula, Mbonzo, Mikono, N'kobe-Ibingu, Nkwangi, Koko.
16. Lehuard, Les phemba du mayombe, p. 87.
17. Vaz, Filosofia Tradicional, fig. 187. See also L. Bittremieux,
Symbolisme in de Negerkunst (Brussel, 1937), Object 112, for a discussion
on Mbondo-Fula.
18. W. Dionga, narrator of "Tsimona-Mambu, de Wonderziener of de
Oorsprong van het huwelijk bij Dilemba, naar een Mayombsche légende," in
L. Bittremieux, Congo 2 (1926): 398-404; 551-6. English translation
of this tale appears in J.M. Janzen and W. MacGaffey, An Anthology of
Kongo Religion (Lawrence, 1974), pp. 102-106.
19. This summary is based on J. Van Wing and C. Schôller, "Les
aventures merveilleuses de Moni-Mambu le querelleur," in their Légendes
des BaKongo orientaux (Louvain, 1940), pp. 11-44, which is a heavily
344 NOTES
edited Kongo narrative for school children based on an earlier text published
in KiKongo, circulated in ca. 1935, itself transcribed from an unknown
narrator. I have not been able to find the KiKongo original, but it was retold
by A.-R. Bolamba as "La légende de Moni-Mambu chez les BaKongo,"
in Arts et metiers indigènes 9 ( 193 8): 17-19.1 have added Bolamba's episode
8 to the Van Wing and Schöller version since it was apparently in the original
KiKongo. Other accounts, much shorter, were given by Jules Benga and
Pierre Ndakivangi, as "Mumboni-a-Mpasi, celui qui avait beaucoup de
palabres," Arts et metier indigènes 9(1938): 20-21.
20. For a general analysis of the genre and an anthology of examples, see
W. Bascom, ed., African Dilemma Tales (The Hague, 1975). Locally, in
North Kongo, they are called ngana zakindembikisa, a collection of which is
available in J. Bahelele, Kinzonzi ye ntekolo'andi Makundu (Matadi,
1961), pp. 36-38.
21. P. Radin, The Trickster: A Study in American Indian Mythology
(New York, 1956).
22. L. Makarius, "Ritual Clowns and Symbolic Behavior," Diogenes 69
(1970): 67; also, R.D. Pelton, The Trickster in West Africa (Berkeley,
1980), offers a similar but more extensive analysis of the trickster in four
West-African traditions.
Chapter 8
1. A. Ramos, O Negro Brasileiro (Rio de Janeiro, 1934), p. 106,
partial translation by Roberto Fiorillo. The reference to the priest's smoking
recalls Lemba pipes from Loango and reference to smoking in the Mavungu
legends (Texts 7-8).
2. Ibid., Chapter 4, "Os cultos de procedencia Bantu," pp. 99-135.
3. M. Herskovits, The Myth of the Negro Past (Boston, 1958), p. 84.
4. R. Bastide, African Religions of Brazil (Baltimore, 1978), p. 196.
5. E. Carneiro, Negros Bantus (Rio de Janeiro, 1937).
6. In addition to Herskovits, Myth of the Negro Past, see his Daho-
mey: An Ancient West African Kingdom (New York, 1938); and Life in a
Haitian Village (New York, 1937).
7. R. Bastide, LecandomblédeBahia(riteNagô)(TheH2ig\ie, 1958);
and Bastide, African Religions of Brazil.
8. R F . Thompson, "Transatlantic African Art Traditions," MSS 1975,
1977; and Thompson, "The Flash of the Spirit: Haiti's Africanizing Vodun
Art," in Ute Stebich, ed., Haitian Art (Brooklyn, 1978), pp. 26-37.
9. R.F. Thompson, Black Gods and Kings (Los Angeles, 1971).
10. Bastide, African Religions of Brazil, p. 195; O. Dapper,
Umständliche und Eigenliche Beschreibung von Afrika (Amsterdam,
1670), pp. 534-537.
11. Thompson, "The Flash of Spirit," p. 26.
12. A. Métraux, Black Peasants and Voodoo (New York, 1960).
13. Ibid., p. 14.
Notes 345
14. J. Price-Mars, "Lemba-Pétro, un cult secret," Revue de la société

haïtienne d'histoire, de géographie, et de géologie 9, no. 28 (1938): 12-31.
15. Ibid., pp. 18-19.
16. Ibid., p. 19.
17. Ibid., pp. 19-20.
18. Ibid.
19. H. Chatelein, Folk-tales ofAngola (Boston and New York, 1894),
p. 11.
20. A. Métraux, Voodoo in Haiti (New York, 1959), p. 86.
21. Thompson, "The Flash of Spirit," pp. 26-27.
22. Herskovits, Life in a Haitian Village, pp. 154-176.
23. Ibid., pp. 164-165.
24. It would be tempting, both on grounds of terminological similarity
and of functional resemblance, to suggest an association between Bosu of the
Haitian rite and Boessi-Batta of the Loango coast and Cabinda cosmologies
and rites (see Chapter 2). The latter included components of the domestic
realm and the wild or the beyond, as represented in the trade. There is also in
Boessi-Bata's ritual, as reported in Dapper, Beschreibung von Afrika, pp.
534-537, a divinatory process which identifies the subject's needs through
the ecstasy of the officiating priest. This same dualism of the domestic realm
and of the beyond is present in nineteenth-century Cabinda figures M'boze,
female domestic personage, and Beti-Randa, male, keeper of the wilds, the
two being mediated by Kuiti-Kuiti (also known as Nzambi-Mpungu), as
recorded by C. Tastevin, "Idées religieuses des indigènes de l'enclave de
Cabinda," Etudes missionaires 3 (1935), no. 1, 105-111; no. 2, 191-197.
However, if Bosu is to be identified with Boessi-Bata or M'boze it would
mean either some resemblance between the Fongbe(Dahomean) and Kongo
deities, or a conjuncture in Haitian thought of the two. What is striking is
Bosu's presence in the Pétro (or Congo) set of deities in the Haitian rite.
25. Price-Mars, "Lemba-Pétro," pp. 12-31.
26. This translation of Price-Mars's 1938 text is published in Métraux,
Voodoo in Haiti, p. 307.
27. An interpretation given by Métraux, Voodoo in Haiti, p. 307.
Chapter 9
1. C. Kerenyi,"Prolegomena," inC. Jung andC. Kerenyi, eds.,Essays
on a Science of Mythology (Princeton, 1969), pp. 1-24.
2. W. MacGaffey, "The Religious Commissions of the BaKongo,"
Man n.s. 5, no. 1 (1970): 27-38.
3. A more extended discussion of this process in Kongo culture
structure is found in J.M. Janzen and W. MacGaffey, Anthology of Kongo
Religion (Lawrence, 1974), pp. 87-89.
4. L. Frobenius, Die Masken und Geheimbünden (Halle, 1898), Part
II.
346 NOTES
5. K. Laman, The Kongo III (Uppsala, 1962), p. 67.

6. L. Bittremieux, La société sécrète des Bakhimba (Bruxelles, 1936),
p. 67.
7. J.-F. Thiel, Ahnen, Geister, Höchste Wesen (St Augustin, 1977).
8. E. Lutete, Notebook 229, Laman Collection, Svenska Missions-
9. Ibid.
10. Ibid.
11. C. Tastevin, "Idées religieuses des indigènes de l'enclave de
Cabinda," Etudes missionaires 3 (1935), no. 1, 105-111; no. 2,191-197;
no. 3, 257-273. For a shortened version of the Woyo origin myth see J.
Knappert, "The Water Spirits," in his Myths and Legends of the Congo
(Nairobi and London, 1971), pp. 138-139.
12. Especially the distinction between "opposition" and "contradic
tion" as indicated by K. Burridge, "Lévi-Strauss and Myth," in E. Leach,
ed., The Structural Study of Myth (London, 1967), pp. 91-118.
13. In the sense understood by R. Girard, La violence et le sacré (Paris,
1972).
14. G. Boas, "The Evolution of the Tragic Hero," in R. W. Corrigan, ed.,
Tragedy: Vision and Form (San Francisco, 1965), pp. 117-131.
15. Corrigan, Tragedy, p. ix.
16. B. Dadié, personal communications, 1971.
17. "L'histoire de Kuba-Ntu" in J. Van Wing and C. Schöller, eds.,
Légendes des BaKongo orientaux (Louvain, 1940), pp. 53-60.
18. G. Bateson, Steps to an Ecology of Mind (New York, 1972).
19. F. Nietzsche, "The Birth of Tragedy," in Corrigan, Tragedy, p. 448.
20. C. Lévi-Strauss, "The Structural Study of Myth," Journal of
American Folklore 68 (1955): 428-444.
21. Burridge, "Lévi-Strauss and Myth."
22. C. Lévi-Strauss, "Finale," in his L'Homme Nu (Paris, 1971), pp.
559-621.
23. J. Lacan, "The Insistence of the Letter in the Unconscious," in R
and F. DeGeorge, eds., The Structuralists: From Marx to Lévi-Strauss
(Garden City, 1972), pp. 287-323.
24. Lacan' s point of reference here is Freud' s notion of Einstellung from
the "Interpretation of Dreams," a term which has also been translated as
"distortion" or "misrepresentation."
25. Freud's Verdichtung, a bringing together of several signifiers.
26. Freud's Verschiebung.
Chapter 10
1. I. Nsemi, "Min'kisi: Sacred Medicines," in J.M. Janzen and W.

MacGaffey, eds., Anthology ofKongo Religion (Lawrence, 1974), pp. 34-
38.
Notes 347
2. E. Andersson, L*Ethnographie desKuta (Uppsala, 1953), pp. 247-

249; A. Bastian, Die Deutsche Expedition an der Loango-Küste (Jena,
1874); H. Châtelain, Folktales of Angola (Boston and New York, 1894), p.
11.
3. O. Stenstrom, "The Lemba Cuit," Ethnos (1969), p. 37.
4. ZablonMakunza,Kinganga village, inDe la Kenge,LuoziTerritory.
5. F. Ngoma, L'initiation BaKongo et sa signification (Lubumbashi,
1963), p. 120.
6. J. Malonga, "La sorcellerie et Tordre du 'Lemba' chez les Lan,"
Liaison 63 (1958): 53-54; Batsikama ba Mampuya, "A propos de 'La
cosmogonie Kongo,' " Cultures au Zaire et en Afrique 4 (1974): 257.
7. J. Munzele, Bakulu beto yeDiela diau (Kumba, 1965), p. 19.
8. L. Bittremieux, Mayombsche Namen (Leuwen, 1934), pp. 42-44.
9. Batsikama ba Mampuya, "A propos . . . Kongo," p. 257.
10. W.H. Bentley, Pioneering on the Congo (London, 1900), p. 290.
Chapter 11
1. J. Vansina, in his Children ofWoot: A History ofthe Kuba Peoples
(Madison, 1978), p. 209, offers a negative assessment of the possibility of
retrieving an intellectual history for much of precolonial Africa. For a more
optimistic appraisal of the situation and an attempt at an intellectual history of
a precolonial setting through the use of therapeutic central values in Lozi
history, see G. Prins, Hidden Hippopotamus (Cambridge, 1980), pp. 150-
157.
2. C. Meier, Die Entstehung des Politischen bei den Griechen (Frank
furt, 1980), pp. 154-158.
Sources
The Reconstruction of Lemba

During fieldwork campaigns in the Manianga (Territory of Luozi) in 1964-
1966 and 1969 I began to perceive Lemba's historic importance to the
region. I pursued some inquiries into the context of its political activities and
the role of its priests and priestesses in marketing, conflict resolution, and
other judicial and economic activities. Those Lemba priests and priestesses
initiated before 1920 who were willing to speak to me and whose memories
were lucid were of inestimable help in reconstructing the local nature of
Lemba in the Kivunda district. Of these, special mention must be made of
Katula Davidi of Nseke Mbanza. Nzuzi Pierre of Kisiasia and Munzele
Yacobi of Kumbi although too young to have been initiated were both very
helpful in explaining Lemba's role in their communities. Fukiau was a
valuable guide in technical KiKongo discussions with these people.
Published and unpublished accounts from various specialized sources have
been used to reconstruct Lower-Congo society and Lemba's role within it I
have combed many historical chronicles and ethnographies for explicit or
circumstantial details on Lemba. Mention of the term "lemba" does not
always mean Lemba the drum of affliction, since the name is used in a
number of towns and villages. As far as I can determine, there is no historic
connection between Lemba the drum of affliction and the use of lemba as the
title for a chiefly order in Bandundu and Kasai societies, although lemba
does appear as a Western Bantu cognate in Guthrie's Proto-Bantu word list
Fortunately, Lemba is not a clan name in Lower-Congo societies. First
mention of Lemba as n'kisi appears in print in Dapper's 1668 Beschreibung
of Loango. Thereafter allusions appear in reports by traders, missionaries,
and other travellers and eventually in writings by Kongo authors. These have
been consulted in numerous specialized libraries and archives. Such writings
as those by the missionaries Hyacinthe de Bolonge and Montesarchio and
other sources published by the Catholic church I have located mainly in the
Jesuit Institute of Bonn and in the Anthropos Institute of St Augustine. The
German Loango coast expedition of the 1870's organized and carried out by
Adolph Bastian offers the first professional ethnographies of Congo-Basin
societies, including some perceptive passages on Lemba. These are all in
published works, but unfortunately I was not able to locate any unpublished
documents of the Loango expedition, except for some pertaining to material
culture collections in the Berlin-Dahlem Museum of Ethnography, which will
be detailed below. Neither the Catholic missionaries nor the Loango expedi
tion personnel link Lemba to trade. Personal correspondence of the
merchant Robert Visser in the Linden Museum, Stuttgart, offers some light on
this trade, although Lemba is not mentioned explicitly by him. On other
349
350 SOURCES
aspects of Lemba, missionaries, both Catholic and Protestant, of the turn of

the century and a bit later offer exceptional material on Lemba and its setting.
Taste vin' s work in C abinda I located in the Jesuit Institute of Bonn, and much
of Bittremieux's unpublished work from the Kangu district in Mayombe is
available in the Musée d'Afrique Central at Tervuren. Swedish missionaries'
work and correspondence were consulted either in the Svenska Missions-
forbundet in Lidingô, in the Stockholm Ethnographic Museum, or in the
Gôteburg Ethnographic Museum. These include Laman, Hammar, Westlind,
Bôrrison, Andersson and Stenstrom, all of whom worked in Nsundi, Kamba,
and Lali regions, and who offer excellent although often anecdotal informa
tion on Lemba.
A source of comparable importance in the reconstruction of the setting
of Lemba is the local colonial archival network, particularly those docu
ments resulting from detailed inquiries made in the early decades of this
century by colonial agents seeking to understand the region's history and
basis of legitimacy so as to achieve fuller penetration of the colonial adminis
tration into African society. Although the Luozi Territorial Archives and
offices were burned to the ground by partisans during the interval from Free
State rule to Belgian colonial rule in 1907-1910, later surveys made by
territorial agents and administrators such as Maillet, Vercraeye, and Dele val
are available and were consulted in Luozi, giving accounts, based on inter
views, of inaugurations of precolonial chiefs, clan migrations, and village
compositions. Little mention is given Lemba in these archives. What they
convey is a contempt for "northern" anarchy in which there are no big chiefs.
Repeated efforts were made to identify or create such chiefs, in the process of
which the segmentary social system and its horizontal mechanisms of integra
tion were generally overlooked and misunderstood. One exception to this is
the work of Deleval, whose writings both published and in the archives reflect
remarkable insight. Known locally as mundele si-si-si, "Whiteman Yes-yes-
yes," after the petulant manner in which he answered questions, Deleval's
materials go well beyond the standards of administrative requirements for
information and constitute very helpful scientific accounts.
The most exciting unpublished written sources on Lemba are accounts of
initiation séances and exegetical remarks prepared by Kongo catechists for
Swedish missionary Karl Laman from ca. 1905-1919, before Lemba's
demise. Local accounts culled from the 430 notebooks, used by Laman to
prepare his KiKongo-French dictionary and the four volumes of Kongo
ethnography, provide much of the primary material for the regional variants
of Lemba in Chapters 4-8. These notebooks by largely unheralded Kongo
writers are in the Laman Collection in the Svenska Missionsforbundet
archives in Lidingô, and have been microfilmed for easier access.
The tradition of Kongo writing begun with the catechists continues,
offering further accounts of Lemba by modern writers such as Malonga Jean,
Brazzaville novelist and essayist, Ngoma Ferdinand, Zairian sociologist, and
Mampuya and Fukiau, both active writers. All four have been seriously
Sources 351
concerned with Lemba, the major institution of their recent culture history.
We may add to this list Haiti's well-known ethnologist-physician, Jean Price-
Mars, who has written the only in-depth account, however brief, of Lemba in
the N^w World. These efforts by indigenous writers to describe and interpret
Lemba"s significance provide the base for my own résumé of a conscious
Lemba ideology of therapeutics in the ngoma, drum-of-affliction tradition in
the final part of the book.
A final, and very important, source on Lemba is artifactual. Many of the
aforementioned missionaries, traders, travellers, and colonial officials gath
ered cultural objects and deposited them in African and European museums.
Rarely have Lemba objects been labelled and displayed for what they are.
However in several research trips to Central-European museums I discov
ered extensive holdings of Lemba objects, revealing a mute record of
9
Lemba s historic existence, its geographic distribution, and its integral role in
Congo-Basin social and cultural history. Particular museums consulted are
listed in the inventory of museum objects below.
In sum, I have used all possible sources for the reconstruction of Lemba
and its context. Figure 1 records the geographical distribution of those which
are identified with a specific location. The following lists of sources identify
other nonlocalized objects and documents.
Scholarly References
Andersson, Effraim. Contribution à l'ethnographie des Kuta I. Uppsala:
Studia Ethnographica Upsalensia, VI, 1953
Armstrong, Robert P. The Affecting Presence. Urbana, Chicago, and Lon
don: University of Illinois Press, 1971.
Bahelele, Jacques. Kinzonziye ntekolo andiMakundu. Matadi: Imprimerie
de l'Eglise Evangelique du Manianga et Matadi, 1961.
Banton, Michael, ed. Anthropological Approaches to the Study of Religion.
New York: Praeger, 1966.
Barthes, Roland. "Eléments de sémiologie." Communications 4 (1964):
91-135.
— . Système de la mode. Paris: Editions du Seuil, 1967.
. S/Z. Paris: Editions du Seuil, 1970.
Bascom, William, ed. African Dilemma Tales. The Hague: Mouton, 1975.
Bastian, Adolph. Die Deutsche Expedition an der Loango Küste. 2 vols.
Jena: Costenoble, 1874.
Bastide, Roger. Le candomblé de Bahia (rite Nagô). The Hague: Mouton,
1958.
. African Religions of Brazil. Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins
University Press, 1978.
Bateson, Gregory. Steps to an Ecology of Mind. New York: Ballantine,
1972.
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Batsikama ba Mampuya "A propos de 'la cosmogonie Kongo.' " Cultures

au Zaire et en Afrique 4 (1974): 239-264.
Battel, Andrew. "The Strange Adventures of Andrew Battel." In ,4 General
Collection of the Best and Most Interesting Voyages and Travels in all
Parts of the World, edited by John Pinkerton. London: Kimber and
Conrad, 1814.
Baumann, Hermann, and Westermann, Dietrich. Les peuples et civilisations
de l'Afrique. Paris: Payot, 1967.
Benga, Jules, and NdaKivangi, Pierre. "Mumboni-a-Mpasi, celui qui avait
beaucoup de palabres," Arts et métiers indigènes 9 (1938): 20-21.
Bentley, William H. Pioneering on the Congo. 2 vols. London: Religious
Tract Society, 1900.
Bittremieux, Leon. "Un vieux chef." Missions en Chine, au Congo, et aux
Philippines 6 (1909): 121-123.
. Van E en Ouden Blinden Hoofdman. Antwerpen: Oude Beurs,
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Museum Collections
ABBREVIATIONS OF MUSEUMS
AMBG Afrika Museum, B erg en D al, The Netherlands

B-D Berlin-Dahlem Museum fur Völkerkunde
GEM Göteborg Ethnographic Museum, Sweden
KM Kimpese Museum, Lower Zaire
LMS Linden Museum, Stuttgart, West Germany
LRM Leiden Rijks Museum, The Netherlands
MAC Musée d'Afrique Central, Tervuren, Belgium
SEM Stockholm Ethnographic Museum, Sweden
LEMBA DRUMS
SEM 1907.8.34 "Konko Lemba" from Kimbunu. don. J.

Lindstrom, 1907.
SEM 1907.8.38 "Nkonko a Lemba" from Mbamba,
Lower Congo, don. J. Lindstrom, 1907.
SEM 1919.1.437 "Mukonzi a Lemba" from Mayombe,
don. K. Laman 1919 (No. 40, fig. 1).
SEM 1919.1.445 "Nkonko a Lemba" from Sundi in
Ludima, don. Laman, 1919 (No. 39, fig. 1).
GEM 68.11.230 "Nkonko Lemba".
GEM 68.11.241 "Nkonko Lemba" fromNganda, Kingoyi,
don. J. Hammar, 1910 (No. 9, fig. 1).
B-D III C 18921 "coco Lemba", fromBavili, don. R Visser,
1904 (No. 29, fig. 1).
MAC 34778 "Ngoma Lemba".
MAC 34774-34782 "Zingoma zaDilemba", don. L.
Bittremieux.
MAC 35342 miniature bone Lemba drum amulet.
MAC 43695 miniature wood Lemba drum amulet.
Sources 361
MAC 69.59.498 miniature wood Lemba drum amulet from

Mayumba, don. MJ. Sena, 1946.
MAC 53.74.1323 miniature metal Lemba drum amulet
MAC 35052 Lemba miniature drum, don. B ittremieux.
LMS 38363 Necklace strung with teeth, miniature
Lemba drum as main ornament, don. R.
Visser, 1905.
LEMBA BRACELETS
B-D III C 347 Copper Lemba bracelet, Tschicambo,

Loango, don. Loango Expedition, 1875.
B-D III C 710b Brass Woman's Lemba bracelet, 8 cm.,
don. Loango Expedition, 1875.
B-D III C 6524 Brass bracelet "Bilunge Chilenge,"
BaKunya, don. R Visser, 1896.
B-D III C 8136 C Wood bracelet form for casting, don.
Visser.
B-D III C 13810a-f Clay forms for casting Lemba bracelet,
don. R Visser, 1901 (no longer
existent).
LRM 1032/136 Casting mould of clay for a bracelet,
(I.C.E.Inv.No.) Boma(No. 31, fig. 1).
LRM 1032/60 Red copper engraved bracelet, Banana
(I.C.E.Inv.No.) (No. 32, fig. 1).
LRM 1032/59 Yellow copper (brass) engraved
(I.C.E.Inv.No.) bracelet, Banana.
LRM 1034/53 Red copper engraved bracelet, Banana.
(I.C.E.Inv.No.)
GEM 66.15.3 Bronze "Nsongo a Lemba," Kitoma,
Atlantic coast, don. J. Lagergren, 1966.
5 cm. (No. 34, fig. 1).
GEM 1938.31.12 "Mulunga Lemba," Indo Bayaka,
Bakuta, 7 cm. don. Andersson (No. 37,
fig. 1).
GEM 1938.31.11 "Mulunga Lemba," Ntele, Bayaka,
Bakuta, 10 cm.
MAC 35021 Lemba bracelet, don. Bittremieux.
MAC 21372 Red copper bracelet, don. S.G. Arnold,
1917. 9 mm.
MAC 54.2.10 Lead bracelet, purch. Walschot, 1954.
MAC 43587 Red copper, traces of ngula (sic), Lemba
bracelet, Mayombe, don. M. Sena,
1946.
362 SOURCES
MAC 43578 Copper Lemba bracelet, Mayombe,

don. Seha, 1946, 9 cm.
MAC 43584 Yellow copper Lemba bracelet, don.
Seha, 1946, 8 cm.
MAC 24985 Copper bracelet, don. Renkin, 1909, 8
cm.
MAC 23275 Copper bracelet, don. Michel, 1919, 9
cm.
MAC 75.51.21 Lemba bracelet, lead or brass.
MAC (recent Lemba bracelet, don. J. Walschot
acquisition)
MAC 54.60.2 Lemba bracelet, brass, 10 cm.
MAC 53.74.1312 Copper bracelet "Lunga milemba,"
Tshela, Sundi tribe, Zubu, don. A.
Maesen, 1954.
MAC 53.74.1339 Copper "lunga Lemba," Tshela,
Mayumbe, Kai ku Tsanga, don. A.
Maesen, 1954.
MAC 53.74.1313 "Lunga miLemba," Tshela, Sundi/
,Fubu, made in Mama Tsanga village,
sector Tsanga Nord, don. Maesen,
1954.
MAC 53.74.1324 Copper bracelet for Lemba wife, right
arm, Tshela, Sundi tribe, Kangu-Lufu,
don. A. Maesen, 6 cm.
MAC 53.74.1333 Copper bracelet, "Lunga Lemba,"
Tshela, Mayumbe, Kai ku Tsanga, don.
Maesen, 9 cm.
MAC 53.74.1332 Copper "lunga Lemba," Mayumbe, Kai
ku Tsanga, clan Makaba, don. A.
Maesen, 9 cm.
MAC 54.74.1335 Copper "lunga Lemba," Mayumbe, Kai
ku Tsanga, don. Maesen, 8 cm.
AMBG 417.50 bracelet.
AMBG 415 I 536 Three copper bracelets, one unworked,
(inv. no. 29-536) of Vili manufacture, two with incised
snakes, ordered from Europe.
B-D III C 423 Bracelet, Loango Expedition 1875,
Bastian.
B-D III C 6535 Copper Lemba bracelet, don. Visser,
1896 (missing since WWII from
collection).
Sources 363
LEMBA MEDICINE CONTAINERS
B-D III C Rafia Lemba charm sack ("Sackfetisch

13871 Lembe"), Caio, Loango Coast, don. R.
Visser, 1900 (no longer in collection
since WWII).
B-D III C "Lembe Sackfetisch", Caio, Loango
13743 Coast, don. Visser, 1901 (no longer in
collection).
B-D III C "Lembe Sackfetisch", Caio, Loango
13744 Coast, don. Visser, 1901 (no longer in
collection).
MAC 43040 "N'kobe Lemba," Kangu, Mayombe,
don. Bittremieux.
MAC 37972 "Khobe Lemba," don. Bittremieux,
1937.
MAC 35191 "Khobe Lemba," Woyo, don.
Bittremieux, 1933.
MAC 35192 "Khobe Lemba," Woyo, don.
Bittremieux, 1933.
SEM 1919.1.583 "Nkisi Lemba," Nsundi, Mukimbungu,
don. Laman, 1919.
KM (no identif. Lemba n'kobe (no documentation),
number)
MISCELLANEOUS LEMBA OBJECTS
MAC 34766 Smoking pipe head.

B-D III C Lemba pipe ("N'timbeliambe"), doa
13873 Visser, 1900.
B-D Katalog Lemba opium pipe ("Hanfrauche
372 Lemba"), don. Bastian, 1874 (missing
from collection).
AMBG 177 Probably Lemba couple, statue,
Landana, Cabinda.
MAC 35176 Lemba anthropomorphic statue
("Ndubi Lemba"), with left arm raised
and croissant-drum hanging from same
elbow.
GEM 68.11.208 Lemba dance rattles, Basundi, Nganda,
don. J. Hammar, 1906.
Index
Abala (region), 61 Babutidi (Kongo catechist-

Affonso (Kongo king, also called ethnographer), 243-4,
Nzinga a Mpemba), 63-4 248-51,253,255,258, 342,
Alexander von Humboldt 343
(foundation), vi Bade (Fongbe-Brazilian vodun),
Auma (river, region), 32, 61 176
Aluvais (Angola-Brazilian Bahelele,J.,344
inkissi), 276 Bahia (Brazilian city), 274-6
Ambriz (port town), 2, 29, 63 Bakongo (village), 37
America(n), food plants in Africa, See also Kongo (people)
29, 31; extensions of Lemba Bana bambuta (patrifilial
to, 273-92 children); see Mwana
Andersson, E., 2,157-85passim, Banana (city), 2
341 Bansa (Loango nkisi), 53
Angola, 276, 281 Banton, M., 339, 341
Angoro (Angola-Brazilian Bantu (language, cultural group of
inkissi), 276 peoples), 12-15;
Angoromea (Congo-Brazilian characteristic therapeutics,
inkissi), 276 12-15; influences in Brazil,
Aniota (Congo "leopard" cult), 274-7; waxing and waning of
11 cultic and therapeutic
Anne, St., in Afro-Brazilian institutions among, 7
religion, 276 Barbara, St., in Afro-Brazilian
Ansiku (people; Teke), 60 religion, 276
Anthony, St., in Afro-Brazilian Baron Samedi (Haitian loa), 283
religion, 276 Barthes,R., 339-40
Arada (also Alada; Dahomean Bartholomew, St., in Afro-
town), 277 Brazilian religion, 276
Armstrong, R.P.,339 Bascom, W., 344
Ashade (Haitian "Rada" loa), 284 Bassesse (village), 37
Ashanti (people), influences in Bastian, A., 2, 57, 244,336, 337,
New World, 273-7 342, 346, PI. 8
Atlantic (ocean, coast), 2, 3,5,18, Bateson,G.,310,340, 346
27; trade across, 273-5 Batshikama ba Mampuya, 187,
Auge (Fongbe-Brazilian vodun), 201,341-2, 347
276 Battel, A., 55, 336
Ayoani (Fongbe-Brazilian vodun), Baumann, H., 335
276 Belgium (colonialism in Congo),
Aziri (Fongbe-Brazilian vodun), 6, 33,81,83,85-6,90,245,
276 247,342-3
365
366 INDEX
Bembe (people, region), 2, 233 Bosu (Haitian "Petro" loa), 54,

Benedict, St., in Afro-Brazilian 281-3, 285
religion, 276 Bosu Trois Comes (Haitian loa),
Benga, J., 344 284
Beni-Ngoma (drum association), Boukman (hero of Haitian
6 revolution), 278
Beti-Landa (Woyo mythological Brazil, 29, 32, 60, 95, 273-7
figure), 301-3, 345 Brazzaville, 2-3, 82, 95,157
See also Kunda-Bala Bueno (nkisi of chiefship), 68
Bible, translation of, and Kongo Bumba (Loango, Atlantic coast
literacy, 86-7; access to, and nkisi, also Bomba), 53, 274,
power of prophets, 90-1; 277
translation of "Holy Spirit" See also Mbumba Luangu;
in, 249 Khimba
See also Christianity Bunzi (earth spirit, shrine, in
Bikinda (ancestral, earth spirit), Ngoyo; cult of affliction),
44, 69, 79 47769,79,97,248f277,
Bingo (Woyo nkisi), 301, 303; see 291-2, 302-303; as afflicting
KaBuanga; Pfemba spirit,4*2,150-1; as central
Binza (Nsundi district, town), 62, shrine of regional cult, 21;
64 and chiefship, 15,17,18;
Bittremieux, L. (Belgian proliferation of, 22, 54
missionary-ethnographer), 2, Burridge, K., 20, 311,333,346
12,83,233-45,255,298, Bush Negroes (Guyana,
336-8, 342-3, 346, Pis. 4, 5, 6, Surinam), 19
14 See also Maroon; Gaan Tata
Bituma (Zambian cult of Bwende (clan, ethnic label), 2, 38
affliction), 17, 19 Bwiti (Fang cult, Gabon), 6
Bitungu (Loango nkisi), 56
Boas, G., 346 Cabinda (port town, region), 2-3,
Boenza~(Nsundi district), 62, 64 5, 10, 29, 34, 46, 252,278,
Boessi-Bata (Loango nkisi), 52-3, 300, Pis. 18, 19
345 Cajanja (Angola-Brazilian
Bohannan, P., 335 inkissi), 276
Bolamba, A.R.,344 Calumet (ceremonial trading
Boma (city), 2 system), v
Bombongira (Congo-Brazilian Cameroons, 28,257
inkissi), 276-7 Candomble (Afro-Brazilian cult
Bomfin, Savior of, in Afro- form), 274-5, 301
Brazilian religion, 276 Capitalism, arousing spirit of
Bongo (people), 37 (heha mbongo), 250-1;
Boone, O., 335 Lemba as cure for, v
Bordeaux (city), 278 Carniero, E., 274-5, 344
Index 367
Cassange (southern savanna 81, 85, 245, 247; influences in

kingdom), 65 New World culture, 273-7;
Cassunbenca (Angola-Brazilian Lower Congo region, 9-10,
inkissi), 276 15, 23, 25, 95, 247; Republic
Catechists, authors of of, 95; river, 18,32
ethnographic notebooks, 87, See also Nzadi; Zaire
105, 157,233,340 Congo Zandor (Haitian "Pétro"
Catende (Congo- and Angola- loa), 282-3
Brazilian inkissi), 276 Coquery-Vidrovitch, C , 338
Chatelein, H., 280-1,345, 347 Corporation theory, presented,
Chavunduka,G.,331 22-3 ; in explanation of
Chef de groupement (Belgian diversity of Western
colonial title), 85 Equatorial African
Chef médaillé (colonial institutions, 21; in relation to
chiefship), 70, 85 social and political systems
Chinese, 37, 81 of Lemba region, 45-79
Christ, in Afro-Brazilian religion, passim. x
276 Correspondence theory, 18-19;

Christianity, 82, 86-7; conversion criticized, 20
to, 87, 89; deities and saints Corrigan, R., 346
in New World Afro- Cuango-Malimba (Loango nkisi),
American religion, 273-7; in 56
historic Kongo kingdom, 63; Cuba, 274
suspected influence in Culture area theory, 11
Lemba ethics, 320; as taught Cuvelier, J.,62,336, 338
by prophet Kimbangu, 91
Christophe (Haitian president),
278,288,292,298 Dadie,B.,307,346
Clan, 38-41; local section, 39, 44 Dahomey, influences in New
See also Dikanda; Mvila World, 273-7
Codes, of expressive domaines, Damballah Wedo (Haitian "Rada"
100-1; identification and loo), 282, 284
deciphering of, 100-1 ; use in Dandalunda (Angola-Brazilian
disparate data criticism and inkissi), 276
evaluation, 103 Dapper, O., 2, 51-5, 251-2, 256,
See also Expressive domains 275, 277, 337, 345, PI. 1
Colonialisme, 81-91,169 De Cleene, E.,336,337
Colombia, Teke slaves De Craemer, W.,332
distinguished in, 60 DeGeorge, R. and F.,346
Congo (river and basin, Belgian De Heusch,L.,21,334
colony, republic), 3-4,5,9, DeJonghe, E., 9-12passim, 331
10, 29, 34,46, 95, 252, 278, Deleval,H.,38,336, 337
300, Pis. 18, 19; Free State, Dembacani (Loango nkisi), 56
368 INDEX
Dennet, J., 2 Elegba (Fongbe-Brazilian voduri),

Dessalines (Haitian president), 276
278,288, 292,298 See also Legba
Devil, in Afro-Brazilian religion, English, 34
276; alleged marriage with, Erzilie (Haitian "Petro" loa), 283
51 Erzilie Ge Rouge (Haitian "Petro"
Dikanda (lineage, clan section), loa), 282, 284
39; Evans-Pritchard, E., 331
See also Kanda Expedit, St., in Afro-Brazilian
Diogo Cao (Portuguese explorer), religion, 276
63 Expressive domains, as analytic
Dionga, W., 343 method in study of
Dolgin,J.,339 therapeutic ritual, 102, 313; of
Dondo Mazinga (Nsundi district), color, 98; defined, 98-9;
63 exchange of goods and
See also Mazinga symbols, 98,135-8,166-9,
Don Pedro (Haitian legendary 245-7; hypothesis of
hero, lod) See Jean Petro, transference between, and
Lemba-Petro Lemba therapeutics, 304-5;
Douglas, M., 174,341 of the lyrical, 98,146-55,
Doutreloux, A., 337 179-85, 200-31, 258-72; of
Droux,C, 334 medicine, 98,140-3,172-9,
Drum, drumming, 52,107, 111, 195-200; of medicine and art,
114-15,118,137,157,179,192, 251-58; redundancy of, 100,
234,252,279, 282, Pis. 14-17; 310; social organization as,
of affliction, v, 3,12-14, 20, 98,138-40,169-72; space and
315; casting spell with, 241, time in ritual, 98,130-5,
249, 256-7; miniaturized as 163-6, 189-95, 243-5, 280,
charm, 252,256, pi. 16; as 291; of verbal categories of
non-verbal therapeutic ritual action, 98,143-6,
metaphor, 310; rhythm as 247-51
coded expressive domain, 98; See also Codes; Metaphor
in Haitian loa possession, Exu (Yoruba-Brazilian orisha),
238; waxing and waning of 276
drums of affliction, 7,14
See also Nkonzi; Nkonko; Falkenstein, J., 2, 337
Ngoma Fallers, L., vii
Duke (title in Nsundi), 64 Fernandez, J., 339
Dundes, A., 340 Fidalgos (Nsundi appointments),
Dunga (Nsundi town), 66 64
Dupont, E.,29, 32, 335,338 Fongbe (people, Dahomean,
Durkheim, E.,9,19 Republic of Benin), 285
Dutch, 34 France, French, 6, 64, 81-2,169,
Index 369
272; revolution in Haiti, 278 George, St., in Afro-Brazilian

Francis, St., in Afro-Brazilian religion, 276
religion, 276 Girard,R.,346
Frazer, J.,9,331 Ghana, 16
Freud, S., 9, 331, 346 Gluckman,M.,38,336
Frobenius, L., 10,11, 298, 331, God, 60, 87,185,192,201-202,
335, 345 274, 276, 284, 301-302; in
Fuanda (Nsundi ruler), 66, 68 centralized cult, 19; as
Fukiau (Kongo writer), vii, 2, creator, 46; as Father, in
187-201,202-206,317,341, source of trickster's Lemba
342 medicine, 258-67; in Holy
Fula (to blow, arouse, channel); Family, 176-7; word of, 86; in
fudila mwana, arouse, raise a Lemba lyrics, 184
child, 249; fudila nkisi, See also Nzambi
arouse an nkisi, 249; fula Gombiri (Loango nkisi), 55
beka kubafula,fulikidi, to Goody, J., 21, 333
resurrect, 163, 249; fula dia Graebener, F , 10,11,331
bula, village entrance, 107, Gussfeldt, P., 2, 57, 244,337,342
132,161,237,249;/«/0</fa Guinea, coast, 6
zandu, market entrance, PL Gun (Fongbe-Brazilian vodun),
3; he ha mu mafula, arouse, 276
stir up in the entrances [of Guthrie, M., 332
market, village], 235, 249-50; Guyana, 19
mafula mia zandu, market
trading groups, 74; mbondo Hagenbucher-Sacripanti, F , 336
fula, oration charm, 249, 257, Haiti, 95,102-3,188,273-92
PL 12 passim.
Funza (twinship cult), 88-9, Hako (Pawnee ceremonial trading
300-301 association), v
Hammar, J., 2
Gaan Tata (Guyana regional cult), Handa, vanda (to initiate to or
19-20 compose nkisi), 101,106-107,
Gabon, 6 115,122,125,128,234, 241-2,
Gabriel, St., in Afro-Brazilian 297; in legitimating beliefs,
religion, 276 297; logic of associations in,
Gaetano, St., in Afro-Brazilian 297-9, 311-13; in trickster
religion, 276 legend, 259-65; as verbal
Gangala (people, also Bayangala), category of ritual action,
2, 37 143-4
Garbett, K., 332 See also Medicine, Nkisi,
Gedenibo (Haitian "Petro" loa), Nkobe, Plants
283 Harvey, C , 342
Geertz,C.,20,333,339 Hausa (people), 37
370 INDEX
Heha, veva (to arouse, infuse Islamic brotherhoods, Egypt, v

with spirit), 235, 249-50
Herbert, E., vii Jacobson-Widding, A., 343
Herskovits, M., 274-5, 281-5, Jamaica, 273
344, 345 Janzen, J., 332,339, 340, 341, 343,
Historical school, and manist 345,346
explanation of religious Jean Petro (legendary Haitian
change,10, 298 hero), 277-92 passim, 298,
Holy family, in Afro-American 301
religion, 276,286 See also Don Pedro; Petro-
Holy Spirit, 249, 276 Lemba
Hyacinthe de Bologne, 49-50, 337 Jerome, St., in Afro-Brazilian
religion, 276
Ideology, and choice of John, St., in Afro-Brazilian
alternatives, 295-6; beyond religion, 276
ideology, to explore John the Baptist, St., in Afro-
dilemmas, 324-5; myth Brazilian religion, 276
structure and, 311; of Lemba Jung, C , 297, 345
therapeutics, 315-21;
transference of dilemmas KaBuanga (Woyo nkisi), 301
and, 311-17 See also Bingo; Pfemba
Ikenga (cult of the hand), 6 Kaiala (Angola-Brazilian inkissi),
Imba (Loango nkisi), 55 276
Imbaw (Teke clan), 38 Kakongo (kingdom), 4-5,18, 20,
See also Kimbanga 37,45-58passim, 248
Immaculate Conception, Our Kalela Dance (ngoma
Lady of, in Afro-Brazilian association), 6
religion, 276 Kalundu (Bantu-Brazilian cult
Impaw (Teke nkobi), 59 name), 274
Incossi Mucumbe (Congo- Kalunga (Woyo nkisi, attribute of
Brazilian inkissi), 276-7 Nzambi-God), 274, 301-303
See also Kossi; Roche Kamba (people, region), 2, 35, 38,
Mucumbe 95-6,102,105-55passim, 291,
Indian (East African people), 37 300
Indo (town, mission), 128 Kambaranguanje (Congo-
Indonesia, 37 Brazilian inkissi), 276
Injami (Loango inkissi), 53, 55, Kambizi (Woyo nkisi spirit),
277 301-303
See also Njambe See also Lusunzi
Iroko-loko (Yoruba-Brazilian Kanda (lineage, clan section; also
orisha), 276 dikanda, singular, makanda,
See also Loko, Ossain plural) 39; Lemba as
Isangoma (diviners' order among preserver of, 124
Nguni-speaking peoples), 6 See also.Mvila
Index 371
Kanga (Woyo spirit), 301-303 Kinkenge (village, mission), 2

Kanga ikanga (Loango nkisi), 55 Kinkita (cult, drum of affliction),
Kangu (Mayombe mission, 16
region, chiefdom), 2, 83-4, See also Nkita; Simbi
86, 233,243, 253, Pis. 5, 6 Kinkuzu (Nsundi capital), 66
Kasai (river, province), 298 Kinshasa (village, city), 2-3, 33
Kasi (Nsundi district),62, 64 Kinsitu (Nsundi district), 62, 64
Kata Mandala (Nsundi chief), 66 Kinzaba (village), 2
Katula, D. (Lemba priest, Kinzore (village), 37
catechist), 86-7, 90,187-200 Kise (paternity), 40
Kavati (Mayombe district, See also Se
people), 51 Kisi (spirit of nkisi; sing., mukisi,
Kayo (village), 2
nkisi; pi., bakisi), 89
Kelly, H., 2, 334
Kemnitzer, D.S.,339 See also Nkisi; Medicine
Kenge (people, ethnic label), 2 Kisiasia (village), 73-8passim.,
Kerenyi, C , 297, 345 86
Khimba (youth initiation school), Kita (cult, drum of affliction), see
10-11,53,83,284 Kinkita; Nkita
Kiasi (chiefly title), 68-9 Kitauba (Loango nkisi), 53
Kibuco (Angola-Brazilian inkissi), Kitona (village), 2
276 Kitswa (patron spirit of Lemba),
Kidiba, war of, 74-6 183,185
Kiese (village), 90 Kiyaazi (Nsundi royal medicine,
Kiessubangango (Angola- rulership), 65
Brazilian inkissi), 276 Knappert, J., 346
Kifuna (village), 64 Koch, E., 334
Kikokoo (Loango nkisi), 53-5, Koloss, H., vi
277 Konda, J. (Kongo catechist-
Kilanga (village), 37 ethnographer), 2, 248-51,
Kilemfu (Nsundi district), 62, 64 257,291,317,342
Kimaje (Loango nkisi), 53-4 Köngäs-Maranda, E., 339, 341
Kimata (village), 86 Kongo (kingdom, place, ethnic
Kimbanga (clan), 38, 77-8, 85 label, people), 2,10,12,14,
See also Imbaw 37,58, 62-70passim., 82,
Kimbangu, S. (Kongo prophet), 157, 248, 257; forest in Teke
12,82-3,90-1 country, 59; historic cults of
Kimbembe (Kongo catechist- affliction and medicines in,
ethnographer), 157-85 15; kingdom and people, 5,
passim, 341 28-9,45,62-5
Kimpasi (youth initiation school), 11 See also Congo; Nzadi; Zaire
Kingoma (village), 37 Kopytoff, I., 45, 334, 336
Kingoyi, Kingoyo (village, Kossi (Loango nkisi) 53, 277
mission, clan), 66, 85 See also Incossi Mucumbe
372 INDEX
Kuba (legendary Lemba priest), Lebanese, 37

176,179-85 passim., 291 Legba (Fongbe-Brazilian vodun),
Kuba-Ntu (mythical figure), 309, 276,282-3, 284
311 Lehuard,R.,254,337, 343
Kuimba, Kikuimba (clan), 38, Lemba, etymological origin of
74-5 word, lembikisa, to calm,
Kuiti-Kuiti (Woyo mythical cool, purify, 3, 36; female
figure, Nzambi Mpungu), element of, Pfemba-Lemba,
301-303 253, 343; in Haiti, Pétro-
See also Nzambi Lemba, 273, 278; historical
Kulo-Malonga (Loango nkisi), 56 distribution, 3-7, 51-2;
Kunda-Bala (Woyo mythic Lemba laws, 122-23, 127-8,
figure), 301-303 242, 320; Lemba names,
Kundu (mystical power, 250—1 ; Lemba sickness, 3-4,
substance, pi. makundu), 106,158, 234, 315-18; male
124,146; in nkobe, 253, 256; element, Tsasa-Lemba, 253;
rules against abuses of, 127 nature of regional variations,
Kunja (Loango nkisi), 55 96-8; as purifying, calming
Kuper, A., 331 medicine, bonzo-Lemba, 158,
Kusikila, Y.,332 167-8, m/?o/oLemba,
Kuta (ethnic label), 2 106-107,120,141,150,
Kwamba E. (Kongo catechist- mwemo-Lemba, 236-7
ethnographer), 2,104-24 Lemba-Nsongi (Kongo nkisi), 298
passim., 130-55, 166,248, Leopoldville (city), 81-2
255,312, 340 Lévi-Strauss, C , 210, 311, 336,
Kwilu (Nsundi district), 62, 64 339, 342, 346
Kwilu-Niari (river, valley), 2-3, Lineage, 39; Lemba as preserver
27-46, 95 of, 124; mode of production,
39
Laadi, Lari (people, region), 2, See also Clan; Dikanda
157-8 Lisbon, 63
Lacan, J., 312, 346 Loa (Haitian voodoo deities), 277,
Lagercrantz, S., 38, 340 281-92 passim.
Lagergren, J., 2 Loanda (city), 65
Lali (people, region), 2 Loango (kingdom, port town,
Laman, K.,2,10,38, 87,105, river), 2-5,10,18, 21, 27, 29,
200-1, 298, 331,338, 340, 342, 32, 34, 45-58passim., 61, 65,
346, PI. 17 67,82,139,243,248, 252,
Lari, Laadi (people, region), 2, 278, Pis. 1,8,15,20
157-8 See also MaLoango
Lasch, R., 9 Loango Expedition, German, vi,
Lawrence, St., in Afro-Brazilian 2, 54-8
religion, 276 See also Bastian, A.
Leach, E., 340, 346 Lohse, W., vi
Index 373
Loka (to bewitch, utter strong derivative from Bunzi), 18,

words, spell), 127,129,143, 22,54
249, 256, 286 See also Bunzi
Loko (Fongbe-Brazilian vodun), Mabwaka (Yombe chief), 83-4
276 MacGaffey, W., vii, 21, 38, 332,
Lomba (Congo-Brazilian inkissi), 334,336,338,340,343,345,
276 346
See also Lemba Macumba (Afro-Brazilian cult
Lombarengenga (Angola- form), 275
Brazilian inkissi), 276 See also Incossi Mucumbe,
See also Lemba Roche Mucumbe
Longo (youth initiation rite), 11 Madula (Mayombe district), 51
Lower Congo, as region of study, Madzia (village), 2,157-63
7-23passim., 29, 37-8, passim.
See also Congo; Kongo; Zaire Maes, J., 335, 343
Luadi (river), 2 Maesen, A., vi, 2
Luala (river), 67 Mafouk (Loango trade minister)
Luanga (river), 67 34, 46, 48
Lubendo (Woyo mythical figure), Mahambu-Lukabu (Kongo nkisi),
301-303 300-301
Luc de Catalanossetta, 62 Mahungu (mythic figure, also
Luema (river), 2, 48 Mavungu, Magungu), 78, 97,
Lulendo (chiefly title, nkisi), 103,176,179-85 passim.,
68-70 188-9,193-4, 197-251
Lumani (Kongo nkisi), 89 pass/™., 291, 298,301, 304,
Lunga (Woyo nkisi cult), 22, 56, 306-309,311
301-2 Maillet,R.,338
See also Kalunga Maine, H., 21, 334
Lunungu, M. (Kongo catechist- MaKangu (Yombe chiefly title),
ethnographer), 2,105,125-30, 84
144,340 See also Ngambula
Luozi (town, territorial capital), Makariuse., 271-2, 344
338,360 Makita (Nsundi chief), 66
Lusunzi (Woyo mythical figure), Makoko (Tio king), 58-61
78, 301-304 passim., 19
Lutete, E. (Kongo catechist- MaKongo (ruler of KaKongo),
ethnographer), 346 46
Luvuangu-Mampuya (Lemba Makongo (Kongo nkisi), 53, 277
priest), 83, 85-6, 90 Makunda (Queen mother,
Loango), 47, 301
Mabiala ma Ndembe (Kongo, Makunza, Z. (Lemba priest), 347
Loango nkisi, also Mapanje), Malasi (Loango nkisi), 55
55, 301 Malawi, 18
MaBunzi (shrines, minkisi, Malaysia, 10, 28, 31
374 INDEX
Malebo Pool (in Congo/Zaire Malemba, 3,6, 29,46;

river), 2-3, 36-7, 61 Manianga, 6, 29; Mboko
Malemba (port town, capital), Nsongo, 29, 30; Mpumbu, 3,
2-3,5,29,34,46, 278 29; Ngoyo, 31; San Salvador,
Malinowski, B., 9 29; slave markets, 3, 3 3 ^
MaLoango (ruler of Loango), See also Trade
46-7, 301 Maroons (Surinam and Guyana
Malonga, J., 2,164-85, 229-30, Afro-Americans), 19
341, 342, 347 See also Bush Negroes; Gaan
Mambinda (Woyo, Yombe Tata
mythical figure, also Marquis (Nsundi title), 64
Membinda), 47, 247, 301-302 Marriage, basic social structural
Mampuya, see Batshikamaba issues of, 41-4,138-140,
Mampuya; Luvuangu- 170-171, 318; exogenous and
Mampuya endogenous approaches to,
Mamundi (village), 2, 253 42; Lemba marriage in
Mandombe (Loango nkisi), 55 Loango, 57-8; in north
Mangaka (Yombe nkisi shrine), Kongo, 78; in Yombe, 84,
247 240; in Kamba, 113; in Yaa,
Mangossu (Loango nkisi), 56 125-30; in myth, 202-6, 220,
MaNgoyo (ruler of Woyo, Ngoyo 223-8; among nobles in
kingdom), 46, 301 Sonyo, 49-51; in Kavati, 51;
Mam (title), 46, 64 reciprocating "return blood"
Manianga (market, region, clan), (mvutudulu a menga)
28-30, 35, 37-8, 62, 66-7, marriage, 43, 78,140; Roman
passim., $5-6, 95, Church's interdiction of close
187-8, 301 alliances, 49-50
Mansi (Loango nkisi), 55 Masala (village), 2
MaNsundi (Nsundi ruler), 63 Masamba (role name), 43
Maramba (Loango nkisi), 55 Matadi (port town) 2, 3, 62, 81-2
Maramba, P., 339, 340, 341 Matamba (Angola-Brazilian
Marcellind'Atri, 62 inkissi), 276
Martin, P., 48, 334, 335, 336, 337 Matele (Nsundi chief), 66
Market, 17, 230, 249-50,320, Pis. Materialist explanations, v; in rise
2-3; Ambriz, 29; area, 73-7, of regional cults, 18-19; of
138;Cabinda,3,6, 29,46; symbolic expressions, 99
calming of, 36; cycles, See also Expressive domains
weeks, 6, 29; entrance to Matheo de Anguna, 62
ifula dia zandu) 74, 235, PI. 3; Matinu (title), see Ntinu
laws, 3-4, 5-6, 12, 69-70, Mavungu (mythic figure), See
72-5; laws and feud Mahungu
resolution, 74—7, and Lemba, Mayakidi, 341
77, and N'kondi, 76-7; Maybury-Lewis, D., 340
Loango, 3, 6, 29, 46; Mayombe (region), 2,18, 27-8,
Index 375
36-8,45-58passim., 67, 79, punning, 172—3; emergence of

83,139,177, 234, 243-7, 249, new medicines, 14; as
253, 301, Pis. 5, 6,14,17 expressive domain, 172-3,
Mayumba (town), PI. 16 140-3,195-9,251-8; in
Mazamba (village), 83 relation to art, 251-8 and
Mazinga (clan), 62, 64, 74-5 iconicity, 172-3; taxonomies
Mbamba (people, ethnic label), 37 of, and social change, 14
Mbanza (generic capital city, seat See also Expressive domains;
of authority), Mbanza Nkisi
Kongo, 4-5, 63-5; Mbanza Meier, C , 325, 347
Mwembe, 4, 62, 67-9; Meillassoux, C , 336
Mbanza Nsundi, 5, 62-9 Meinhof, C.,9
passim. Meirs,S.,334, 336
Mbe (Tio capital), 58-61 Menga (blood), in descent and
Mbenza (clan, governing nkisi), marriage, 43, 78
44, 84-5 Mercantilism, and Lemba elite,
Mbete (people), 37 36; arousing spirit of, 248-51
Mbinda (Loango nkisi), 56 See also Capitalism
See also Mambinda Metaphor, study of, 99-100;
Mboko Nsongo (mining area, association of domains,
village, market), 2, 5,27, 99-100,178,185,201,256,
30-33,35,59,62,64,67,87, 304; of goods and blood, 220;
106-24,168, 300 metaphorization of
See also Market discourse, 311; movement in,
Mbola (Kongo nkisi), 15,17-18 100, 299, 308;ritualas
Mboma (people), 2, 37; amplification of non-verbal
MaMboma (title), 84, 247 metaphor, 310; root, 99; and
See also Ngambula shifting of subject across
Mbona (regional shrine), 18 domains, 299-300, 304;
Mbongo (raphia cloth, money), templates in myth analysis,
32-6; in Lemba initiations, 310-11; therapeutics as
135-8,168-9,245-7 metaphor for new social
See also Trade order, 21
Mboo (Teke chief), 61 See also Code; Expressive
Mboyo-zu-Mambi (Loango nkisi), domains; Semiotics; Symbols
55 Metraux, A., 273, 344-5
M'boze (Woyo mythic figure), Meyer, 9
301-302 Mfumu (chief), 39-40; dikanda
Mbu (village), 37 (lineage chief, freeman), 40,
Mbudila (Yombe nkisi), 247 71, 75, 86; kimfumu
Mbumba Luangu (Yombe, Woyo (chiefship), 66-7; mfumu
rainbow serpent), 53 bwala (village chief), 68; mpu
See also Bumba, Khimba (local clan chief, insignia),
Medicine, defined by verbal 70, 77; nsi (domainal chief),
376 INDEX
39, 43-4, 77,83;pa/ata mythic figure, nkisi), 300-301

(colonial chief, medallion, See also Bunzi; MaBunzi
also chef médaillé), S5;yetila Mpumbu (market, town), 2-3, 5,
(local, village chief), 71 29,33,60-1,63,67
Mfwemo, 74—5 Mpusu (Loango nkisi), 55
See also Kidiba, war of Munkukusa (Kongo purificatory
Milembamani, B., vii movement), 285
Miller, J., 21, 332 Munzele, J., 72-3,77, 317, 338,
Milonga, J., 341 347
Mimi (Loango nkisi), 53-4 Murdock,G.,38,335
Mindouli (mines, city), 5, 29, 32, Musana (village), 2, 157
38, 59, 64, 67 Music and verbal myth, 293
Mirebalais (Haitian town), 281-5 Mutacalombo (Congo-Brazilian
Misfortune, in Bantu thought, and inkissi), 276
distinction of "natural" and Mvila, Luvila (clan), 38-9;
"human" cause, 13 becoming dominant regional
Moanzi (Loango nkisi), 53 identity, 44
Mongo Luala (village), 2 Mwana (child, pi. bana), 41-2
Moni-Mambu (trickster in Kongo See also Bana bambuta; Se
mythology), 78, 97,103,233, Mwembe Nsundi (village), 4-5,
258-72passim., 277, 291, 62-8
297, 301, 306, 309
Montesarchio, J., 62, 64, 338 Na Menta (Nsundi king), 65
Moreau de St. Méry, 278-9 Nansi (Woyo shrine, ruler's
Mourne Rouge (town), 278 charm), 47
Moya (Zambian cult of affliction), See also Bunzi
19 Nantes, 278
Mpangu (people, ethnic label), 2, N'daiye, vi
55 Ndakivangi, P., 344
Mpanzu (clan), 65 Ndembo (Kongo, Yombe
Mpanzu a Kitima, 63 initiation rite), 10-11
Mpemba (as midwifery cult), 56 Ndembu (people, Zambia), 12-13;
See also Pfemba; Buanga; drums of affliction, 12-13
Bingo Ndibu,J.,87-90,338
Mpemba Kasi (Nsundi district), Ndibu (people, ethnic label), 2
62,64 Ndongo (people, ethnic label, also
Mpinda (Loango nkisi), 56 Mondongo), 37
Mpodi (Loango, Kongo nkisi), 56 Ndunga (village), 37
Mpu (chiefly title, rulership nkisi), Newman, S., 334
66,69,70,71-2,77 Nga Malamu (legendary Lemba
See also Mfumu priest, founder), 160,167,176,
Mpudi a Zinga (clan), 44 179-85passim., 249, 274, 291,
Mpulu-Bunzi (Woyo, Yombe 297-8
Index 377
Ngambula (Lemba priest, chief), Njambe (Loango nkisi), 55

83-5,247,250 Nkamba (village, center of
Nganda (village, mission), 2 Kimbanguist shrine), 90
Nganga (doctor, priest, magician, Nkanga Nsundi (Nsundi district),
pi. banganga), in Bantu 62,64
therapeutic systems, 14-15; N'khimba, see Khimba
depicted in myth, 214, 259; in Nkira (spirit, Teke domainal
Lemba initiations, and role squire's insignium), 59-61
definitions, 106-30 passim., Nkisi (Kongo consecrated
158-63 passim., 234-42 medicine, spirit; pi. min'kisi),
passim.; rules against abuses 4; array of, in Lower Congo,
by nganga Lemba, 127 in 1900,15; in Brazil
Ngobila (Teke administrator of (inkisses), 273-7; code of
Zaire river traffic), 61 composition of, 101;
Ngoma, R, 316-17, 347 composition of Lemba as,
Ngoma (drum as instrument, as 172-3,140-3,195-9, 251-8;
association), v, 107,179,185, Lemba as major, 4; in
257; Lemba, PL 14; Loango history, 51-8
medicines drummed up with, See also Expressive domains;
15, 315 Handa; Medicine; Plants
See also Drum; Nkonko; Nkita (cult, drum of affliction), 15,
Nkonzi; Sika 17,84 '
Ngombe a Kinu (Nsundi district), See also Kinkita; Simbi
62,64 Nkobe (generic Kongo term for
Ngombe Matadi (Nsundi town), cylindrical medicine chest as
66 used in Lemba), 140-3,173-6,
Ngombi (village), 37 195-201, 251-5; Pis. 4-7;
Ngombo (divination technique, composition of in trickster
nganga specialty), 14, 55 narrative, 259-66; relation to
Ngoyo (kingdom), 4-5,18, 20, 34, ritual, 195-201, to fixed
37, 45-58passim., 248, 252, shrine, 243-5
301-302 See also Medicine; Nkisi
See also Woyo, Cabinda
Nkobi (Tio administrative reform,
Ngoyo (market and village on
ruling ideology, charm
Zaire river), 30,35,54
chest), 58-61 passim.
Ngubane,H.,331
Ngunu (historic kingdom), 45 N'kondi (Kongo, Yombe nkisi),
Nguru (village), 37 15,17,18,21,70,76-7
Ngusa, R., 341 Nkonko (drum), 3,114,147,179,
Nietsche, R, 293, 310, 346 234, 257
Nigeria, 6 Nkonzi (drum) in Lemba, 107, 111,
Nimi a Lukeni (Kongo king), 63 114,117-19,142,147, 152,179,
Nitu,S.,v, 207-31,342 182,185,192, 257
378 INDEX
N'kwe Mbali (earth spirit patron Pongo, Nzambi a Mpungu,

ofTio king), 18,21,56,79 274, 276, 301-302
Nsaku (Kongo clan, also Nsaku See also Nza; God; Kuiti-Kuiti
Lau, Nsaku ne Vunda), 66 Nzila (Zambian cult of affliction),
Nsanga (Nsundi district), 62-4, 66 6,17,19
Nseke Mbanza (village), 2, 73, Nzinga a Mpemba (Nsundi,
85-7, 187-200 Kongo king), 63
Nsemi, I. (Kongo catechist- See also Affonso
ethnographer), 332, 334 Nzinga a Nkuwu (Kongo king),
Nsi (domain, local district, also 63
ntsii (Teke), tzi (Yombe)), 44, Nzola (Yombe nkisi), 247
51, 54, 58, 61; mfumu nsi Nzonzi (speaker, advocate), 70
(domainal chief), 44,70-1,77; Nzuzi,P.,86, 338
nkisi nsi (domainal ruler's
charm), 48; nkazi a nsi Obessem (Yoruba-Brazilian
(counterpart clan to royalty), oris ha), 276
65 Oceania, 11
Nsundi (clan, ethnic label, Ode (Yoruba-Brazilian oris ha),
province, chiefdom), 2,4-5, 276
37,38,44-5,61-70, 73,77, Ogun (Yoruba-Brazilian oris ha),
79, 95,157,187-200passim. 276, 282, 284
Ntanda Kongo (Nsundi district), Oia (Yoruba-Brazilian oris ha),
62,64 276
Ntete (Nsundi chief), 66 Olissassa (Yoruba-Brazilian
Ntele (village), 2 oris ha), 276-7
Ntini a Mongo (ceremonial style, Olorun (Yoruba-Brazilian oris ha),
after region), 96 276-7
Ntinu (supreme judge, king), 46, Omolü (Yoruba-Brazilian orisha),
65, 70; in Nsundi, 65 276
Ntotila (king), 46, 66 Orishas (deities of Yoruba
Ntsaa (plain in Teke area), 60 religion), influence in New
Nunvurucomabuva (Congo- World, 273-7
Brazilian inkissi), 276 Orley, J., 331
Nza (Tio supreme creator), 60 Ossain (Yoruba-Brazilian orisha),
See also Nzambi 276
Nzabi (village), 37 Our Lady, in Afro-Brazilian
Nzambi (Western Bantu Supreme religion; of Carmel; of
Being, God, Creator), 87, Compassion; of the
192, 301-302; in Brazil, 276; Immaculate Conception; of
as creator, 46; in Lemba the Immaculate Conception
lyrics, 184-5,192, 201; of the Beach; of Lourdes and
Nzambi Mpungu Tulendo, Candlemas; of Navigators; of
192; as source of Lemba Pleasures; the Rosary; of
medicine, 258-67; Zambi a Sorrows; 276
Index 379
Oxalä (Yoruba-Brazilian orisha), use of, on tombs, 89

276-7 See also Medicine; Nkisi
Oxössi (Yoruba-Brazilian orisha), Pointe Noire (city), 2-3
276 Pombieros (tra3ers)73^^
Oxun-Mare (Yoruba-Brazilian Pongo (Loango, Kongo nkisi), 53,
orisha), 276 275, 277
Poro (ceremonial society), 6
Panda (Congo-Brazilian inkissi), Portugal, Portuguese, 6, 34, 37,
276-7 63-4, 81
Pansa (Loango, Kongo nkisi), 277 Price-Mars, J., 103,188,278,
Paul, St., in Afro-Brazilian 286-92, 345
religion, 276 Prins,G.,331,332,347
Pechuel-Loesche, E., 2, 56, 337, Proyart, A., 337
343 Psychological, explanations of
Peirce, C , 340 secret societies, 9; processes
Pelton, R.,344 in Lemba healing, 311-13
Pernambuco (city), 276 Purification, purity, as
Peter, St., in Afro-Brazilian administered with mpolo-
religion, 276 Lemba, 106, bcrco-Lemba,
Petion (Haitian president), 278-9, 158, mwmo-Lemba, 236-7,
288, 292, 298 and in food-medicine
Petit-Goäve (town), 279 mixture, 173-4; as concept of
Petro (category of Haitian voodoo redemption, 17,20; with
loa linked to Kongo and cupping horn, 15; as indicated
Lemba), 273, 277-92 passim by Lemba paddles, 126-7; of
See also Jean Petro; Rada Lemba couple, 125-6, 240-1;
Pfemba (Loango, Woyo nkisi, of Lemba neophyte,
midwife's group, part of following profanation, 110-15,
Lemba nkobe), 22, 56, 253, 240-1; logic of, in Lemba,
301,343 319; as ritual action, 144;
See also Bingo; KaBuanga following sickness of
Pinkerton, J.,336, 337 "human" cause, 13-14
Plants, depicted in myth, 202,
217-18, 265; in food crops Quincongo (Congo-Brazilian
originating in Africa, 28-9, inkissi), 276-7
America, 29, 31, Malaysia,
28, 31; in Lemba, 57,109,117, Rada (category of Haitian voodoo
119,137,143,173-6,196, 237, loa linked to Fongbe origins),
239-40, 252-3, 265; liminality 277,281,284-5
of, 245; in markets, 30, 72; in See also Arada
metaphoric correspondence Radin,P.,271, 344
with other elements, 255-6; Railroad, Matadi to Leopoldville,
planted in shrines, 243-5; and 81; completion of and
ritual transformations, 300; Lemba's demise, 81-2
380 INDEX
Ramos, A., 273, 344 185, 256; in myth, 223-30,

Randies, W., 335 259-65
Ranger, T.,20, 333 See also Kise; Mwana
Rappaport, R., 340 Sebastian, St., in Afro-Brazilian
Recife (city), 276 religion, 276
Renkin, PL 12 Secret societies, category of
Rey, P.P., 39, 336 scholarship, 9-12; as political
Rigaud (Haitian president), 288, force, 12; as threat to
292,298 European order, 11
Ritual, analyzed in use of Seha, M.,P1.16
"expressive domains" and Semiotics, in study of multiple
"codes," 98-101; categories expressive modes, 100
of ritual action in Lemba, See also Expressive domains
143-6,195-201,248-51; Sevo (Nsundi district), 62, 64
defined, 95; power generated Shangö (Yoruba-Brazilian
in, 174; as understood in orishä), 276
symbolist school, 99, by Shilluk (people), 16
structuralists, 99-100, in Shona (people), 16
semiotics, 100; Simbi (water, nature spirits), 44,
transformations in Kongo 274, 282-3, 285
ritual, 297-300 Simbi djo (Haitian "Petro" loa),
See also Expressive domains; 284
Codes Simbi en Deux Eaux (Haitian
Robertson-Smith, 19 "Petro" loa), 284
Roch, St., in Afro-Brazilian Simbi Kita Kita (Haitian "Petro"
religion, 276 loa), 283
Roche Mucumbe (Angola- Simbu (Yombe nkisi shrine), 247
Brazilian inkissi), 276 Simbuka (Loango nkisi), 55
Rymer, J. and G., PI. 20 Slave, slavery, capture as
hostages in feud, 74-6;
San Salvador (capital city), 29 importance of, in "lineage
See also Mbanza Kongo mode of production," 39; in
Sande (ceremonial society), 6 Lemba membership, 77, 320;
Santo Domingo, 278 in payment of Lemba dues,
Sasi (Loango nkisi), 56 114,128; portrayed in myths,
Schneider, D., 339 219; status indicated by
Schoffeleers,M., 17-18,332 ignorance of clan identity, 38;
Schöller, C , 343-4, 346 in trade and exchange, 3, 28,
Schurtz, H.,9,331 31,33-4,84,274,319
Se (father), in kinship, 40, 43; in Smith, M.G., 21, 334
Lemba patrifiliality within Sobisa (Lemba priest), 83, 85-6
healer-sufferer (Se-Mwana) Sobo, Sogbo (Fongbe-Brazilian
relationship, 106-24 passim, vodun), 276
139-40,153-4,159-63,169, Social control, and legitimacy,
Index 381
320; in Lemba governance, symbolism, 243-5; of food,

3-4; in market laws of 134, color, 254, hunting, 220,
acephalous area, 70-9; medicine, 324, menstruation,
needed in face of 178, power, 324;
international trade, 3; and manipulation of, to define
therapy of iatrogenic ritual space, 143; polysemy,
diseases, 316-17 contradictory strands of
Sociocultural change, and meaning in, 99,148,166;
changing modes of sensory and cognitive
production, 19; and combined in study of, 99,148;
divinatory interpretation of symbolist approach and
misfortunes, 14; independent criticism of, 99
and dependent variables in
study of, 7, 8,19-20, 96, 326 Taino (historic Indians of Haiti),
Solongo (region, people), 49-50 277
Songe (people), 37 Tallensi (people), 16
Songho (copper mine), 32 Tastevin,C.,336, 345,346
Sonyo (region, people), 49-51, 65 Teke (people, region), 2,5, 21,
Soret, M., 38, 335 27-8, 32, 37-8,45,58-61,79,
South Africa, 6 97, 177
Southall, A.,333 See also Tio
Spain, 277 Tervuren (Central Africa
Sperber, D., 339 Museum), vi, 2, Pis. 4-6,
Stanley, H.,335 12-15
Stebich, U.,344 Theories, in ethnology and
Stenstrom, O., 2,157-85, 338, history, 7-23; an explicit
341,347 Lemba theory of
Structuralism, vi, 8, 99, 305; therapeutics and social order,
opposition and contradiction 315-21; in study of ritual,
in, 311 98-101
Sudan, 16 See also Ideology
Suki (village), 37 Therapeutics, 318-21; Bantu
Sundi, see Nsundi therapeutics and generation
Surinam, 19 of new medicines, 14-15;
Svenska Missionsforbundet, Pis. Lemba ideology of; Kongo
2,3,17 therapeutics as system,
Swantz, M., 331 14-15; as metaphor of social
Swedish, 86 formation, 20-1; as self-
Symbols, symbolism: adaptation conscious social process,
of conventional symbolism in 7-8, and corporate politics, 8;
Lemba, 251, and variance of structure and movement in
symbolic forms, 96; Lemba therapeutics,
documentary symbolism in 293-313; and taxonomies of
nkobe, 174; fixed ritual illnesses, medicines, 14-16

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Notes,

Crossroads: Towards a History of Therapeutics in BuLozi since 1876,"

Africa, arguing that generally "state" institutions are created in response to

5. E. Dupont, Lettres sur le Congo (Paris, 1889), p. 340.

30. H. Deleval, "Les tribus Kavati du Mayombe," La Revue Congo-

49. R Visser, "Der Kaufmann unter Wilden (Entwicklung des Handels

83. Ibid., p. 396.

7. For example the introduction to J.M. Janzen and W. MacGafFey,

pher," in P. Maranda andE. Köngäs-Maranda, eds., Structural Analysis of

3. Solomo Nitu, noted storyteller and catechist of Cabinda, narrated

14. J. Price-Mars, "Lemba-Pétro, un cult secret," Revue de la société

5. K. Laman, The Kongo III (Uppsala, 1962), p. 67.

1. I. Nsemi, "Min'kisi: Sacred Medicines," in J.M. Janzen and W.

2. E. Andersson, L*Ethnographie desKuta (Uppsala, 1953), pp. 247-

The Reconstruction of Lemba

aspects of Lemba, missionaries, both Catholic and Protestant, of the turn of

Batsikama ba Mampuya "A propos de 'la cosmogonie Kongo.' " Cultures

Coquery-Vidrovitch, Cathrine. Le Congo au temps des grandes compagnies

Dupont, Edouard. Lettres sur le Congo. Paris: C. Reinwald, 1889.

Hyacinthe de Bologne. La pratique missionaire des PP. Capucins Italiens

. The Kongo I. Studia Ethnographica Upsaliensia, no. 4. Uppsala:

. The Hidden Hippopotamus: Reappraisal in African History, the

Turner, Victor W. "Colour Classification in Ndembu Ritual." In Anthro-

Congo beige. Reports. Luozi Territorial Archives, 1930.

AMBG Afrika Museum, B erg en D al, The Netherlands

SEM 1907.8.34 "Konko Lemba" from Kimbunu. don. J.

MAC 69.59.498 miniature wood Lemba drum amulet from

B-D III C 347 Copper Lemba bracelet, Tschicambo,

MAC 43578 Copper Lemba bracelet, Mayombe,

LEMBA MEDICINE CONTAINERS

B-D III C Rafia Lemba charm sack ("Sackfetisch

MISCELLANEOUS LEMBA OBJECTS

MAC 34766 Smoking pipe head.

Abala (region), 61 Babutidi (Kongo catechist-

Bembe (people, region), 2, 233 Bosu (Haitian "Petro" loa), 54,

Cassange (southern savanna 81, 85, 245, 247; influences in

276 Correspondence theory, 18-19;

Dennet, J., 2 Elegba (Fongbe-Brazilian voduri),

272; revolution in Haiti, 278 George, St., in Afro-Brazilian

Heha, veva (to arouse, infuse Islamic brotherhoods, Egypt, v

Kanga (Woyo spirit), 301-303 Kinkenge (village, mission), 2

Kuba (legendary Lemba priest), Lebanese, 37

Loka (to bewitch, utter strong derivative from Bunzi), 18,

Malebo Pool (in Congo/Zaire Malemba, 3,6, 29,46;

36-8,45-58passim., 67, 79, punning, 172—3; emergence of

39, 43-4, 77,83;pa/ata mythic figure, nkisi), 300-301

Ngambula (Lemba priest, chief), Njambe (Loango nkisi), 55

N'kwe Mbali (earth spirit patron Pongo, Nzambi a Mpungu,

Oxalä (Yoruba-Brazilian orisha), use of, on tombs, 89

Ramos, A., 273, 344 185, 256; in myth, 223-30,

320; in Lemba governance, symbolism, 243-5; of food,

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