Under Central Attraction: Conservation of Energy

Under central attraction:
conservation of energy
(3rd Law: conservation of angular momentum)

Bode-Titius Rule
Take the series of numbers:
0 1 2 4 8 16 32 64 128 256
and multiply each by 0.3 to get:

0 0.3 0.6 1.2 2.4 4.8 9.6 19.2 38.4 76.8
To these numbers add 0.4 to get:

0.4 0.7 1.0 1.6 2.8 5.2 10.0 19.6 39 77.2
This expression gives the distance
of the n-th planet from the Sun in
Astronomical Units (AU).
Planet R3 T2 T2/R3
Mercury 0.05796 0.05803 1.00121
Venus 0.37793 0.37946 1.00405
Earth 1.0 1.0 1.00000
Mars 3.5396 3.61 1.01989
Jupiter 140.85 144.0 1.02236
Saturn 867.98 870.25 1.00262
Uranus 7055.8 7056 1.00003
Neptune 27162.3 27154.7 0.99972
Pluto 61723.5 61504 0.99644

Any model or theory for the formation of the Solar System must have a set of
explanations for large-scale and small-scale properties.
Large-Scale:
1. the planets are isolated in orderly intervals
2. orbits are nearly circular
3. orbits are in the same plane
4. all planets revolve prograde
Small-Scale:
1. most planets rotate prograde
2. the systems of moons can be divided into regular objects (spherical) with direct orbits
versus irregular objects with eccentric orbits
3. Terrestrial planets have
a) high densities
b) thin or no atmospheres
c) rotate slowly
d) rocky, poor in ices and H/He
4. Jovian/Great planets have
a) low densities
b) thick atmospheres
c) rotate rapidly
d) many moons
e) fluid interiors, rich in ices, H/He
Temperature decreasing with radial distance from protosun in solar
nebula.
Collapsing Clouds of Gas and Dust in Nebular Hypothesis
Here is how a solar system forms in summary: Basically, stars form in gravitationally
contracting clouds. The centre region of a cloud contracts faster and actually forms the
star but gas and dust is left orbiting and from this orbiting gas the planets form. When
the centre of the star becomes hot enough to generate heat by nuclear reactions (fusion)
the star lights up and blows away the gas orbiting it, leaving mainly the heavier bodies
such as planets.
In the beginning phase A great cloud of gas and dust (called a nebula) begins to collapse
because the gravitational forces that would like to collapse it overcome the forces
associated with gas pressure that would like to expand it (the initial collapse might be
triggered by a variety of perturbations---a supernova blast wave, density waves in spiral
galaxies, etc.).
The Spinning Nebula Flattens
Because of the competing forces associated with gravity, gas pressure, and rotation, the contracting
nebula begins to flatten into a spinning flattened shape with a bulge at the centre, as illustrated in the
following figure.
Condensation of Protosun and Protoplanets

As the nebula collapses further, instabilities in the collapsing, rotating cloud cause local regions to
begin to contract gravitationally. These local regions of condensation will become the Sun and the
planets, as well as their moons and other debris in the Solar System.
The composition of the Sun, the two classes of planets, etc. explained by the nebula hypothesis:
We know the nebular gas would have been mostly hydrogen and we see this in the composition of
the solar photo-sphere (outer region of the sun).
Planets first grow by small bits of solid materials sticking together. But the kind of solid materials
that can form depends on the temperature.
Inner regions of the solar nebula were hotter, thus only the very heaviest materials could agglomerate
and not disperse. This explains why there is so little hydrogen in the composition of the terrestrial
planets and they are largely heavier compounds. Only compounds with high melting points can
CONDENSE in the inner regions into solids.
The formation of PLANETESSIMALS occurs by further CONDENSATIONS (atom by atom

deposition) onto these initial solid bits. This takes the objects up to centimetre sizes. and then the
merging of these solid bits through sticking processes or ACCRETION (rapid accumulation by
sticking, static electricity, "snowball effect"). This takes the objects up to kilometre size scales.
Eventually this will drop the heavier materials into the plane of the disk, where it will encounter more
partners and merging and further interaction, and agglomeration occurs. (Gravitational
instability/contraction can further aid growth).
PROTOPLANETS form from the subsequent coalescence of kilometre size bodies. This is aided by the
fact that objects are all rotating in the same direction in the disk so their collisions are often gentle
(stimulating gravitational merging) rather than destructive (stimulating breaking up into smaller
pieces).
Radioactive decay heats internal regions of protoplanets and melts the cores. Then DIFFERENTIATION
ensues: the heavier compounds move to the centre leaving the lighter materials at the outer regions. It is
believed that the atmosphere of our planet was formed as a result of OUT-GASSING (gases released from
planetary interior) AND accumulation of some gas from the nebula as it cooled. The need for the latter is
because the origin of water is hard to explain otherwise.
Process takes 100 million or so years for terrestrial planets to form
Since the outer planets form in regions of lower temperatures, they are able to hold onto more gas since
the gas is cooler and more ices and silicates can coalesce to attract the gas. This is why the outer planets
have more light materials, that is more gaseous hydrogen: only when protoplanet has more than 15 Earth
masses of material can it capture gas directly from the young solar nebula.
It takes about 10 million years for Jovian planets to form: this is based on observations of young stars (T
Tauri stars), which have lost their gaseous nebulae by 10 million years.
ASTEROID BELT is explained by Jupiter's gravity thwarting formation of a planet between mars and
Jupiter.
We see Jupiter type planets close to other stars not far away as in our solar system. How can this be given
the above? Closeness of Jovian type planets around other stars is explained by such a planet capturing
many planetessimals and then migrating toward its star from angular momentum conservation.
Venus, Uranus and Pluto's anomalous spins explained by impulsive collision with massive object. Craters
tell us there were many collisions, but usually small objects. Perhaps a few were large enough to explain
the anomalous rotations of these planets.
Eventually, 4 effects clear away the nebula: the Sun's radiation pressure, the solar wind, the gravitation of
the individual planets, and close encounters between planets and planetessimals.
METEORS, COMETS, ASTEROIDS are left as residues of the planet formation process.
Evidence for the Nebular Hypothesis

Because of the original angular momentum and subsequent evolution of the collapsing nebula, this
hypothesis provides a natural explanation for some basic facts about the Solar System: the orbits of the
planets lie nearly in a plane with the sun at the centre, the planets all revolve in the same direction, and the
planets mostly rotate in the same direction with rotation axes nearly perpendicular to the orbital plane.

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Under central attraction:

(3rd Law: conservation of angular momentum)

and multiply each by 0.3 to get:

To these numbers add 0.4 to get:

Mercury 0.05796 0.05803 1.00121

Venus 0.37793 0.37946 1.00405

Earth 1.0 1.0 1.00000

Mars 3.5396 3.61 1.01989

Jupiter 140.85 144.0 1.02236

Saturn 867.98 870.25 1.00262

Uranus 7055.8 7056 1.00003

Neptune 27162.3 27154.7 0.99972

Pluto 61723.5 61504 0.99644

Condensation of Protosun and Protoplanets

The formation of PLANETESSIMALS occurs by further CONDENSATIONS (atom by atom

Process takes 100 million or so years for terrestrial planets to form

Evidence for the Nebular Hypothesis

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