SH1712

POINTS OF SPECIAL INTEREST ON THE UNIT CIRCLE:

GRAPHING SINE AND COSINE FUNCTIONS

Periodic Function
A periodic function is a function f such that
𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑥 + 𝑛𝑝),
for every real number x in the domain of f, every integer n, and some positive real number p. The
smallest possible positive value of p is the period of the function.

Note: The circumference of the unit circle is 2𝜋, so the smallest value of p for which the sine and
cosine functions repeat is 2𝜋. Therefore, the sine and cosine functions are periodic with period 2𝜋.

Graph of Sine Function

Selecting key values of x and finding the corresponding values of sin x leads to the graph below. This
graph is called a sine wave or sinusoid.

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SINE FUNCTION f(x) = sin x

Domain: (−∞, ∞) Range:[-1, 1]

 The graph is continuous over its entire domain, (−∞, ∞).

 Its x-intercepts are of the form 𝑛𝜋, where n is an integer.
 Its period is 2𝜋,i.e. sin (x + n ∙ 2𝜋) = sin x
 The graph is symmetric with respect to the origin, so the function is an odd function. For all
x in the domain, sin(-x) = - sin x.

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Graph of Cosine Function

COSINE FUNCTION f(x) = cos x

Domain: (−∞, ∞) Range:[-1, 1]

 The graph is continuous over its entire domain, (−∞, ∞).

𝜋
 Its x-intercepts are of the form (2𝑛 + 1) 2 , where n is an integer.
 Its period is 2𝜋, i.e. cos (x + n ∙ 2𝜋) = cos x.
 The graph is symmetric with respect to the y-axis, so the function is an even function. For
all x in the domain, cos(-x) = cos x.

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Graphing Techniques, Amplitude, and Period

Example:
Graph y = 2 sin x, and compare to the graph of y = sin x.

Solution:
For a given value of x, the value of y is twice as large as it would be for y = sin x, as shown in the
table of values. The only change in the graph is the range, which becomes [-2, 2]. See graph below.

x 0 𝜋 𝜋 3𝜋 2𝜋
2 2
sin x 0 1 0 -1 0
2 sin x 0 2 0 -2 0

Amplitude
The graph of y = α sin x or y = α cos x, with α ≠ 0, will have the same shape as the graph of y = sin x
or y = cos x, respectively, except with the range [-|α|, |α|]. The amplitude is |α|.

Period
2𝜋
For b > 0, the graph of y = sin bx will resemble that of y = sin x, but with period . Also, the graph
𝑏
2𝜋
of y = cos bx will resemble that of y = cos x, but with period .
𝑏

Guidelines for Sketching Graphs of Sine and Cosine Functions

To graph y = α sin bx or y = α cos bx or with b > 0, follow these steps.
2𝜋 2𝜋
Step 1: Find the period, 𝑏 . Start at 0 on the x-axis, and lay off a distance of 𝑏 .
Step 2: Divide the interval into four (4) equal parts.
Note:
One (1) method to divide an interval into four (4) equal parts is as follows.
a. Find the midpoint of the interval by adding the x-values of the endpoints and dividing by 2.
b. Find the midpoints of the two (2) intervals found in Step 1, using the same procedure.
Step 3: Evaluate the function for each of the five (5) x-values resulting from Step 2. The points will
be maximum points, minimum points, and x-intercepts.
Step 4: Plot the points found in Step 3 and join them with a sinusoidal curve having amplitude |α|.
Step 5: Draw the graph over additional periods, to the right and to the left, as needed.

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Example:
Graph y = -2 sin 3x over one (1) period using the given guidelines.

Solution:
2𝜋
Step 1: For this function, b = 3, so the period is . The function will be graphed over the
3
2𝜋
interval [0, ].
3

2𝜋 𝜋 𝜋 𝜋 2𝜋
Step 2: Divide the interval [0, 3 ] into four (4) equal parts to get x-values 0, 6 , 3 , 2 , and .
3
Step 3: Make a table of values determined by the x-values from Step 2.

X 0 𝜋 𝜋 𝜋 2𝜋
6 3 2 3
3x 0 𝜋 𝜋 3𝜋 2𝜋
2 2
sin 3x 0 1 0 -1 0
-2 sin 3x 0 -2 0 2 0

𝜋 𝜋 𝜋 2𝜋
Step 4: Plot the points (0, 0), ( 6 , −2), ( 3 , 0) , ( 2 , 2), and ( 3 , 0), and join them with a sinusoidal
curve with amplitude 2.

Step 5: The graph can be extended by repeating the cycle.

NOTE: When α is negative, the graph of y = α sin bx is the reflection across the x-axis of the graph
of y = |α| sin bx.

Connecting Graphs with Equations

Example:
Determine an equation of the form y = a cos bx or y = a sin
bx, where b > 0, for the given graph.

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Solution:
This graph is that of a cosine function that is reflected across its horizontal axis, the x-axis. The
amplitude is half the distance between the maximum and minimum values.
1 1
[2 − (−2)] = (4) = 2 The amplitude |a| is 2.
2 2

Because the graph completes a cycle on the interval [0, 4𝜋], the perios is 4𝜋.
We use this fact to solve for b.
2𝜋 2𝜋
4𝜋 = 𝑏 Period = 𝑏
4𝜋𝑏 = 2𝜋
1
b=𝜋=2

An equation for the graph is

1
𝑦 = −2 cos 𝑥
2
1
where -2 is the x-axis reflection and 2 is the horizontal stretch.

TRANSLATIONS

Horizontal Translations:
The graph of the function defined by y = f(x –d) is translated
horizontally when compared to the graph of
y = f(x). The translation is d units to the right if d > 0 and |d| units
to the left if d < 0.

With trigonometric functions, a horizontal translation is called a

phase shift. In the function y = f(x – d), the expression x – d is
called the argument.

Example:
𝜋
Graph y = sin (𝑥 − 3 ).

Solution:
𝜋
Method 1: For the argument 𝑥 − 3 to result in all possible values throughout one (1) period, it must
take on all values between 0 and 2𝜋, inclusive. Therefore, to find an interval of one (1) period, we
solve the three-part inequality.
𝜋
0 ≤ 𝑥 − ≤ 2𝜋
3
𝜋 7𝜋
≤𝑥≤
3 3
𝜋 7𝜋
Divide the interval [ 3 , 3 ] into four (4) equal parts to get the following x-values.
𝜋 5𝜋 4𝜋 11𝜋 7𝜋
, , , ,
3 6 3 6 3

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A table of values using these x-values follows.

x 𝜋 5𝜋 4𝜋 11𝜋 7𝜋
3 6 3 6 3
𝜋 0 𝜋 𝜋 3𝜋 2𝜋
𝑥−
3 2 2
𝜋
sin (𝑥 − ) 0 1 0 -1 0
3
Join the corresponding points to get the graph shown below. The period is 2𝜋, and the amplitude is 1.

Method 2:
𝜋 𝜋
We can also graph 𝑦 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛 (𝑥 − 3 ) using a horizontal translation. The argument 𝑥 − 3 indicates that
𝜋
the graph will be translated 3 units to the right (the phase shift) as compared to the graph of y = sin
x. In the graph shown above, we show the graph of as a dashed curve and the graph of 𝑦 =
𝜋
𝑠𝑖𝑛 (𝑥 − 3 ) as a solid curve. Therefore, to graph a function using this method, first graph the basic
circular function, and then graph the desired function by using the appropriate translation. The graph
can be extended through additional periods by repeating this portion of the graph over and over, as
necessary.

Vertical Translations:
The graph of a function of the form y = c + f(x) is translated vertically compared to the graph of y =
f(x). The translation is c units up if c > 0 and is |c| units down if c < 0.

Example:
Graph y = 3 – 2 cos 3x over two (2) periods.

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Solution:
The values of y will be 3 greater than the corresponding values of y in y = -2 cos 3x. This means that
the graph of y = 3 - 2 cos 3x is the same as the graph of y = -2 cos 3x, vertically translated three (3)
2𝜋
units up. Since the period of y = -2 cos 3x is 3 , the key points have these x-values.

𝜋 𝜋 𝜋 2𝜋
0, , , ,
6 3 2 3

Use these x-values to make a table of points.

x 𝜋 𝜋 𝜋 2𝜋
0
6 3 2 3
cos 3x 1 0 -1 0 1
2 cos 3x 2 0 -2 0 2
3 – 2 cos 3x 1 3 5 3 1

The key points are shown on the graph, along with

more of the graph, which is sketched using the fact
that the function is periodic.

COMBINATIONS OF TRANSLATIONS

A function of the form 𝑦 = 𝑐 + a sin 𝑏(𝑥 − 𝑑) or 𝑦 = 𝑐 + 𝑎 cos 𝑏(𝑥 − 𝑑), b > 0 can be graphed
according to the following guidelines.

Further Guidelines for Sketching Graphs of Sine and Cosine Functions

Method 1
2𝜋
Step 1: Find an interval whose length is one (1) period 𝑏 by solving the three-part inequality
0 ≤ 𝑏(𝑥 − 𝑑) ≤ 2𝜋.
Step 2: Divide the interval into four (4) equal parts.
Step 3: Evaluate the function for each of the five (5) x-values resulting from Step 2. The points will
be maximum points, minimum points, and points that intersect the line y = c (“middle” points
of the wave).
Step 4: Plot the points found in Step 3 and join them with a sinusoidal curve having amplitude |a|.
Step 5: Draw the graph over additional periods, to the right and to the left, as needed.
Method 2
2𝜋
First graph the basic circular function. The amplitude of the function is |a|, and the period is 𝑏 . Then
use translations to graph the desired function. The vertical translation is c units up if c > 0 and |c|
units down if c < 0. The horizontal translation (phase shift) is d units up to the right if d > 0 and |d|
units to the left if d < 0.
Example:
Graph 𝑦 = −1 + 2 sin sin(4𝑥 + 𝜋).

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Solution:
We use Method 1. First write the expression in the form c + a sin b(x – d) by rewriting 4𝑥 + 𝜋
𝜋
as 4 (𝑥 + 4 ).
𝜋
𝑦 = −1 + 2 sin [4 (𝑥 + )] .
4
Step 1: Find the interval whose length is one (1) period.
𝜋
0 ≤ 4 (𝑥 + ) ≤ 2𝜋
4
𝜋 𝜋
0≤𝑥+ ≤
4 2
𝜋 𝜋
− ≤𝑥≤
4 4
𝜋 𝜋
Step 2: divide the interval [− , ] into four (4) equal parts to get the x-values
4 4
𝜋 𝜋 𝜋 𝜋
− , − , 0, ,
4 8 8 4

Step 3: Make a table of values.

𝜋 𝜋 𝜋 𝜋
x −4 −8 0
8 4
𝜋 𝜋 𝜋 3𝜋 𝜋
𝑥+4 0
8 4 8 2
𝜋 𝜋 3𝜋
4 (𝑥 + 4 ) 0 𝜋 2𝜋
2 2
𝜋
sin 4(𝑥 + 4 ) 0 1 0 -1 0
𝜋 0 2 0 -2 0
2 sin 4 (𝑥 + 4 )
−1 + 2 sin(4𝑥 + 𝜋) -1 1 -1 -3 -1

Step 4 and 5: Plot the points found in the table and join them with a sinusoidal curve. The figure
below shows the graph extending to the right and left to include two (2) full periods.

Example:
Find the amplitude, period, and phase shift(s) of the function
𝜋
𝑓(𝑥) = 4 cos (𝑥 + )
3

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Solution:
Use 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑎 cos(𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐) + 𝑑, where a determines the amplitude, b determines the period, c
determines the horizontal shift, and d determines the vertical shift.
The answer for the given function is:
2𝜋 2𝜋
Amplitude: |a| = 4 Period : |𝑏| = 1
𝑐 𝜋
Horizontal shift: 𝑏 = left Vertical Shift: 0
3

GRAPHS OF OTHER CIRCULAR FUNCTIONS

COSECANT FUNCTION f(x) = csc x
Domain: {𝑥|𝑥 ≠ 𝑛𝜋, 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑛 𝑖𝑠 𝑎𝑛 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑔𝑒𝑟} Range:(−∞, −1] ∪ [1, ∞)

 The graph is discontinuous at values of x of the form 𝑥 = 𝑛𝜋 and has vertical asymptotes
at these values.
 There are no x-intercepts.
 Its period is 2𝜋, i.e. csc (x + 2𝜋) = csc x.
 Its graph has no amplitude, since there is no maximum or minimum value.
 The graph is symmetric with respect to the origin, so the function is an odd function. For
all x in the domain,csc (-x) = -csc x.

SECANT FUNCTION f(x) = sec x

𝜋
Domain: {𝑥|𝑥 ≠ (2𝑛 + 1) 2 , 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑛 𝑖𝑠 𝑎𝑛 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑔𝑒𝑟} Range:(−∞, −1] ∪ [1, ∞)

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𝜋
 The graph is discontinuous at values of x of the form 𝑥 = (2𝑛 + 1) 2 and has vertical
asymptotes at these values.
 There is no x-intercept.
 Its period is 2𝜋, i.e. sec (x + 2𝜋) = sec x.
 Its graph has no amplitude, since there is no maximum or minimum value.
 The graph is symmetric with respect to the y-axis, so the function is an even function. For
all x in the domain, sec (-x) = sec x.

Guidelines for Sketching Graphs of Cosecant and Secant Functions

To graph y = α csc bx or y = α sec bx, with b > 0, follow these steps:

Step 1: Graph the corresponding reciprocal function as a guide, using a dashed curve.

To Graph Use as a Guide

y = α csc bx y = α sin bx
y = α sec bx y = α cos bx

Step 2: Sketch the vertical asymptotes. They will have equations of the form x = k where k is an x-
intercept of the graph of the guide function.
Step 3: Sketch the graph of the desired function by drawing the typical U-shaped branches between
the adjacent asymptotes. The branches will be above the graph of the guide function when the
guide function values are positive and below the graph of the guide function when the guide
function values are negative.

Example:
1
Graph 𝑦 = 2𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝑥

Solution:
Step 1: This function involves the secant, so the corresponding reciprocal function will involve the
cosine. The guide function to graph is
1
𝑦 = 2𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥.
2
Using the guidelines, we find that this guide function has amplitude 2 and one (1) period of
the graph lies along the interval that satisfies the inequality
1
0 ≤ 2 𝑥 ≤ 2𝜋, or [0, 4π]

Dividing this interval into four (4) equal parts gives the key points
(0, 2), (π,0), (3π, 0), (4π, 2)
which are joined with a smooth dashed curve to indicate that this graph is only a guide. An
additional period is graphed as seen in the figure on the next page.

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Step 2: Sketch the vertical asymptotes. These occur at x values for which the guide function
equals 0, such as x = -3π, x = -π, x = π, x = 3π
1
Step 3: Sketch the graph of 𝑦 = 2𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑥 by drawing the typical U-shaped branches,
2
approaching the asymptotes. See figure below.

Example:
3 π
Graph 𝑦 = 2 csc (x − 2 ) .

Solution:
Step 1: Use the guidelines to graph the corresponding reciprocal function
3 𝜋
𝑦 = sin (𝑥 − ) ,
2 2
shown as red dashed curve in the figure below.
3 𝜋
Step 2: Sketch the vertical asymptotes through the x-intercepts of the graph of 𝑦 = 2 sin (𝑥 − 2 ) .
𝜋
These have the form 𝑥 = (2𝑛 + 1) 2 , where n is an integer. See the black dashed lines in the
figure below.
3 π
Step 3: Sketch the graph of 𝑦 = 2 csc (x − 2 ) by drawing the typical U-shaped branches between
adjacent asymptotes. See the sold blue graph below.

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GRAPHS OF THE TANGENT AND COTANGENT FUNCTIONS

TANGENT FUNCTION f(x) = tan x
𝜋
Domain: {𝑥|𝑥 ≠ (2𝑛 + 1) 2 , 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑛 𝑖𝑠 𝑎𝑛 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑔𝑒𝑟} Range:(−∞, ∞)

𝜋
 The graph is discontinuous at values of x of the form 𝑥 = (2𝑛 + 1) 2 and has vertical
asymptotes at these values.
 Its x-intercepts are of the form 𝑛𝜋.
 Its period is 𝜋, i.e. tan(x + 𝜋) = tan x.
 Its graph has no amplitude, since there is no maximum or minimum value.
 The graph is symmetric with respect to the origin, so the function is an odd function. For
all x in the domain, tan (-x) = -tan x.

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COTANGENT FUNCTION f(x) = cot x

Domain: {𝑥|𝑥 ≠ 𝑛𝜋, 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑛 𝑖𝑠 𝑎𝑛 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑔𝑒𝑟} Range: (−∞, ∞)

 The graph is discontinuous at values of x of the form 𝑥 = 𝑛𝜋 and has vertical asymptotes
at these values.
𝜋
 Its x-intercepts are of the form (2𝑛 + 1) 2
 Its period is 𝜋, i.e., cot(x + 𝜋) = cot x.
 Its graph has no amplitude, since there is no maximum or minimum value.
 The graph is symmetric with respect to the origin, so the function is an odd function. For
all x in the domain,cot (-x) = -cot x.

Guidelines for Sketching Graphs of Tangent and Cotangent Functions

To graph y = α tan bx or y = α cot bx, with b > 0, follow these steps:

𝜋
Step 1: Determine the period, 𝑏 . To locate two (2) adjacent vertical asymptotes, solve the following
equations for x:
𝜋 𝜋
For y = α tan bx: bx= − 2 and bx= 2
For y = α cot bx: bx = 0 and bx = 𝜋
Step 2: Sketch the two (2) vertical asymptotes found in Step 1.
Step 3: Divide the interval formed by the vertical asymptotes into four (4) equal parts.
Step 4: Evaluate the function for the first-quarter point, midpoint, and third-quarter point, using the
x-values found in Step 3.
Step 5: Join the points with a smooth curve, approaching the vertical asymptotes. Indicate additional
asymptotes and periods of the graph as necessary.

Example:
Graph 𝑦 = tan 2𝑥.

Solution:
𝜋
Step 1: The period of this function is 2 . To locate two (2) adjacent vertical asymptotes, solve 2𝑥 =
𝜋 𝜋
− 2 and 2𝑥 = 2
(since this is a tangent function). The two (2) asymptotes have equations 𝑥 =
𝜋 𝜋
− 4 and 𝑥 = 4 .

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𝜋
Step 2: Sketch the two (2) vertical asymptotes 𝑥 = ± 4 , as shown in
the figure on the side.
𝜋 𝜋
Step 3: Divide the interval (− 4 , 4 ) into four (4) equal parts. This
gives the following key x-values.
𝜋
First quarter value: − 8 , Middle value: 0 Third-
𝜋
quarter value: 8
Step 4: Evaluate the function for the x-values found in Step 3.
𝜋 𝜋
x −8 0
8
𝜋 𝜋
2x − 0
4 4
tan 2x -1 0 1

Step 5: Join these points with a smooth curve, approaching the vertical asymptotes. See the figure on
the right. Another period has been graphed, one half period to the left and one half period to
the right.

Example:
1
Graph 𝑦 = −3 tan 2 𝑥.

Solution:
𝜋
The period is 1⁄ = 2𝜋. Adjacent asymptotes are at 𝑥 = −𝜋 and
2
𝑥 = 𝜋. Dividing the interval – 𝜋 < 𝑥 < 𝜋 into four (4) equal
𝜋 𝜋
parts gives key x-values of − 2 , 0, and 2 . Evaluating the
function at these x-values gives the key points.
𝜋 𝜋
(− , 3) , (0,0), ( , −3)
2 2
By plotting these points and joining them with a smooth curve,
we obtain the graph shown on the right. Because the coefficient
-3 is negative, the graph is reflected across the x-axis compared
to the graph of 𝑦 = tan 𝑥.

Example:
1
Graph 𝑦 = 2 cot 2𝑥.

Solution:
Because this function involves the cotangent, we can locate two (2) adjacent asymptotes by solving
𝜋
the equations 2𝑥 = 0 and 2𝑥 = 𝜋. The lines x = 0 (the y-axis) and 𝑥 = 2 are two (2) such
𝜋 𝜋 𝜋 3𝜋
asymptotes. Divide the interval (0, 2 ) into four (4) equal parts, getting key x-values of 8 , 4, and .
8
Evaluating the function at these x-values gives the following key points.
𝜋 1 𝜋 3𝜋 1
( , ) , ( , 0) , ( , − )
8 2 4 8 2

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Joining these points with a smooth curve approaching the asymptotes gives the graph shown below.

PROBLEM SOLVING

Example:
Modeling Temperature with a Sine Function

The maximum average monthly temperature in New Orleans is 82°F and the minimum is 54°F. The
table shows the average monthly temperatures. The scatter diagram for a two-year interval in figure
below strongly suggests that the temperatures can be modeled with a sine curve.

Month ˚F Month ˚F
Jan 54 July 82
Feb 55 Aug 81
Mar 61 Sept 77
Apr 69 Oct 71
May 73 Nov 59
June 79 Dec 55
Source:
Miller, A., Thompson, J. & Peterson, R. (1993). Elements of
Meteorology (4th ed.). Columbus, Ohio. Charles E. Merrill Publishing
Co.

a. Using only the maximum and minimum temperatures, determine a function of the form
f(x) = a sin [b(x – d)] + c, where a, b, c, and d are constants, that models the average monthly
temperature in New Orleans. Let x represent the month, with January corresponding to x = 1.

b. On the same coordinate axes, graph f for a two-year period together with the actual data
values found in the table.

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Solution:
a. We use the maximum and minimum average monthly temperatures to find the amplitude a.
82 − 54
𝑎= = 14
2
The average of the maximum and minimum temperatures is a good choice for c. The average
is
82 + 54
= 68
2
Since the coldest month is January, when x = 1, and the hottest month is July, when x= 7, we
should choose d to be about 4. We experiment with values just greater than 4 to find d. Trial
and error using a calculator leads to d = 4.2. Since
2𝜋 𝜋
temperatures repeat every 12 months, b is = . Thus,
12 6
𝜋
𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑎 sin[𝑏(𝑥 − 𝑑)] + 𝑐 = 14 sin [ (𝑥 − 4.2)] + 68 .
6
b. The figure on the right shows the data points and the graph of
𝜋
𝑦 = 14 sin 6 𝑥 + 68 for comparison. The horizontal
translation of the model is fairly obvious here.

Example 11:
A rotating beacon is located at point A next to a long wall. The beacon is 4m from the wall. The
distance d is given by
𝑑 = 4 tan 2𝜋𝑡
where t is the time measured in seconds since the beacon started rotating. (When t=0, then the
beacon is aimed at point R. When the beacon is aimed to the right of R, the value of d is positive; d is
negative when the beacon is aimed to the left of R.) Find d for each time.
a. t = 0
b. t = 0.4
c. t = 0.8
d. t = 1.2
e. Why is 0.25 a meaningless value for t?
Solution:
a. 0 meter
b. -2.9 meters
c. -12.3 meters
d. 12.3 meters
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e. It leads to tan 2 , which is undefined.
References:
Blitzer, R. (2014). Precalculus (5th ed.). Boston, Massachusetts: Pearson Education, Inc.
Lial, M., Hornsby, J., Schneider, D., & Daniels, C. (2013). Precalculus (5th ed.). Boston, Massachusetts: Pearson Education, Inc.
Roberts, D. (2012). Standard Position and Reference Angles. Retrieved April 2016, from Regents Exam Prep Center:
http://www.regentsprep.org/regents/math/algtrig/ATT3/referenceAngles.htm
Roberts, D. (2012). Unit Circle and Trig Value Signs. Retrieved April 2016, from Regents Exam Prep Center:
http://www.regentsprep.org/regents/math/algtrig/att5/unitcircle.htm
Stewart, J., Redlin, L., & Watson, S. (2014). Precalculus mathematics for calculus (7th ed.). Boston, Massachusetts: Cengage
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07 Handout 1 *Property of STI

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