HEAT AND MASS TRANSFER MODULE III

MODULE III: Transient heat conduction-lumped heat capacity method. Fins: Types of fins - Heat transfer from fins of
uniform cross sectional area- Fin efficiency and effectiveness. Boiling and condensation heat transfer (elementary ideas
only), Introduction to heat pipe..
1. HEAT TRANSFER FROM EXTENDED SURFACES
Whenever the available surface
is found inadequate to transfer the
required quantity of heat with the
available temperature drop and
convective heat transfer coefficient,
extended surfaces or fins are used. This
practice, invariably, is found necessary
in heat transfer between a surface and
gas as the convective heat transfer
coefficient is rather low in these
situations.
The finned surfaces are widely
used in: (1) Economisers for steam
power plants; (2) convectors for steam
and hot-water heating systems; (3)
radiators of automobiles; (4) air cooled
engine cylinder heads; (5) cooling coils
and condenser coils in refrigerators and
air conditioners; (6) small capacity
compressors; (7) electric motor bodies;
(8) transformers and electronic
equipments etc.
In practice all kinds of shapes and sizes of fins are employed; some common types of fin
configurations are shown in Fig. 1.1.
For the proper design of fins, the knowledge of temperature distribution along the fin is
necessary. In this article the mathematical analysis for finding out the temperature distribution and heat
flow from different types of fins id dealt with. The assumptions made for the analysis of heat flow
through the fin are: (1) Steady state heat conduction; (2) No heat generation within the fin; (3) Uniform
heat transfer coefficient (h)over the entire surface of the fin; (4) Homogeneous and isotropic fin material
(thermal conductivity of material is constant); (5) Negligible contact thermal resistance; (6) Heat
conduction one-dimensional; and (7) Negligible radiation.
1.1 overning equation and boundary conditions-straight rectangular fin
Consider a rectangular fin protruding
from a wall surface as shown in Fig 1.2 Let, l
= length of the fin (perpendicular to surface
from which heat is to be removed), b = width
of the fin (parallel to the surface from which
heat is to be removed), y = thickness of the
fin, P = perimeter of the fin [=2(b + y)], ACS=
area of cross-section (=by), TO = temperature
at the base of the fin, Ta= temperature of the
ambient/surrounding fluid, k = thermal
conductivity (constant),and h = heat transfer
coefficient (convective). In order to determine the governing differential equation for the fins, shown in
Fig. 1.2, consider the heat flow to and from an element dx thick at a distance x from the base. Heat
conducted into the element at plane x,

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 d T 
Q x = − k Ac s   (i )
 dx x
Heat conducted out of the element at plane (x + dx)
dT 
Q ( x + d x ) = − k Ac s   (i i )
 d x  x+d x
Heat convected out of the element between the planes x and (x + dx),
Q c o n v = h ( P.d x ) (T − T a )
Applying an energy balance on the element, we can write:
Q x = Q( x+d x ) + Q c o n v

d T  d T 
∴− k Ac s   = − k Ac s   + h ( P.d x ) (T − T a ) (1 . 1)
 dx x  d x  x+d x
Making a Taylor’s expansion of the temperature gradient at (x+dx)in terms of that at x, we get
2
dT  d T  d d T  d 2  d T  (d x)
 d x  = + dx+ 2  +. . . . .
x +d x  d x  x d x  d x  x d x  d x  x 2!
Substituting this in eqn. (1.1.), we have

d T   d T  d d T  d2  d T  (d x)
2 
− k Ac s  = − k A  + d x + + . . + h ( P.d x ) (T − T a )
 d x  x
cs      d x 
  d x  x d x  d x  x dx2 x 2! 

Neglecting higher terms as dx—» 0, we have

d T  d T   d 2T 
− k Ac s   = − k A cs   − k A cs  2
d x + h ( P.d x ) (T − Ta )
 dx x  dx x dx 

 d 2T 
k Ac s  2  d x − h ( P.d x ) (T − T a ) = 0
dx 
Dividing both sides by Acs dx, we get,
 d 2T  h P
k 2 − (T − T a ) = 0
 d x  Ac s

d 2T hP
∴ 2
− (T − Ta ) = 0 (1 . 2)
dx k Ac s
Eqn. (1.2) is further simplified by transforming the dependent variable by defining the
temperature excess as, θ x = T x − Ta
As the ambient temperature Ta is constant, we get by differentiation
dθ d T d 2θ d 2T
= ; and = ;
dx dx dx2 dx2
d 2θ
Thus; 2
− m 2θ = 0 (1 . 3)
dx

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 Ph
Where; m=
k Ac s
Eqns. (1.2) and (1.3) represent a general form of the energy equation for one-dimensional heat
dissipation from an extended surface (fin). The parameter m, for a given fin, is constant provided the
convective film coefficient h is constant-over the whole surface and the thermal conductivity k is
constant within the temperature range considered. Then the general solution of this linear and
homogeneous second order differential equation is of the form:
θ = C1e m x + C 2e − m x or T − T a = C1e m x + C 2e − m x (1 . 4)
Where C1 and C2 are the constants, these are to be determined by using proper boundary
conditions. One boundary condition is; θ = θ0 = (T0 - Ta) at x = 0.
The other boundary conditions depend on the physical situation. The following cases may be
considered:
Case I. The fin is infinitely long (l —» ∞): and the temperature at the end of the fin is essentially that of
the ambient/surrounding fluid.
In this case the boundary conditions are:
(i) At x = 0; T = T0 (Temperature at the base of
fin equals the temperature of the surface to
which fin is attached.)
T - Ta= T0 - Ta(in terms of excess
temperature) or at x = 0, θ = θ0
(ii) At x = ∞; T = Ta(Temperature at the end of
an infinitely long fin equals that of the
surroundings) or at x = ∞, θ = 0 (in terms of
excess temperature)
Substituting these boundary conditions in eqn.
(1.4), we get,
C1 + C 2 = θ 0 (i )

C1e ( ) + C 2 e ( ) = 0
m∞ −m ∞
(i i )

C1e ( ) + 0 = 0
m ∞
or and C1 = 0, C2 = θ 0
Inserting these values of C1, and C2 in eqn. (1.4), we get the temperature distribution along the
length of the fin,

θ =θ 0 e − m x ;
(T − T a ) = e − m x
or (T − Ta ) = (T0 − T a ) e − m x ; o r (1 . 5)
(T0 − T a )
The heat flow rate can be determined in either of the two ways:
(a) The rate of heat flow across the base of the fin is given by (Fourier’s equation)
d T  d T dθ
Q f i n = − k Ac s   But =
 d x  x =0 dx dx
dT dT
But =  −m (T0 − Ta ) e − m x  or = − m (T0 − T a )
dx  x =0 dx
Q f i n = −k Ac s ×  − m (T0 − Ta )  ∴ Q f i n = k Ac s m ( T 0 − T a ) (1 . 6)

Ph
Or Q f i n = k Ac s ( T0 − T a ) ⇒ Q f i n = P h k Ac s ( T 0 − T a ) (1 . 7)
k Ac s

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 Considering the heat which is transmitted by convection from the surface of the fin to the
surrounding fluid,
∞
Q f i n = ∫ h ( P.d x ) (T − T a ) ……convective heat flow rate
0

∞ ∞
Q f i n = ∫ h ( P.d x ) (T0 − T a ) e − m x Or Q f i n = h P (T0 − T a ) ∫ e − m x d x
0 0

1 k Ac s
Q f i n = h P ( T0 − T a ) Or Q f i n = h P (T0 − T a )
m Ph
∴ Q fin = P h k Ac s ( T 0 − T a ) (1 . 8)

From the Eqn. (1.5) it is evident that the temperature falls towards the tip of the fin, thus the area
near the fin tip is not utilised to the extent as the lateral area near the base. Hence beyond a certain point
the increase in the length of the fin does not contribute much in respect of increase in the dissipation of
heat. Consequently a tapered fin is considered to be a better design since its lateral area is more near the
base/root where temperature difference is high.
Case II. The end of the fin is insulated.

In this case the boundary conditions are:

(i) At x = 0; T = T0 (Temperature at the base of fin
equals the temperature of the surface to which fin is
attached.)
T - Ta= T0 - Ta(in terms of excess temperature) or at
x = 0, θ = θ0
(ii) At x =l; dT/dx=0
Linear and homogeneous second order differential
equation of straight rectangular fin is,
T − T a = C1e m x + C 2 e − m x (1 . 4)

Substituting the above boundary conditions in eqn. (1.4),

C1 + C 2 = θ 0 (i )
C 2 = θ 0 − C1
Differentiating Eqn. (1.4) w.r.t x
dT d T 
= m C1e m x − m C 2e − m x = 0 ⇒ ml
 d x  = m C1e − m C 2 e
−m l
=0
dx x =l

∴ C1e m l − C 2 e − m l = 0 (i i )

C1e m l − θ 0e − m l + C1e − m l = 0 Or C1e m l − θ 0e − m l + C1e − m l = 0

 e −m l 
( )
C1 e m l + e − m l = θ 0 e − m l Or C1 = θ 0  m l −m l 
e + e 
  e −m l    e −m l 
∴ C 2 = θ 0 − θ 0  m l −m l 
 Or C 2 = θ 0 − θ 0  m l −m l 

  e + e     e + e  

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   e −m l   e m l + e −m l − e −m l   eml 
C 2 = θ 0 1 −  m l −m l  ⇒ C2 = θ0  ml −m l  ⇒ ∴ C2 = θ0  ml −m l 
  e + e    e +e  e + e 
Inserting the values of C1 and C2 in eqn. (1.4),
 e −m l  m x  eml  −m x θ  e −m l × e m x   e m l × e −m x 
θ =θ0  ml −m l 
e + θ 0  ml −m l 
e Or = + 
 e + e   e + e  θ 0  e m l + e −m l   e m l + e −m l 

θ  e m ( x −l )   e m ( l − x )  θ  e m ( x −l ) + e m ( l − x ) 
= +  Or = 
θ 0  e m l + e − m l   e m l + e − m l  θ 0  e m l + e − m l 

θ  e m (l − x ) + e [ − m ( l − x )] 
= 
θ 0  e m l + e − m l 

The above expression can be expressed in terms of hyperbolic function.

θ T − Ta c o s h {m(l − x)}
= =
θ 0 T0 − T a c o s h {m l}

The rate of heat flow from the fin is given by

d T 
Q f i n = − k Ac s  
 d x  x =0
 c o s h {m(l − x)} 
and T − Ta = (T0 − T a )  
 c o s h {m l} 

 c o s h {m(l − x)} 
T − T a = (T0 − T a )  
 c o s h {m l} 
dT  s i n h {m(l − x)} 
and = (T0 − T a )   ( − m)
dx  c o s h {m l} 
d T 
 dx  = − m (T0 − T a ) t a n h ( m l ) ∴ Q f i n = −k Ac s  −m (T0 − Ta ) t a n h ( m l ) 
  x =0

Substituting for m, Q f i n = P h k Ac s (T0 − Ta ) t a n h ( m l ) (1 . 9)

Case III. The fin is of finite length and loses heat by convection.
In this case the boundary conditions are:
(i) At x = 0; T = T0 (Temperature at the base of fin
equals the temperature of the surface to which fin is
attached.)
T - Ta= T0 - Ta(in terms of excess temperature) or at x
= 0, θ = θ0
d T 
(ii) At x = l; Q f i n = − k Ac s   = h A s u (T − T a )
 d x  x =l
Where Acs is the cross sectional area for heat conduction
and Asu is the surface area from which the convective heat
transfer takes place at the tip of the fin. ie. Acs = Asu
Linear and homogeneous second order differential equation of straight rectangular fin is,
T − Ta = C1e m x + C 2 e − m x (1 . 4)

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Substituting the above boundary conditions in eqn. (1.4), we get,
h
c o s h [ m (l − x ) ] + s i n h {m(l − x)}
θ
=
( T − T a)
= k m (1 . 1 0)
θ 0 ( T0 − T a ) h
c o s h (m l ) +
km
[s i n h ( m l ) ]
 h 
 t a n h (m l ) + k m 
Q f i n = P h k Ac s ( T 0 − T a )   (1 . 1 1)
h
1 + × t a n h (m l ) 
 km 
1.2 Pin fin of uniform cross sectional area
Pin fin heat sinks are considered to be among the most powerful heat sink designs available
today. Pin fin heat sinks provide very low thermal resistance values per given space and low pressure
drop. The smooth round pins reduce resistance to incoming air streams and enhance air turbulence
between the pins. The unidirectional structure maximizes the entrance of fresh air into the pin array and
at the same time allows the hot air to exhaust from the pin array in every possible direction. The use of
highly conductive materials further reduces
the thermal resistance of the heat sinks.
Cool Innovations has further enhanced the
performance of pin fin heat sinks via the
introduction of the splayed and flared pin fin
designs.
Take the case of a cross section with
area A and at a distance x from the base and
Fig. 1.2.1. Fin Pin Configuration Fig. 1.2.2. Pin Fin
with a thickness dx. It can be seen that the
case of pin fin is the same as that analysed in for the rectangular sections with the value of curved
surface area, cross section area and the perimeter being different. The total heat transfer rate will be the
product of total number fins in the pin fin configuration and heat transfer per fin.
πD2 hP 4h
Ac s = and P =πD then, m = =
4 kA kD
1.3 Annular fin
Consider an annular fin mounted on a cylinder as shown in fig.
1.3.1. with thickness t, and inner radius r then,
Perimeter, P = 2πr
Cross sectional area of fin, Acs = 2πrt
hP h × 4π r 2h
m= = ∴ m=
k Ac s k × 2π r t kt

Thus the value of m is constant and is independent of the radius r. It

isthe same as for a rectangular fin. Hence the differential equation (1.3) and Fig. 1.3.1. Annular fin
the solutions there of can be applied to the case of a circular fin.
1.4 Fin efficiency
The efficiency of a fin is defined as the ratio of the actual heat transferred by the fin to the
maximum heat transferable by fin, if entire fin area were at base temperature.
A c t u a l h e a t t r a n s f e r r e d b y t h e f i n (Q f i n )
η fin =
M a x i m u m h e a t t r a n s f e r a b l e b y f i n, i f f i n a r e a a t b a s e t e m p e r a t u r e (Q m a x )

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 P h k Ac s (T0 − Ta ) k Ac s 1
For a fin which is infinitely long, η fin = = 2
=
h × P l (T0 − Ta ) hPl ml
For a fin which is insulated at the tip
P h k Ac s (T0 − T a ) t a n h (m l ) t a n h (m l )
η fin = =
h × P l (T0 − Ta ) ml
hP h(2b + 2 y )
Where, ml = .l = .l
k Ac s kby
Now, if the fin is sufficiently wide then the term 2b will be large compared to 2y, then
2h b 2h 2h 3/2 2h 3/2
ml = .l = .l ⇒ ml == .l = .l
kby ky kyl k Ap

Where, y.l = Ap =Profile area of the fin

2h 3/2
Thus Fin efficiency is a function of ml or .l
k Ap

The efficiency of a real rectangular which is long, wide and thin can be calculated by replacing
y
“l” by a corrected length lc, given by, l c = l +
2
This corrected length Compensates for the fact that there is connective heat loss from the tip of a
real fin. The efficiency is then written as
  y 
t a n h  2h / k y  l +  
  2 
η fin =
 y
2h / k y  l + 
 2
The heat flow becomes,
  y 
Q = P h k Ac s (T0 − T a ) t a n h  2h / k y  l +   ⇒ Q = η f i n P h l c (T0 − Ta )
  2 
The efficiency of a fin forms a criterion for judging the relative merits of fins of different
geometrics or materials.
1.5 Fin effectiveness
Effectiveness of fin is the ratio of the fin heat transfer rate to the heat transfer rate that would
exist without a fin.
Qw i t h f i n
ε fin =
Qw i t h o u t f i n

In case of infinitely long fin,

P h k Ac s (T0 − T a ) kP
ε fin = =
h Ac s (T0 − Ta ) h Ac s

For a straight rectangular fin of thickness of y and width b,

P 2(b + y ) 2 2k
= = Then, ε fin =
Ac s b× y y hy

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1.6 Relation between ηFIN and εFIN
The performance parameters (i.e. ηfin and εfin), in case of a fin insulated at the tip, are related to
each other by the following expressions:
P h k Ac s (T0 − T a ) t a n h (m l )
η fin = (i )
P h l (T0 − T a )

P h k Ac s (T0 − T a ) t a n h (m l )
ε fin = 2 (i i )
h Ac s (T0 − T a )
Dividing eqn. (ii) by eqn. (i), we have
ε fin P l Pl
= Or ε fin =η fin ×
η f i n Ac s Ac s

Surface Areaof fin

Or ε fin =η fin ×
C r o s s − s e ct i o n a l A r e a o f f i n
It is evident from the above equations that an increase in fin effectiveness can be obtained by
increasing the length of the fin but it decreases the efficiency of the fin on the other hand.
2. BOILING HEAT TRANSFER
Boiling is the convective heat transfer process that involves a phase change from liquid to vapour state.
Boiling is also defined as evaporation at a solid-liquid surface. This is possible only when the temperature of the
surface (Ts) exceeds the saturation temperature corresponding to the liquid pressure (Tsat). Heat is transferred from
the solid surface to the liquid according to the law
Q = hAs (Ts − Tsat ) = h As ∆Te (2.1)
Where ∆Te = (Ts – Tsat) is known as excess temperature.
2.1 Applications boiling process
(1) Steam production (for generation of power and for industrial processes and space heating) in steam and
nuclear power plants;
(2) Heat absorption in refrigeration and air conditioning systems;
(3) Distillation and refining of liquids;
(4) Concentration, dehydration and drying of foods and materials,
(5) Cooling the machines like nuclear reactors and rocket motors where the large quantities of heat are
released in relatively small volume
2.2 Forms the boiling heat transfer
(1) Pool boiling: In this case the liquid above the hot surface is essentially stagnant (not circulating) and its
motion near the surface is due to free convection and mixing induced by bubble growth and detachment.
The pool boiling occurs in steam boilers involving natural convection.
(2) Forced convection boiling: This refers to a situation where the fluid motion is induced by external
means (and also by free convection and bubble induced mixing). The liquid is pumped and forced to
flow. This type of boiling occurs in water tube boilers involving forced convection.
(3) Sub-cooled or local boiling: In this case the liquid temperature is below the saturation temperature and
bubbles are formed in the vicinity of heat surface. These bubbles after travelling a short path get
condensed in the liquid which has a temperature less than the boiling point.
(4) Saturated boiling: Here, the liquid temperature exceeds the saturation temperature. The vapour bubbles
formed at the solid surface (liquid-solid interface) are then propelled through the liquid by buoyancy
effects and eventually escape from a free surface (liquid-vapour interface).

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2.3 Boiling Regimes
The process of boiling depends upon the
nature of the surface, thermo-physical properties of the
fluid and vapour bubble dynamics. Due to
involvement of large number of variables, general
equations describing the boiling process are not
available. Nonetheless, considerable progress has been
made in arriving at a physical understanding of the
boiling mechanism. Fig. 2.1 Pool boiling with liquid-vapour interface

Figure 2.1 shows the temperature distribution in saturated pool boiling with a liquid-vapour interface. It is
evident from the figure that although there is a sharp decline in the liquid temperature close to the solid surface,
the temperature through most of the liquid remains slightly above saturation. Consequently bubbles generated at
liquid-solid interface rise to and are transported across the liquid-vapour interface. Whether the boiling
phenomenon corresponds to pool boiling or forced circulation boiling, there are three definite regimes of boiling
associated with progressively increasing heat flux, as shown in Fig. 2.2. Three regimes are (1) Interface
evaporation, (2) Nucleate boiling and (3) Film boiling. This specific curve has been obtained from an electrically
heated platinum wire submerged in a pool of water (at saturation temperature) by varying its surface temperature
and measuring the surface heat flux qS.
(1) Interface evaporation: Interface evaporation
(evaporation process with no bubble
formation) exists in region I, called the free
convection zone. Here the excess
temperature, ∆Te, is very small and = 5°C. In
this region the liquid near the surface is
superheated slightly, the convection currents
circulate the liquid and evaporation takes
place at the liquid surface.
(2) Nucleate boiling: This type of boiling exists
in regions II and III. With the increase in ∆Te
(excess temperature) the formation of bubbles
on the surface of the wire at certain localised Fig. 2.2. The boiling curve for water

spots commences. The bubbles condense in the liquid without reaching the liquid surface. In fact it is the
region II where nucleate boiling starts. With further increase in ∆Te the bubbles are formed more rapidly
and rise to the surface of the liquid resulting in rapid evaporation, as indicated in the region III. The
nucleate boiling is thus characterized by formation of bubbles at the nucleation sites and the resulting
liquid agitation. The bubble agitation induces considerable fluid mixing and that promotes substantial
increase in the heat flux and the boiling heat transfer coefficient (The equipment used for boiling should
be designed to operate in this region only).Nucleate boiling exists up to ∆Te = 50°C. The maximum heat
flux, known as the critical heat flux, occurs at point A (Fig. 2.2) and is of the order of l MW/m2.
(3) Film boiling: Film boiling comprises of regions IV, V and VI. The trend of increase of heat flux with
increase in excess temperature observed upto region III is reversed in region IV (called film boiling
region). This is due to the fact that the bubble formation is very rapid and the bubbles blanket the heating
surface and prevent the incoming fresh liquid from taking their place. Eventually the bubbles coalesce
and form a vapour film which covers the surface completely. Since the thermal conductivity of vapour
film is much less than that of the liquid the heat flux drops with growth in ∆Te. Within the temperature
range 50°C < ∆Te < 150°C, conditions oscillate between nucleate and film boiling and the phase is
referred to as transition boiling, unstable film boiling or partial film boiling (region IV). With further
increase in ∆Te the vapour film is stabilized and the heating surface is completely covered by a vapour
blanket and the heat flux is the lowest as shown in region V. The surface temperatures required to
maintain a stable film are high and under these conditions a sizeable amount of heat is lost by the surface
due to radiation, as indicated in the region VI. The phenomenon of stable film boiling can be observed
when a drop of water falls on a red hot stove. The drop does not evaporate immediately but dances a few
times on the stove; this is due to the formation o f a stable steam film at the interface between the hot
surface and the liquid droplet.
Critical heat flux or burnout point: The critical heat flux or burnout point (Point A in Fig. 2.2) is the
point of maximum heat flux on the boiling curve at which transition from nucleate to film boiling
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 initiates. This point is also called the boiling crisis because the boiling process beyond that-point is
unstable unless of course, point B is reached. The temperature at point B is extremely high and normally
above the melting of the solid. So if the heating of the metallic surface is not limited to point A, it is
possible that the metal may get damaged or it may even melt (For this reason, point A is often termed as
boiling crisis or burnout point).
2.4 Bubble Shape and Size Consideration
The heat transfer rate in nucleate boiling is greatly influenced by the nature and condition of the heating
surface and surface tension at the solid liquid interface (shape, size or inclination of bubbles, however, do not
have much effect on the heat transfer rate). The surface tension signifies wetting capability of the surface with the
liquid (i.e„ low surface tension, highly wetted surface) and that influences the angle of contact between the bubble
and the solid surface. If the surface is contaminated, its wetting characteristics are affected which eventually
influence the size and shape of the vapour bubbles.

If the surface tension of the liquid is low, it tends to

wet the surface, so that the bubble is readily pushed by the liquid
and rises. The liquid shear-off the bubbles causing them to
become globular or oval as shown in Fig. 2.3 (i) (for totally
wetted surface). In case of liquids having intermediate surface
tension (partially wetted surface) a momentary balance may
Fig 2.3 Typical shapes of steam bubbles.
exist between the bubbles and solid surface so that it is necessary to form larger bubbles before the buoyant force
can free them from the surface; the shape of the bubble is shown in Fig. 2.3 (ii).
On the un-wetted surface [Fig. 2.3 (iii)], the bubbles spread out; forming a wedge between the water and
heating surface, thereby allowing hydrostatic forces to resist the action of buoyancy. The formation of bubble as
shown in Fig. 2.3 (i) gives high heat transfer rate compared with the bubble shapes shown in Fig. 2.3 (ii) and (iii).
Addition of agents for reducing the surface tension was found to have the same effect as providing of wettable
surface and to give increased rates of heat transfer.
2.5 Bubble Growth and Collapse
From Experiments it has been observed that the bubbles are not always in thermodynamic equilibrium
with surrounding liquid. The vapour inside the bubble is not necessarily at the same temperature as the liquid.
Consider the forces acting on a spherical vapour bubble as shown in Fig. 2.4; the pressure forces on the bubble
must be balanced by the surface tension at vapour-liquid interface. Thus
2σ
π r 2 ( pv − pl ) = 2π r.σ or pv − pl = (2.2)
r

Where, pv = vapour pressure inside the bubble; pl = liquid pressure over the
surface of bubble; σ = surface tension of vapour-liquid interface.
The vapour may be considered as a perfect gas for which the Clayperon
equation may be used, which is given by,
dp h fg
= dT (2.3)
p RT 2
Where, hfg = latent heat of vapourisation
p
From the perfect gas law, = ρv
RT
Where, R - gas or vapour constant; ρv = density of vapour formed
Fig. 2.4. Force balance on
Substituting the above equation in Eqn. (2.3) and rearranging, a spherical vapour bubble

dp p h fg ρv . h fg
= =
dT RT 2 T
pv − pl ρv . h fg p. h fg
or = = (2.4)
Tv − Tsat Tsat R.Tsat 2

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 Where, Tv = vapour temperature inside the bubble; Tsat = saturation temperature of vapour inside the
bubble at pv.
From Eqn. (2.2) and (2.4),

2 σ  R Tsat 2 
Tv − Tsat =  .  (2.5)
r  p h fg 

The above equation suggests that if (Tl – Tsat) > (Tv – Tsat), the bubble of radius r will grow otherwise it
will collapse. Here Tl is the temperature surrounding the bubble.
2.6 Critical Diameter of Bubble
The maximum diameter of the bubble formed on the heating
surface depends on the following parameters:
σlv = Tension between liquid and vapour; σls = Tension
between liquid and solid surface; σvs = tension between vapour and
solid surface; β = angle formed by the bubble as shown in Fig. 2.5;
dc = maximum or critical diameter of bubble and g(ρl- ρv)=Buoyancy
force.
By the use of the dimensional analysis technique, Fig. 2.5. Critical diameter of bubble

σ  σ lv 2 σ  R Tsat 2 
dc = C.β  lv   . 
 σ ls  g ( ρl − ρv ) r  p h fg 
Where, C is constant which is generally calculated by experimental results. The value of C =
0.0148 for water bubbles.
2.7 Factors Affecting Nucleate Boiling
(1) Material, shape and condition of the heating surface: The boiling heat transfer coefficient depends
greatly on the material of the heating surface; under identical conditions of pressure and temperature
difference, it is different for different metals (viz. copper has high value than steel, zinc and chromium).
The heat transfer rates are also influenced by the condition of heating surface. A rough surface gives a
better heat transmission than when the surface is either smooth or has been coated (smoothness weakens
the metal tendency to get wetted). The shape of the heating surface also affects transmission of heat.
(2) Liquid properties: Through experiments it has been observed that the size of the bubble increases with
the dynamic viscosity of the liquid. With increase in bubble size, frequency of bubble formation decreases
which results in reduced heat transfer. Further, high thermal conductivity of the liquid improves the rate
of heat transfer.
(3) Pressure: The pressure influences the rate of bubble growth and in turn also affects the temperature
difference (∆Te) causing heat flow. For a boiling liquid, the maximum allowable heat flux first increases
with pressure until critical pressure is reached and thereafter it declines.
(4) Mechanical agitation: Experiments have shown that the heat transfer rate increases with the increase in
degree of agitation
2.8 Boiling Correlations
Refer Heat and Mass transfer Data Book
3. CONDENSATION HEAT TRANSFER
The condensation process is the reverse of boiling process. The condensation sets in, whenever a
saturation vapour comes in contact with a surface whose temperature is lower than the saturation temperature
corresponding to the vapour pressure. As the vapour condenses, latent heat is liberated and there is flow of heat to
the surface. The liquid condensate may get somewhat sub-cooled by contact with the cooled surface and that may
eventually cause more vapour to condense on the exposed surface or upon the previously formed condensate.
3.1 Condensation processes
Depending upon the condition of cool surface, condensation may occur in two possible ways: (1) Film
condensation and (2) Drop wise condensation;

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 (1) Film Condensation: If the condensate tends to wet the surface and
thereby forms a liquid film, then the condensation process is known as
‘film condensation’. Here, the heat from the vapour to the cooling
medium is transferred through the film of the condensate formed on the
surface. The liquid flows down the cooling surface under the action of
gravity and the layer continuously grows in thickness because of newly
condensing vapours. The continuous film offers thermal resistance and
checks further transfer of heat between the vapour and the surface.
Further, the heat transfer from the vapour to the cooling surface takes
place through the film formed on the surface. The heat is transferred
from the vapour to the condensate formed on the surface by
‘convection’ and it is further transferred from the condensate film to the Fig 3.1 Film condensation

cooling surface by the ‘conduction’. This combined mode of heat transfer by conduction and convection
reduces the rates of heat transfer considerably (compared with drop wise condensation). That is the reason
that heat transfer rates of film wise condensation are lower than drop wise condensation. Figure 2.3 shows
the film condensation on a vertical plate.
(2) Drop wise condensation: In ‘drop wise condensation’ the vapour
condenses into small liquid droplets of various sizes which fall down
the surface in random fashion. The drops form in cracks and pits on the
surface, grow in size, break away from the surface, knock off other
droplets and eventually run off the surface, without forming a film
under the influence of gravity. Fig. 2.4 shows the drop wise
condensation on a vertical plate. In this type of condensation, a large
portion of the area of solid surface is directly exposed to vapour without
an insulating film of condensate liquid, consequently higher heat
transfer rate (to the order of 750 kW/m2) are achieved. Fig 3.2 Drop wise condensation

Drop wise condensation has been observed to occur either on highly polished surfaces, or on
surfaces contaminated with impurities like fatty acids and organic compounds. This type of condensation
gives coefficient of heat transfer generally 5 to 10 times larger than with film condensation. Although
drop wise condensation would be preferred to film wise condensation yet it is extremely difficult to
achieve or maintain.
3.2 Laminar Film Condensation on a Vertical Plate
An analysis for film wise condensation on a vertical plate can be made on lines prepared by Nusselt
(1916). Unless the velocity of the vapour is very high or the liquid film very thick, the motion of the condensate
would be laminar. The thickness of the condensate film will be a function of the rate of condensation of vapour
and the rate at which the condensate is removed from the surface. The film thickness on a vertical surface will
increase gradually from top to bottom as shown in Fig. 2.5.
Assumptions of Nusselt’s analysis of film condensation
(1) The film of the liquid formed flows under the action of gravity.
(2) The condensate flow is laminar and the fluid properties are constant.
(3) The liquid film is in good thermal contact with the cooling surface and, therefore, temperature at the
inside of the film is taken equal to the surface temperature Ts. Further, the temperature at the liquid-
vapour interface is equal to the saturation temperature Tsat at the prevailing pressure.
(4) Viscous shear and gravitational forces are assumed to act on the fluid; thus normal viscous force and
inertia forces are neglected.
(5) The shear stress at the liquid-vapour interface is negligible. This means there is no velocity gradient at the
liquid-vapour interface.
(6) The heat transfer across the condensate layer is by pure conduction and temperature distribution is linear.
(7) The condensing vapour is entirely clean and free from gases, air and non-condensing impurities.
(8) Radiation between vapour and liquid film; horizontal component of velocity at any point in the liquid
film; and curvature of the film are considered negligibly small.

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 Consider the process of film
condensation occurring on the surface of
a flat vertical plate as shown in Fig. 2.5.
The coordinate system has also been
depicted on the figure. The origin ‘O’ is
at the upper end of the plate, the X-axis
lies along the vertical surface with the
positive direction of X measured
downward and X-axis is perpendicular to
it. The vertical plate height l, width b, and
δ denotes the thickness of the film at a
distance x from the origin. The liquid
film thickness which is zero at the upper
end of plate gradually increases as further
condensation occurs at the liquid-vapour
interface and attains its maximum value
at the lower end of the plate. Fig 3.3 Film condensation on a flat vertical plate

Let, ρ1 = density of liquid film; ρv = density of vapour; hfg = latent heat of condensation; k = conductivity
of liquid film; µ = absolute viscosity of liquid film; Ts = surface temperature, and Tsat = saturation temperature of
vapour at prevailing pressure.
(a) Velocity distribution
To find an expression for velocity distribution u as a function of distance y from the wall surface, let us
consider the equilibrium between gravity and viscous forces on an elementary volume (b dx dy) of the liquid film.
Gravitational force on the element = ρl g ( b . dx . dy ) − ρv g ( b . dx . dy ) (i)

du  du d 2u 
Viscous shear force on the element = µ ( b.dx ) −  µ + µ 2 dy  ( b . dx ) (ii)
dy  dy dy 

du  du d 2u 
Equating (i) and (ii), ρl g ( b . dx . dy ) − ρv g ( b . dx . dy ) = µ ( b.dx ) −  µ + µ 2 dy  ( b . dx )
dy  dy dy 

d 2u ( ρ − ρv ) g
2
=− l (3.1)
dy µ

du ( ρ − ρv ) g
Integration, =− l y + C1
dy µ

( ρl − ρv ) g y2
Integrating again, u = − . + C1 y + C2
µ 2
The relevant boundary conditions are: At y = 0, u = 0; At y = δ, du/dy = 0
Using these boundary conditions, values of C1 and C2 are.
( ρl − ρ v ) g δ C2 = 0
C1 = and
µ
Substituting the values of C1 and C2 we get the velocity profile

( ρl − ρ v ) g  y2  ( ρl − ρv ) g .δ 2  y 1 y 
2
u= δ y −  or u=  −    (3.2)
µ  2 µ  δ 2  δ  
Equation (3.2) is the required velocity profile. The mean flow velocity umean of the liquid film at a
distance y is given by,

1 δ 1 δ ( ρl − ρv ) g .δ 2  y 1 y  
2
( ρ l − ρ v ) g .δ 2
um =
δ ∫
0
udy =
δ ∫
0 µ
 −    dy
 δ 2  δ  
=
3µ
(3.3)

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 (b) Mass flow rate
The mass flow rate of condensate through any x position of the film is given by:
Mass flow rate (m) = density × flow area × mean flow velocity (um)

( ρ l − ρ v ) g .δ 2 ρl ( ρl − ρv ) g . b.δ 3
m= × b.δ × ρl = (3.4)
3µ 3µ
The mass flow is thus a function of x; this is so because the film thickness δ is essentially dependent upon
x.
As the flow proceeds from x to (x + dx) the film grows from δ to (δ + dδ) because of the additional
condensate, the mass of condensate added between x and (x + dx) can be worked out by differentiating Eqn. (3.4)
with respect to x (or δ).

d  ρl ( ρl − ρv ) g . b.δ  d  ρl ( ρl − ρv ) g . b.δ  d δ  ρ ( ρ − ρv ) g . b.δ 2 

3 3
dm =   dx =   dx =  l l  dδ (3.5)
dx  3µ  d δ  3µ  d x  µ 
(c) Heat flux
The heat flow rate into the film (dQ) equals the rate of energy release due to condensation at the surface.
 ρl ( ρl − ρv ) g . b.δ 2 
dQ = h fg .dm = h fg   dδ (3.6)
 µ 
According to our assumption the heat transfer across the condensate layer is by pure conduction, hence
k ( b.dx )
dQ = (Tsat − Ts ) (3.7)
δ
Combining Eqns. (3.6) and (3.7),
 ρ ( ρ − ρv ) g . b.δ 2  k ( b.dx ) kµ
h fg  l l  dδ = (Tsat − Ts ) or δ 3 .d δ = (Tsat − Ts ) dx
 µ  δ ρl ( ρl − ρ v ) g .h fg

Integrating the above equation, we get

δ4 kµ
= (T − T ) x + C1
4 ρl ( ρl − ρ v ) g .h fg sat s
Substitution of the boundary condition: δ = 0 at x = 0 yields C1 = 0. Hence
14

 4k µ (Tsat − Ts ) x 
δ =  (3.8)
 ρl ( ρl − ρ v ) g .h fg 
The equation (3.8) depicts that the heat film thickness increases as the fourth root of the distance down
the surface; the increase is rather rapid at the upper end of the vertical surface and slows thereafter.
(d) Film heat transfer coefficient
According to Nusselt assumption the heat flow from the vapour to the surface is by conduction through
the liquid film. Thus
k ( b.dx )
dQ = (Tsat − Ts ) (i )
δ
The heat flow can also be expressed as
dQ = hx ( b.dx ) ( Tsat − Ts ) (ii )
Where, hx is the local heat transfer coefficient
k ( b.dx )
From ( i ) and ( ii ) , (Tsat − Ts ) = hx ( b.dx ) (Tsat − Ts )
δ

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 k
Or hx = (3.9)
δ
Equation (3.9) depicts that at a definite point on the heat transfer surface, the film coefficient hx is directly
proportional to thermal conductivity k and inversely proportional to thickness of film δ at that point.

Substituting the value of δ from equation (3.8),

14
 ρl ( ρl − ρ v ) k 3 .g .h fg 
hx =   (3.10)
 4 µ x (Tsat − Ts ) 
Local heat transfer coefficient at the lower end of the plate, i.e., x = L
14
 ρl ( ρl − ρ v ) k 3 .g .h fg 
hL =   (3.11)
 4µ L (Tsat − Ts ) 
Evidently the rate of condensation heat transfer is higher at the upper Fig. 3.4 Film thickness and film
coefficient vs. plate height
end of the plate than that at the lower end.

The average value of heat transfer can be obtained by integrating the local value of coefficient.
14 14
L ρl ( ρl − ρv ) k 3 .g .h fg  1  ρl ( ρl − ρ v ) k .g .h fg 
3 14
1 L 1 L 1
h=
L ∫ 0
hx dx =
L ∫0

 4 µ x ( Tsat − Ts ) 
 dx = 
L  4 µ (Tsat − Ts )


∫
0
  dx
 x
14 L 14
1  ρl ( ρl − ρ v ) k .g .h fg   x( −1 4 ) +1  4  ρl ( ρ l − ρ v ) k .g .h fg 
3 3
4
h=    ( −1 4 ) +1  =   = hL (3.12)
L  4µ (Tsat − Ts )    0 3  4 µ L (Tsat − Ts )  3

Where, hL is the local heat transfer coefficient at the lower edge of the plate.
(e) Inclined flat plate surface
For inclined flat surfaces, the gravitational acceleration g in
equation (3.12) is replaced by g sin θ where θ is the angle between the
surface and horizontal (Fig. 2.6)
14
4  ρl ( ρl − ρ v ) k . ( g sin θ ) .h fg 
3
hinclined =  
3  4 µ L (Tsat − Ts ) 
14
hinclined == hvertical × ( sin θ ) (3.13)
Equation (3.13) is applicable only for cases where θ is small, is not at all Fig. 3.5 Condensation on an inclined
applicable for horizontal plate. surface

2.3.3. Turbulent Film Condensation

When the plate on which condensation occurs is quite long
or when the liquid film is vigorous enough, the condensate flow
may become turbulent. The turbulent results in higher heat transfer
rates because heat is now transferred not only by condensation but
also by eddy diffusion. The transition criterion may be expressed in
terms of Reynolds number defined as,
ρl um Dh
Re =
µl Fig. 3.6. Regions of film condensation on
a vertical surface
Where, Dh = hydraulic diameter
cross − sectional area of fluid flow 4 Ac
Dh = 4 × =
wetted perimeter P
um = mean or average velocity of flow

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 ρl um × 4 Ac 4m
Re = = (3.14)
P × µl P µl

Where, m = ρ A um
For a vertical plate of unit depth, P = 1, the Reynolds number is sometimes expressed in terms of the
mass flow rate per unit depth of plate Ѓ, so that
4Γ
Re = (3.15)
µe
With Ѓ = 0, at the top of the plate and Ѓ increasing with x.
The Reynolds number may also be related to heat transfer coefficient as follows:

Q hAs (Tsat − Ts )
Q = hAs (Tsat − Ts ) = m
h fg or m
= =
h fg h fg

4hAs (Tsat − Ts )
Re = (3.16)
h fg P µl

For the plate, A = L × B and P = B, where L and B are height and width of plate, respectively.
4h L (Tsat − Ts )
Re = (3.17)
h fg µl

When the value of Re exceeds 1800 (approximately), the turbulence will appear in the liquid film. For Re
> 1800, the following correlation is used:
3
 ρ ( ρ − ρ ) k 3 .g  0.4
h = hturb = 0.0077  l l 2 v  ( Rl ) (3.18)
 µl 
2.3.4 Film Condensation on Horizontal Tubes
Nusselt’s analysis for laminar film wise condensation on horizontal tubes leads to the following relations:
For single horizontal tubes,
1/4
 ρl ( ρl − ρ v ) k 3 .g .h fg 
h = 0.725   (3.19)
 µl (Tsat − Ts ) D 
For horizontal tube bank with N tubes placed directly over one another in the vertical direction
1/4
 ρl ( ρl − ρ v ) k 3 .g .h fg 
h = 0.725   (3.20)
 N µl (Tsat − Ts ) D 
Where, D = outer diameter of the tube.
2.3.5 Film Condensation inside Horizontal Tubes
Condensation of vapour inside the tubes finds several engineering applications such as condensers used in
refrigeration and air-conditioning systems and several chemical and petrochemical industries. The phenomena
insides tubes are very complicated because the overall flow rate of vapour strongly affects the heat transfer rate
and also the rate of condensation on the walls. Chato (1962) has recommended the following correlation for low
velocities inside horizontal tubes (condensation of refrigerants):
1/4
 ρl ( ρl − ρ v ) k 3 .g .h' fg 
h = 0.555   (3.21)
 µl (Tsat − Ts ) D 

3
Where, h' fg = h fg + c pl (Tsat − Ts ) (3.22)
8

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