Special Considerations in Interpreting

Liver Function Tests

DAVID E. JOHNSTON, M.D.
University of New Mexico School of Medicine
Albuquerque, New Mexico

A number of pitfalls can be encountered in the interpretation of common blood liver function tests.
These tests can be normal in patients with chronic hepatitis or cirrhosis. The normal range for
aminotransferase levels is slightly higher in males, nonwhites and obese persons. Severe
alcoholic hepatitis is sometimes confused with cholecystitis or cholangitis. Conversely, patients
who present soon after passing common bile duct stones can be misdiagnosed with acute
hepatitis because aminotransferase levels often rise immediately, but alkaline phosphatase and
gamma-glutamyltransferase levels do not become elevated for several days. Asymptomatic
patients with isolated, mild elevation of either the unconjugated bilirubin or the gamma-
glutamyltransferase value usually do not have liver disease and generally do not require
extensive evaluation. Overall hepatic function can be assessed by applying the values for
albumin, bilirubin and prothrombin time in the modified Child-Turcotte grading system.

The commonly used liver function tests (LFTs) primarily assess liver injury rather than
hepatic function. Indeed, these blood tests may reflect problems arising outside the liver,
such as hemolysis (elevated bilirubin level) or bone disease (elevated alkaline
phosphatase [AP] level).

Abnormal LFTs often, but not always, indicate that something is wrong with the liver,
and they can provide clues to the nature of the problem. However, normal LFTs do not
always mean that the liver is normal. Patients with cirrhosis and bleeding esophageal
varices can have normal LFTs. Of the routine LFTs, only serum albumin, bilirubin and
prothrombin time (PT) provide useful information on how well the liver is functioning.

The general subject of LFTs1,2 and the differential diagnosis of abnormal LFTs in
asymptomatic patients3-5 have been well reviewed. This article discusses some common
pitfalls in the interpretation of LFTs. Hints for interpreting these tests are presented in
Table 1.

TABLE 1
Helpful Hints for Interpreting Liver Function Tests
Situation Comments
Mildly elevated ALT level ALT value could be normal for gender, ethnicity or body
(less than 1.5 times mass index.
normal) Consider muscle injury or myopathy.
Alcoholic hepatitis Laboratory values can appear cholestatic, and symptoms
can mimic cholecystitis.
 Minimal elevations of AST and ALT often occur.
AST level greater than 500 The AST elevation is unlikely to result from alcohol intake
U per L alone.
In a heavy drinker, consider acetaminophen toxicity.
Common bile duct stone Condition can simulate acute hepatitis.
AST and ALT become elevated immediately, but elevation
of AP and GGT is delayed.
Isolated elevation of GGT This situation may be induced by alcohol and aromatic
level medications, usually with no actual liver disease.
Isolated elevation of AP Consider bone growth or injury, or primary biliary cirrhosis.
level (asymptomatic AP level rises in late pregnancy.
patient with normal GGT
level)
Isolated elevation of Consider Gilbert syndrome or hemolysis.
unconjugated bilirubin
level
Low albumin level Low albumin is most often caused by acute or chronic
inflammation, urinary loss, severe malnutrition or liver
disease; it is sometimes caused by gastrointestinal loss
(e.g., colitis or some uncommon small bowel disease).
Normal values are lower in pregnancy.
Blood ammonia level Blood ammonia values are not necessarily elevated in
patients with hepatic encephalopathy.
Determination of blood ammonia levels is most useful in
patients with altered mental status of new onset or
unknown origin.
ALT=alanine aminotransferase; AST=aspartate aminotransferase; AP=alkaline phosphatase;
GGT=gamma-glutamyltransferase.

Markers of Hepatocellular Injury

The most commonly used markers of hepatocyte injury are aspartate aminotransferase
(AST, formerly serum glutamic-oxaloacetic transaminase [SGOT]) and alanine
aminotransferase (ALT, formerly serum glutamate-pyruvate transaminase [SGPT]).
While ALT is cytosolic, AST has both cytosolic and mitochondrial forms.

Hepatocyte necrosis in acute hepatitis, toxic injury or ischemic injury results in the
leakage of enzymes into the circulation. However, in chronic liver diseases such as
hepatitis C and cirrhosis, the serum ALT level correlates only moderately well with liver
inflammation. In hepatitis C, liver cell death occurs by apoptosis (programmed cell death)
as well as by necrosis. Hepatocytes dying by apoptosis presumably synthesize less AST
and ALT as they wither away. This probably explains why at least one third of patients
infected with hepatitis C virus have persistently normal serum ALT levels despite the
presence of inflammation on liver biopsy.6,7 Patients with cirrhosis often have normal or
only slightly elevated serum AST and ALT levels. Thus, AST and ALT lack some
sensitivity in detecting chronic liver injury. Of course, AST and ALT levels tend to be
higher in cirrhotic patients with continuing inflammation or necrosis than in those
without continuing liver injury.
 Typical ALT or AST Distribution

FIGURE 1. Typical population distribution of serum

alanine aminotransferase (ALT) or aspartate
aminotransferase (AST) levels. The population
distributions for these aminotransferases do not follow
a bell-shaped curve but are skewed, with a long "tail"
at higher values. By convention, values above the
97.5th percentile are considered elevated (shaded
area). Although average values for ALT and AST are
similar in different populations, the distributions are
more skewed in males and in nonwhite ethnic groups
(i.e., blacks and Hispanics). TABLE 2
Causes of Elevated ALT or
Figure 1 adapted with permission from
AST Quinn PG, Johnston
Values in Asymptomatic
DE. Detection of chronic liver disease: costs and benefits.
Gastroenterologist 1997;5:58-77. Patients*
A Autoimmune hepatitis
B Hepatitis B
As markers of hepatocellular injury, AST and C Hepatitis C
ALT also lack some specificity because they D Drugs or toxins
are found in skeletal muscle. Levels of these E Ethanol
aminotransferases can rise to several times F Fatty liver
normal after severe muscular exertion or other G Growths (i.e., tumors)
muscle injury, as in polymyositis,8 or in the H Hemodynamic disorder (congestive
heart failure)
presence of hypothyroidism, which can cause
I Iron (hemochromatosis), copper
mild muscle injury and the release of (Wilson's disease) or alpha1-
aminotransferases. In fact, AST and ALT antitrypsin deficiency
were once used in the diagnosis of myocardial M Muscle injury
infarction.
ALT=alanine aminotransferase;
Slight AST or ALT elevations (within 1.5 AST=aspartate aminotransferase.
times the upper limits of normal) do not
necessarily indicate liver disease. Part of this *--The differential diagnosis of elevated
aminotransferase values is presented as a
ambiguity has to do with the fact that unlike
mnemonic, with the disorders not necessarily
the values in many other biochemical tests, listed in the order of incidence or
serum AST and ALT levels do not follow a importance. Alcohol, hepatitis B and
normal bell-shaped distribution in the hepatitis C account for more than three
population.9 Instead, AST and ALT values fourths of all cases of cirrhosis.
have a skewed distribution characterized by a
Adapted with permission from Quinn PG,
Johnston DE. Detection of chronic liver
disease: costs and benefits.
Gastroenterologist 1997;5:58-77.
long "tail" at the high end of the scale (Figure 1).5 For example, the mean values for ALT
are very similar from one population to another, but the degree to which the distribution
is skewed varies by gender and ethnicity. The ALT distributions in males and nonwhites
(i.e., blacks and Hispanics) tend to have a larger tail at the high end, so that more values
fall above the upper limits of normal set for the average population.10,11

AST and ALT values are higher in obese patients, probably because these persons
commonly have fatty livers.12 ALT levels have been noted to decline with weight loss.13
Depending on the physician's point of view, the upper limits of normal for AST and ALT
levels could be set higher for more obese persons.

Rare individuals have chronically elevated AST levels because of a defect in clearance of
the enzyme from the circulation.14 For both AST and ALT, the average values and upper
limits of normal in patients undergoing renal dialysis are about one half of those found in
the general population.15 Mild elevations of ALT or AST in asymptomatic patients can be
evaluated efficiently by considering alcohol abuse, hepatitis B, hepatitis C and several
other possible diagnoses (Table 2).5

Various liver diseases are associated with typical ranges of AST and ALT levels (Figure
2). ALT levels often rise to several thousand units per liter in patients with acute viral
hepatitis. The highest ALT levels--often more than 10,000 U per L--are usually found in
patients with acute toxic injury subsequent to, for example, acetaminophen overdose or
acute ischemic insult to the liver. AST and ALT levels usually fall rapidly after an acute
insult.

Lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) is less specific than AST and ALT as a marker of
hepatocyte injury. However, it is worth noting that LDH is disproportionately elevated
after an ischemic liver injury.16

It is especially important to remember that in patients with acute alcoholic hepatitis, the
serum AST level is almost never greater than 500 U per L and the serum ALT value is
almost never greater than 300 U per L. The reasons for these limits on AST and ALT
elevations are not well understood. In typical viral or toxic liver injury, the serum ALT
level rises more than the AST value, reflecting the relative amounts of these enzymes in
hepatocytes. However, in alcoholic hepatitis, the ratio of AST to ALT is greater than 1 in
90 percent of patients and is usually greater than 2.17 The higher the AST-to-ALT ratio,
the greater the likelihood that alcohol is contributing to the abnormal LFTs. In the
absence of alcohol intake, an increased AST-to-ALT ratio is often found in patients with
cirrhosis.

The elevated AST-to-ALT ratio in alcoholic liver disease results in part from the
depletion of vitamin B6 (pyridoxine) in chronic alcoholics.18 ALT and AST both use
pyridoxine as a coenzyme, but the synthesis of ALT is more strongly inhibited by
pyridoxine deficiency than is the synthesis of AST. Alcohol also causes mitochondrial
injury, which releases the mitochondrial isoenzyme of AST.
Patients with alcoholic hepatitis can present with jaundice, abdominal pain, fever and a
minimally elevated AST value, thereby leading to a misdiagnosis of cholecystitis. This is
a potentially fatal mistake given the high surgical mortality rate in patients with alcoholic
hepatitis.19

Typical AST or ALT Values in Disease

FIGURE 2. Typical serum aspartate aminotransferase (AST) or alanine

aminotransferase (ALT) values for various diseases. Note that the
horizontal axis is a log scale. As shown, the aminotransferases are often
normal in patients with cirrhosis. In patients with uncomplicated alcoholic
hepatitis, the AST value is rarely greater than 500 U per L and is usually
no more than 200 to 300 U per L. The highest peak aminotransferase
values are found in patients with acute ischemic or toxic liver injury.

Markers of Cholestasis

Cholestasis (lack of bile flow) results from the blockage of bile ducts or from a disease
that impairs bile formation in the liver itself. AP and gamma-glutamyltransferase (GGT)
levels typically rise to several times the normal level after several days of bile duct
obstruction or intrahepatic cholestasis. The highest liver AP elevations--often greater than
1,000 U per L, or more than six times the normal value--are found in diffuse infiltrative
diseases of the liver such as infiltrating tumors and
fungal infections. Patients with cirrhosis often
have normal or only slightly
Diagnostic confusion can occur when a patient elevated serum aspartate
presents within a few hours after acute bile duct aminotransferase or alanine
obstruction from a gallstone. In this situation, AST aminotransferase values.
and ALT levels often reach 500 U per L or more in
the first hours and then decline, whereas AP and
GGT levels can take several days to rise.

Both AP and GGT levels are elevated in about 90 percent of patients with cholestasis.20
The elevation of GGT alone, with no other LFT abnormalities, often results from enzyme
induction by alcohol or aromatic medications in the absence of liver disease. The GGT
level is often elevated in persons who take three or more alcoholic drinks (45 g of ethanol
or more) per day.21 Thus, GGT is a useful marker for immoderate alcohol intake.
Phenobarbital, phenytoin (Dilantin) and other aromatic drugs typically cause GGT
elevations of about twice normal. A mildly elevated GGT level is a typical finding in
patients taking anticonvulsants and by itself does not necessarily indicate liver disease.22,23

Serum AP originates mostly from liver and bone, which produce slightly different forms
of the enzyme. The serum AP level rises during the third trimester of pregnancy because
of a form of the enzyme produced in the placenta. When serum AP originates from bone,
clues to bone disease are often present, such as recent fracture, bone pain or Paget's
disease of the bone (often found in the elderly). Like the GGT value, the AP level can
become mildly elevated in patients who are taking phenytoin.22,23

If the origin of an elevated serum AP level is in doubt, the isoenzymes of AP can be

separated by electrophoresis. However, this process is expensive and usually unnecessary
because an elevated liver AP value is usually accompanied by an elevated GGT level, an
elevated 5´-nucleotidase level and other LFT abnormalities.

In one study,24 isolated AP elevations were evaluated in an unselected group of patients at

a Veterans Affairs hospital. Most mild AP elevations (less than 1.5 times normal)
resolved within six months, and almost all greater elevations had an evident cause that
was found on routine clinical evaluation.

Persistently elevated liver AP values in asymptomatic patients, especially women, can be

caused by primary biliary cirrhosis, which is a chronic inflammatory disorder of the small
bile ducts. Serum antimitochondrial antibody is positive in almost all of these patients.

Indicators of How Well the Liver Functions

Bilirubin
Bilirubin results from the enzymatic breakdown of heme. Unconjugated bilirubin is
conjugated with glucuronic acid in hepatocytes to increase its water solubility and is then
rapidly transported into bile. The serum conjugated bilirubin level does not become
elevated until the liver has lost at least one half of its excretory capacity. Thus, a patient
could have obstruction of either the left or right hepatic duct without a rise in the bilirubin
level.

Because the secretion of conjugated bilirubin into bile is very rapid in comparison with
the conjugation step, healthy persons have almost no detectable conjugated bilirubin in
their blood. Liver disease mainly impairs the secretion of conjugated bilirubin into bile.
As a result, conjugated bilirubin is rapidly filtered into the urine, where it can be detected
by a dipstick test. The finding of bilirubin in urine is a particularly sensitive indicator of
the presence of an increased serum conjugated bilirubin level.

The gamma- In many healthy persons, the serum unconjugated

glutamyltransferase level is bilirubin is mildly elevated to a concentration of 2 to
often elevated in persons who 3 mg per dL (34 to 51 µmol per L) or slightly higher,
have three or more alcoholic
drinks per day; thus, it is a
useful marker for immoderate
alcohol intake.
especially after a 24-hour fast. If this is the only LFT abnormality and the conjugated
bilirubin level and complete blood count are normal, the diagnosis is usually assumed to
be Gilbert syndrome, and no further evaluation is required. Gilbert syndrome was
recently shown to be related to a variety of partial defects in uridine diphosphate-
glucuronosyl transferase, the enzyme that conjugates bilirubin.25

Mild hemolysis, such as that caused by hereditary spherocytosis and other disorders, can
also result in elevated unconjugated bilirubin values, but hemolysis is not usually present
if the hematocrit and blood smear are normal. The presence of hemolysis can be
confirmed by testing other markers, such as haptoglobin, or by measuring the reticulocyte
count.

Severe defects in bilirubin transport and conjugation can lead to markedly elevated
unconjugated bilirubin levels, which can cause serious neurologic damage (kernicterus)
in infants. However, no serious form of liver disease in adults causes elevation of
unconjugated bilirubin levels in the blood without also causing elevation of conjugated
bilirubin values.

When a patient has prolonged, severe biliary obstruction followed by the restoration of
bile flow, the serum bilirubin level often declines rapidly for several days and then slowly
returns to normal over a period of weeks. The slow phase of bilirubin clearance results
from the presence of delta-bilirubin, a form of bilirubin chemically attached to serum
albumin.26 Because albumin has a half-life of three weeks, delta-bilirubin clears much
more slowly than bilirubin-glucuronide. Clinical laboratories can measure delta-bilirubin
concentrations, but such measurements are usually unnecessary if the physician is aware
of the delta-bilirubin phenomenon.

Albumin
Although the serum albumin level can serve as an index of liver synthetic capacity,
several factors make albumin concentrations difficult to interpret.27 The liver can
synthesize albumin at twice the healthy basal rate and thus partially compensate for
decreased synthetic capacity or increased albumin losses. Albumin has a plasma half-life
of three weeks; therefore, serum albumin concentrations change slowly in response to
alterations in synthesis. Furthermore, because two thirds of the amount of body albumin
is located in the extravascular, extracellular space, changes in distribution can alter the
serum concentration.

In practice, patients with low serum albumin concentrations and no other LFT
abnormalities are likely to have a nonhepatic cause for low albumin, such as proteinuria
or an acute or chronic inflammatory state. Albumin synthesis is immediately and severely
depressed in inflammatory states such as burns, trauma and sepsis, and it is commonly
depressed in patients with active rheumatic disorders or severe end-stage malnutrition. In
addition, normal albumin values are lower in pregnancy.
Prothrombin Time
Patients with low serum
The liver synthesizes blood clotting factors II, V,
albumin levels and no other
VII, IX and X. The prothrombin time (PT) does not
liver function test abnormalities
become abnormal until more than 80 percent of
are likely to have a nonhepatic
liver synthetic capacity is lost. This makes PT a
cause for low albumin, such as
relatively insensitive marker of liver dysfunction.
proteinuria.
However, abnormal PT prolongation may be a sign
of serious liver dysfunction. Because factor VII has
a short half-life of only about six hours, it is
sensitive to rapid changes in liver synthetic function. Thus, PT is very useful for
following liver function in patients with acute liver failure.

An elevated PT can result from a vitamin K deficiency. This deficiency usually occurs in
patients with chronic cholestasis or fat malabsorption from disease of the pancreas or
small bowel. A trial of vitamin K injections (e.g., 5 mg per day administered
subcutaneously for three days) is the most practical way to exclude vitamin K deficiency
in such patients. The PT should improve within a few days.

Blood Ammonia
Measurement of the blood ammonia concentration is not always useful in patients with
known or suspected hepatic encephalopathy. Ammonia contributes to hepatic
encephalopathy; however, ammonia concentrations are much higher in the brain than in
the blood and therefore do not correlate well.28 Furthermore, ammonia is not the only
waste product responsible for encephalopathy. Thus, blood ammonia concentrations
show only a mediocre correlation with the level of mental status in patients with liver
disease. It is not unusual for the blood ammonia concentration to be normal in a patient
who is in a coma from hepatic encephalopathy.

Blood ammonia levels are best measured in arterial blood because venous concentrations
can be elevated as a result of muscle metabolism of amino acids. Blood ammonia
concentrations are most useful in evaluating patients with stupor or coma of unknown
origin. It is not necessary to evaluate blood ammonia levels routinely in patients with
known chronic liver disease who are responding to therapy as expected.

TABLE 3
Grading Liver Function Using the Child-Turcotte Class as
Modified by Pugh*
Points
Feature 0 1 2
Albumin More than 3.5 g 2.8 to 3.5 g per dL Less than 2.8 g per
per dL (35 g per L) (28 to 35 g per L) dL (28 g per L)
Bilirubin Less than 2 mg 2 to 3 mg per dL (34 More than 3 mg per
per dL (34 µmol to 51 µmol per L) dL
per L)
Prolongation of Less than 4 4 to 6 seconds More than 6
 prothrombin time seconds seconds
Ascites None Controlled Refractory
Encephalopathy None Controlled Refractory

*--The Child-Turcotte class, as modified by Pugh, often known simply as the "Child class," is
calculated by adding the points as determined by the patient's laboratory results: class A=0 to 1;
class B=2 to 4; class C=5 and higher. The classes indicate severity of liver dysfunction: class A
is associated with a good prognosis, and class C is associated with limited life expectancy.
Ascites and encephalopathy are graded as "none," "controlled with routine medical therapy" or
"refractory to medical therapy."

Adapted with permission from Pugh RN, Murray-Lyon IM, Dawson JL, Pietroni MC, Williams
R. Transection of the oesophagus for bleeding oesophageal varices. Br J Surg 1973;60:646-9.

Grading Liver Function by Child-Turcotte Class

In communicating among themselves, many physicians use the Child-Turcotte class as

modified by Pugh, often termed the "Child class," to convey information about overall
liver function and prognosis (Table 3).29 This grading system can be used to predict
overall life expectancy and surgical mortality in patients with cirrhosis and other liver
diseases.30

For elective general abdominal surgery, perioperative mortality is in the neighborhood of

several percent for patients who fall into the Child class A, 10 to 20 percent for those in
class B and approximately 50 percent for those in class C.31 These percentages must be
balanced by prognostic considerations when transplantation becomes an option. The
presence of cirrhosis by itself is not an indication for liver transplantation, and
transplantation is rarely performed in patients who fall into Child class A. For example,
the 10-year survival rate is as high as 80 percent in patients with hepatitis C and cirrhosis
who have Child class A liver function and no variceal bleeding.32 However, once patients
with any type of liver disease fall into the Child-Turcotte class B or class C category,
survival is significantly reduced and transplantation should be considered.

Mildly Elevated Liver Transaminase Levels in the

Asymptomatic Patient
Am Fam Physician. 2005 Mar 15;71(6):1105-1110.

Mild elevations in liver chemistry tests such as alanine transaminase and aspartate
transaminase can reveal serious underlying conditions or have transient and benign
etiologies. Potential causes of liver transaminase elevations include viral hepatitis,
alcohol use, medication use, steatosis or steatohepatitis, and cirrhosis. The history should
be thorough, with special attention given to the use of medications, vitamins, herbs,
drugs, and alcohol; family history; and any history of blood-product transfusions. Other
common health conditions, such as diabetes, heart disease, and thyroid disease, can cause
or augment liver transaminase elevations. The recent American Gastroenterological
Association guideline regarding the evaluation and management of abnormal liver
chemistry tests proposes a practical, algorithmic approach when the history and physical
examination do not reveal the cause. In addition to liver chemistries, an initial serologic
evaluation includes a prothrombin time; albumin; complete blood count with platelets;
hepatitis A, B, and C serologies; and iron studies. Depending on the etiology,
management strategies may include cessation of alcohol use, attention to medications,
control of diabetes, and modification of lifestyle factors such as obesity. If elevations
persist after an appropriate period of observation, further testing may include ultra-
sonography and other serum studies. In some cases, biopsy may be indicated.

Hepatic transaminase tests such as alanine transaminase (ALT) and aspartate

transaminase (AST) often are part of standard laboratory panels in asymptomatic
outpatients, similar to screening tests for blood donors and for life insurance applicants.
The evaluation of an abnormal ALT or AST level in an asymptomatic patient therefore is
a common challenge encountered by primary care physicians.

According to the American Gastroenterological Association (AGA), 1 to 4 percent of the

asymptomatic population may have elevated serum liver chemistries.1 This is consistent
with the usual definition of an elevated transaminase level of the top 2.5 percent of the
population range. Although one study2 of 19,877 asymptomatic young Air Force trainees
found that only 0.5 percent had elevated ALT levels, physicians who have more patients
with obesity, diabetes, and hyperlipidemia will have to address this issue more often.

Given the frequency of this problem, physicians should develop an informed approach to
the investigation of transaminase elevations. An audit of primary care practices found
that these abnormalities are not always investigated appropriately and that opportunities
to intervene in treatable cases sometimes are missed.3 No controlled clinical trials have
compared approaches to the management of abnormal transaminase levels. However, the
AGA recently published a technical review1 and a position statement4 on the evaluation
of liver chemistry tests. This article reviews the interpretation of ALT and AST levels
and summarizes the AGA recommendations on addressing reported elevations.

Strength of Recommendations
Key clinical recommendation LabelReferences
An algorithmic approach to evaluating mildly abnormal liver functions C 1
is recommended.
In the asymptomatic patient with negative serum testing and mild C 1
transaminase elevations, a period of lifestyle modification can be tried.
If abnormalities persist at the six-month follow-up visit, an C 1
ultrasonography of the liver is the recommended imaging modality.
ALT and AST are not useful screening tests in an otherwise healthy C 1,10
population.
The AST/ALT ratio is only somewhat helpful in diagnosis. C 5,7
ALT = alanine transaminase; AST = aspartate transaminase.

A = consistent, good-quality patient-oriented evidence; B = inconsistent or limited-

quality patient-oriented evidence; C = consensus, disease-oriented evidence, usual
practice, opinion, or case series. See page 1046 for more information.

Markers of Hepatic Injury and Necrosis

ALT and AST are two of the most reliable markers of hepatocellular injury or necrosis.
Their levels can be elevated in a variety of hepatic disorders. Of the two, ALT is thought
to be more specific for hepatic injury because it is present mainly in the cytosol of the
liver and in low concentrations elsewhere. AST has cytosolic and mitochondrial forms
and is present in tissues of the liver, heart, skeletal muscle, kidneys, brain, pancreas, and
lungs, and in white and red blood cells. AST is less commonly referred to as serum
glutamic oxaloacetic transaminase and ALT as serum glutamic pyruvic transaminase.

Although levels of ALT and AST can be extremely elevated (exceeding 2,000 U per L in
cases of hepatocyte injury and necrosis related to drugs, toxins, ischemia, and hepatitis),
elevations less than five times the upper limit of normal (i.e., about 250 U per L and
below) are much more common in primary care medicine. The range of possible
etiologies at this level of transaminase elevation is broader (Table 15,6) and the tests less
specific. It also is important to recall that patients with normal ALT and AST levels can
have significant liver disease in the setting of chronic hepatocyte injury (e.g., cirrhosis,
hepatitis C).

TABLE 1
Etiology of ALT or AST Elevations When Less Than Five Times Normal
Common hepatic causes
Alcohol
Cirrhosis
Hepatitis B (chronic)
Hepatitis C (chronic)
Steatosis/steatohepatitis
Medications/toxins
Acute viral hepatitis
Less common hepatic causes
Autoimmune hepatitis
Hemochromatosis
Alpha1-antitrypsin deficiency
Wilson’s disease
Nonhepatic causes
Celiac disease
Hemolysis
Myopathy
Hyperthyroidism
Strenuous exercise
Macro-AST

ALT = alanine transaminase; AST = aspartate transaminase.

Adapted with permission from Pratt DS, Kaplan MM. Evaluation of abnormal liver-
enzyme results in asymptomatic patients. N Engl J Med 2000; 342:1267, with additional
information from reference 5.

The ratio of AST to ALT has some clinical utility, but has important limitations. In many
forms of acute and chronic liver injury or steatosis (fatty infiltration of the liver), the ratio
is less than or equal to 1. This is particularly true in patients with hepatitis C. However,
an AST/ALT ratio greater than 2 characteristically is present in alcoholic hepatitis. A
recent study7 of 140 patients with nonalcoholic steatohepatitis (NASH; confirmed by
liver biopsy) or alcoholic liver disease found a mean AST/ALT ratio of 0.9 in patients
with NASH and 2.6 in patients with alcoholic liver disease. Within the population
studied, 87 percent of patients with an AST/ALT ratio of 1.3 or less had NASH (87
percent sensitivity, 84 percent specificity). The severity of NASH as measured by the
degree of fibrosis increased, as did the AST/ALT ratio. A mean ratio of 1.4 was found in
patients with cirrhosis related to NASH. Wilson’s disease, a rare problem, can cause the
AST/ALT ratio to exceed 4.5 While these ratios are suggestive of certain conditions,
there is too much overlap between groups to rely on them exclusively when making a
diagnosis.

Lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) is a less specific marker of hepatocellular necrosis and

usually does not add diagnostic information to that obtained with ALT and AST testing.
An exception to this is the transient but massive rise of LDH in cases of ischemic
hepatitis and its sustained elevation that, along with elevated alkaline phosphatase levels,
suggests malignant infiltration of the liver.5

Elevations of ALT and AST are not exclusive to liver pathology. Hyperthyroidism has
been found in several studies to increase serum levels of liver enzymes including ALT
and AST.8 Genetic influences on the level of ALT also are possible. A study9 of Danish
twins showed that genetic factors accounted for 33 to 66 percent of the variation in ALT,
gamma glutamyl transpeptidase, LDH, and bilirubin in patients 73 to 94 years of age. The
AGA technical review states that serum ALT has diurnal variation, may vary day to day,
and may be affected by exercise. It also notes that serum AST may be 15 percent higher
in black men than white men.1

Another cause of elevated liver transaminase levels is muscle injury. Strenuous exercise
or myopathy can cause elevations (especially of AST) without causing any other
symptoms. A creatine kinase or other muscle marker can be obtained to confirm or
exclude such a process.

Annual screening of healthy, asymptomatic patients for liver disease using ALT and AST
levels is not useful. A Japanese study10 assessed the accuracy of ALT and AST for
detecting hepatitis C, excess alcohol use, and fatty liver disease in male bank employees
and found the positive predictive value of the test to be low. Only 3.9 percent of the men
with an abnormal ALT level had hepatitis C; 8 percent were excessive users of alcohol;
and 35.7 percent had fatty liver.

Management

A thorough medical history and physical examination are the cornerstone of the
evaluation of patients with mildly elevated liver transaminase levels.1 The history should
attempt to identify risk factors for disease, with special attention directed toward family
history, medications, vitamins, herbal supplements, drug use, alcohol use, abnormal liver
testing, blood-product transfusions, and symptoms of liver disease. Table 26 lists selected
medications and herbal supplements that may cause elevated transaminase levels.
Physicians should ask patients directly about their use of illicit drugs, herbal supplements,
and other alternative “supplements” because these sometimes are omitted from the
patient’s initial response to questions.

TABLE 2
Common Agents That Can Cause Liver Transaminase Elevations
Herbal
Medications supplements/vitamins
Acetaminophen Chaparral leaf
Amiodarone (Cordarone) Ephedra
Amoxicillin-clavulanic acid Gentian
Carbamazepine (Tegretol) Germander
Fluconazole (Diflucan) Jin bu huan
Glyburide (Micronase) Kava
Heparin Scutellaria (skullcap)
Isoniazid (INH) Senna
Ketoconazole (Nizoral) Shark cartilage
Labetalol (Normodyne) Vitamin A
Nitrofurantoin (Furadantin)
Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs
Phenytoin (Dilantin)
Protease inhibitors
Sulfonamides
Trazodone (Desyrel)

Information from reference 6.

The presence of other significant health conditions that can cause or augment liver
transaminase elevations also should be noted; examples are diabetes, heart disease
(including congestive heart failure), thyroid disease, muscle disease, and cancer. Physical
findings and sequelae of liver dysfunction are given in Table 3.

TABLE 3
Clues in the Evaluation of Mildly Elevated Liver Transaminase Levels
Clinical clue Suggested diagnosis
Longstanding alcohol abuse Cirrhosis
Intravenous drug use, history of blood product Hepatitis B or C
transfusions, nonsterile needle exposure, AST/ALT ratio <
1.0
Obesity, diabetes, hyperlipidemia, AST/ALT ratio < 1.0 Steatosis/steatohepatitis
AST/ALT ratio > 2.0 Alcoholic liver disease,
Wilson’s disease
Increased iron levels Hemochromatosis
Polypharmacy, illicit drug use, or certain herbal Substance/medication-
supplement use induced
Frequent, strenuous exercise Exercise-induced
Intestinal bloating; oily, bulky stools Celiac sprue
Hypergammaglobulinemia Autoimmune hepatitis
Reduced ceruloplasmin levels, Kayser-Fleischer ring Wilson’s disease
Depressed thyroid-stimulating hormone levels Hyperthyroidism

ALT = alanine transaminase; AST = aspartate transaminase. [corrected]

Once the history and physical examination are completed, additional testing can help
discern the etiology of the transaminase elevation (Figure 1).4

Management of Mild ALT and AST Abnormalities

Figure 1.
Algorithm to manage mild ALT and AST abnormalities. (ALT = alanine transaminase;
AST = aspartate transaminase.)

Adapted with permission from American Gastroenterological Association. Medical

position statement: evaluation of liver chemistry tests. Gastroenterology 2002; 123:1365.

INITIAL LABORATORY EVALUATION

Additional laboratory tests should be obtained when the history and physical examination
show no obvious etiology for ALT and AST elevations. Ferritin, total iron-binding
capacity, and serum iron can be used to look for hemochromatosis, while hepatitis A, B,
and C serologies are used to rule out acute or chronic hepatitis.

Despite the emergence of widespread vaccination, hepatitis B remains a common cause

of chronic liver disease in adults. Testing for hepatitis C is essential because its incidence
has increased in the past decade, and new treatment strategies have been developed that
can address this frequently missed problem.11

A prothrombin time (PT) and serum albumin should be ordered to identify patients with
abnormalities of protein synthesis and liver function. Evaluation should be accelerated for
patients with impaired hepatic synthetic function. A complete blood count with platelets
also should be ordered. In addition to ruling out infection, neutropenia or
thrombocytopenia can, along with an elevated PT, suggest advanced liver disease. An
elevated mean red cell volume suggests heavy alcohol intake. Alkaline phosphatase and
bilirubin are markers for hepatic cholestasis and should be ordered as part of the initial
laboratory evaluation. While sometimes useful, they often are normal in the presence of
hepatic injury.

LIFESTYLE MODIFICATION

If the patient is asymptomatic and the initial serum testing is negative, a period of
lifestyle modification can be attempted. Effective lifestyle modification includes
complete abstinence from alcohol, control of diabetes and hyperlipidemia, weight loss in
overweight patients, and stopping or changing potentially hepatotoxic medications and
supplements. Such lifestyle changes directly impact several of the causes of mild
transaminase elevation (Table 1).5,6 These seemingly small modifications may be all that
is needed to correct the abnormalities.

FOLLOW-UP AND IMAGING STUDIES

A repeat set of liver chemistries should be obtained after six months. If the patient’s
presentation changes or the physician has concern for an evolving process, shorter
intervals can be used. If abnormalities persist at the six-month follow-up visit, ultra-
sonography of the liver is recommended. Computed tomography of the abdomen also is
used in this setting, although clinical trials have not demonstrated an advantage of this
more expensive modality.
Steatohepatitis (or nonalcoholic fatty liver disease) often is discovered by imaging. This
condition may be the most frequent cause of mild liver chemistry elevations and is
especially common in patients who are obese, and those who have diabetes or
hyperlipidemia. One study12 of patients referred to a hospital-based gastroenterology
practice found that in 83 percent of patients with elevated transaminase levels whose
serum evaluation was otherwise negative, liver biopsy revealed steatosis or
steatohepatitis. In 10 percent of the patients, however, liver biopsy was normal—a
reminder that, at times, mildly elevated transaminase levels do not represent any
underlying pathology. Excellent reviews of the management of nonalcoholic fatty liver
disease have been published.13,14

If the diagnosis is not apparent from the ultrasound examination, further testing is
suggested for alpha1-antitrypsin deficiency (alpha1-antitrypsin levels), Wilson’s disease
(serum ceruloplasmin), celiac disease (antigliadin and anti-endomysial antibody), and
autoimmune hepatitis (antinuclear antibody, anti–smooth-muscle antibody), as well as for
nonhepatic causes of transaminase elevation. According to the AGA, the decision to
perform a liver biopsy needs to be made on an individual basis, taking into consideration
the patient’s age, lifestyle, liver chemistry abnormalities, desire for prognostic
information, and associated comorbid conditions.1 Only with chronic mild transaminase
elevations would an asymptomatic patient be considered a possible candidate for biopsy.