applied

sciences
Article
Residual Mechanical Properties of Fiber-Reinforced
Lightweight Aggregate Concrete after Exposure to
Elevated Temperatures
Chao-Wei Tang 1,2,3
1 Department of Civil Engineering & Geomatics, Cheng Shiu University, No. 840, Chengching Rd.,
Niaosong District, Kaohsiung 83347, Taiwan; tangcw@gcloud.csu.edu.tw; Tel.: +886-7-735-8800
2 Center for Environmental Toxin and Emerging-Contaminant Research, Cheng Shiu University, No. 840,
Chengching Rd., Niaosong District, Kaohsiung 83347, Taiwan
3 Super Micro Mass Research & Technology Center, Cheng Shiu University, No. 840, Chengching Rd.,
Niaosong District, Kaohsiung 83347, Taiwan




Received: 26 April 2020; Accepted: 19 May 2020; Published: 20 May 2020


Abstract: In this study, the effects of individual and mixed fiber on the mechanical properties
of lightweight aggregate concrete (LWC) after exposure to elevated temperatures were examined.
Concrete specimens were divided into a control group (ordinary LWC) and an experimental group
(fiber-reinforced LWC), and their compressive strength, elastic modulus, and flexural strength after
heating to high temperatures of 400–800 ◦ C were investigated. The four test parameters included
concrete type, concrete strength, fiber type, and targeted temperature. The test results show that after
exposure to 400–800 ◦ C, the variation in mechanical properties of each group of LWC showed a trend
of increasing first and then decreasing. After exposure to 400 ◦ C, the residual mechanical properties
of all specimens did not attenuate due to the drying effect of the high temperature and the more
sufficient cement hydration reaction. However, after exposure to 800 ◦ C, the residual mechanical
properties significantly reduced. Overall, the mixed fiber-reinforced LWC showed a better ability
to resist the loss of mechanical properties caused by high temperature. Compared with the loss of
compressive strength, the flexural strength was relatively lost.

Keywords: fiber-reinforced lightweight aggregate concrete; residual mechanical properties;

elevated temperatures

1. Introduction
Aggregates used in cement concrete are generally classified into three categories: light-, normal-,
and heavy-weight. Lightweight aggregate (LWA) is a general term for natural or artificial aggregates
with a bulk density less than 1200 kg/m3 [1]. Due to the increasing demand for LWAs and the
unavailability of natural LWAs worldwide, techniques have been developed to produce them in
modern factories [2]. LWA can be used to produce lightweight aggregate concrete (LWC) [1,2],
which has a lower unit weight and can significantly reduce the cross-section of load-bearing members,
thereby reducing the size of the foundation and making it more suitable for structural engineering [2,3].
Compared with normal weight aggregate concrete (NWC), LWC has practical advantages, such as good
seismic performance, fire resistance, and durability [2]. Therefore, in recent years, LWC has become an
important structural material, and the demand for it is increasing [1,2]. However, LWC generally has
higher brittleness and lower mechanical properties than NWC with the same compressive strength [4,5].
Many studies showed that the use of fibers in LWC is a solution to resolving these problems [6–8].
In fiber-reinforced concretes, the fiber acts as a crack arrester that can dissipate the local internal
stress and cut off the cracks caused by the internal stress and the propagation path of the original

Appl. Sci. 2020, 10, 3519; doi:10.3390/app10103519 www.mdpi.com/journal/applsci

Appl. Sci. 2020, 10, 3519 2 of 17

crack to prevent plastic dry shrinkage cracks in the initial solidification of concrete. The addition
of fibers to LWC can improve its mechanical properties and significantly increase its toughness,
ductility performance, and energy absorption, while decreasing its workability [5,9,10].
High temperatures cause the deterioration of concrete materials, which is a special failure type of
concrete structures and considerably impacts on the overall safety of the structure. Thermal degradation
of concrete mechanical properties is critical in assessing the fire resistance and post-fire capacity of
reinforced concrete structures. Once concrete is exposed to fire and high temperature, the microstructure
and properties of the cement hydration product change with temperature, which directly or indirectly
destroys the macroscopic properties of the matrix, thereby affecting the overall behavior of the concrete
at high temperatures [11]. When the firing temperature reaches 200 ◦ C or above, the decomposition
of cement hydrate and the destruction of aggregates gradually occur in the concrete. The difference
in thermal deformation between the cement matrix and the aggregate leads to stress concentration,
which causes the concrete strength to decline significantly, and the degree of strength reduction
mainly depends on the characteristics of the aggregate and the temperature to which the concrete is
subjected [8]. Especially in environments where the temperature rises rapidly, high strength concrete
(HSC) is more susceptible to explosive spalling due to the combined effect of pore pressure and thermal
stress caused by temperature gradients during heating [12,13]. The structural integrity of a reinforced
concrete structure is severely damaged. Therefore, the spalling behavior of HSC at high temperatures
has attracted the interest of many researchers [14–21]. With fiber concrete, the thermal interface between
the fiber and the concrete matrix can lead to thermal cracking at high temperatures. Xiong and Liew’s
research [14] pointed out that even if the added amount is 1.0% (volume), steel fiber cannot effectively
prevent the spalling of ultra-high performance concrete. It was found that polypropylene fibers with a
dosage of 0.1% can be effective at temperatures up to 800 ◦ C because the polypropylene fibers melted
and then left voids to release steam. Seitllari and Naser [17], through a comprehensive data-driven
inspection of actual fire tests, proved that artificial intelligence technology can provide an attractive
tool capable of predicting fire-induced spalling phenomenon with high precision. Chen and Liu [19]
studied the residual strength of HSC after exposure to high temperatures. The test results showed that
HSC is prone to exploding after exposure to high temperatures, and the first spalling occurred when
the temperature was close to 400 ◦ C. For HSC doped with high melting point fibers, the first spalling
occurred when the temperature reached about 800 ◦ C; the HSC with low melting point polypropylene
(PP) fibers did not explode when exposed to high temperatures. The properties of HSC mixed with
a high melting point fiber (carbon or steel fiber) and a low melting point fiber (polypropylene fiber)
can be considerably improved after exposure to high temperature. Zhang et al. [20] reviewed the
mechanical properties of steel fiber-reinforced concrete (SFRC) subjected to high temperature, including
its residual compressive strength, flexural strength, tensile strength, elasticity, fracture characteristics,
and stress–strain relationship. The residual mechanical properties of the SFRC and the mechanism
of action of steel fibers were reviewed in detail. The results showed that, in general, SFRC exhibited
better residual mechanical properties than plain concrete when exposed to high temperatures and
can more effectively prevent the risk of explosive spalling. Kodur and Dwaikat [21] confirmed that
concrete spalling is directly related to its permeability and has an adverse effect on the fire resistance of
RC beams. Due to spalling caused by fire in concrete, the fire resistance of HSC beams with extremely
low permeability can be significantly reduced by more than 50%.
Many researchers [3–5,9,10,17,22–32] studied the residual mechanical properties of LWC at room
temperature after exposure to high temperatures because, to some extent, they represent conditions
present after a fire event. Compared with ordinary aggregates, LWA has a larger porosity, so its water
absorption is relatively higher. Jiang et al. [26] found that under normal circumstances, when the
moisture content of NWC is less than 75%, spalling caused by high temperature does not occur.
However, when the moisture content of the LWC is higher than 25%, spalling at high temperatures
may occur. This shows that LWC spalling at high temperatures is much more sensitive to moisture
than NWC. In practice, to minimize the water absorption of LWA and its effect on the workability
Appl. Sci. 2020, 10, 3519 3 of 17

and subsequent setting and hardening of the concrete produced, LWA is usually pre-saturated before
mixing. However, this treatment allows excess water to enter the concrete to increase its moisture
content, thereby increasing the possibility of spalling at high temperatures. To improve the spalling
resistance of LWC at high temperatures, He et al. [27] used two types of modified materials to modify
the LWA using surface coating modifications. During the temperature increase, the spalling behavior
of concrete samples formed with modified aggregates was observed. Their test results showed that the
modified concrete specimen remained intact at 1200 ◦ C, and retained about 25% to 38% of the residual
compressive strength at this temperature. Huang et al. [31] investigated the mechanical behavior and
microstructure of a new type of ultra-lightweight cement composite (ULCC), which used cenospheres
as the LWA and was exposed to high temperatures up to 900 ◦ C. To prevent the spalling of ULCC
material at high temperatures, synthetic fibers were used, with different contents of polypropylene
fiber, steel fiber, mixed fiber, and fly ash instead of cement. ULCC containing a small amount of PP
fiber was found to improve the fire resistance of ULCC and eliminate the explosive spalling behavior
of ULCC for temperatures up to 900 ◦ C. After high temperature exposure, hybrid fibers improve
concrete fire resistance and ductility. However, the effects of polypropylene fibers on the mechanical
degradation of various fiber-reinforced LWCs are not fully understood. Due to the large variation in
LWC composition, mix design, testing apparatus, and experimental protocols, the rate of degradation
of LWC mechanical properties with temperature varies widely.
As such, a series of experiments were conducted in this study to investigate the residual mechanical
properties of various fiber-reinforced LWCs after exposure to high temperatures to further understand
the efficacy of individual and mixed fiber in fire resistance of LWC.

2. Experimental Procedure

2.1. Experimental Programs

Test variables included concrete type (control group: ordinary LWC; experimental group: fiber
reinforced LWC), concrete strength (30 and 50 MPa), fiber type (steel fiber and polypropylene fiber),
and targeted temperature (400, 600, and 800 ◦ C). The bottom range of strength of various concrete varies
with time and geographical location [33–35]. In the study, medium-strength concrete is tentatively
defined as the concrete having the strength of 40–60 MPa, while low-strength is defined as the concrete
having the strength of less than 40 MPa. The details of each experimental variable are shown in
Table 1. The percentage of steel fibers in the literature is generally 0.25%–1.5% of the volume fraction of
concrete. Most studies showed that when the steel fiber content is 1%, the effect is more significant [20].
To enable comparison, the percentage of steel fiber in this study was 1%. Polypropylene fiber is
very fine and its specific surface area is large, which leads to an increase in the viscosity of concrete
and a decrease in workability [14]. Therefore, the amount of polypropylene fiber was only 0.1%
(volume percentage). For all investigated concrete mixtures, the specimens were tested in ambient
temperature conditions as well as in residual conditions after exposure to a predetermined elevated
temperature and cooling to room temperature. As for the thermal degradation of concrete’s mechanical
properties, the following properties were investigated: compressive strength, stress versus strain curve,
elastic modulus, flexural strength, and load–deflection curve.
Appl. Sci. 2020, 10, 3519 4 of 17

Table 1. Planning of experimental variables.

Specified Concrete Targeted

Group Mix No. Fiber Content (Volume %)
Strength (MPa) Temperature (◦ C)
Appl. Sci. 2020, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 4 of 17
Control C30 30 0 400, 600, and 800
group C50 50 0 400, 600, and 800
E50-M 50 Steel fiber (1%) + Polypropylene fiber (0.1%) 400, 600, and 800
E30-S 30 Steel fiber (1%) 400, 600, and 800
E50-S 50 Steel fiber (1%) 400, 600, and 800
2.2. Materials
Experimental
E50-P 50 Polypropylene fiber (0.1%) 400, 600, and 800
group used included cement, slag, fine and coarse aggregates, fiber, and superplasticizer.
Materials
Steel fiber (1%) +
Local Portland cement E50-M
with a specific 50 gravity of 3.15 and a fineness 3400 cm2400, 600, and 800 with
Polypropylene fiberof
(0.1%) /g, complying
ASTM C150/C150M (ASTM C150/C150M-15 2015) [36], was used as binding material. Local slag
with a specific gravity of 2.9 and a fineness of 6000 cm2/g was used. The fine aggregate was a locally
2.2. Materials
available natural river sand that meets ASTM C33/C33M (ASTM C33/C33M-13 2013) [37]. The
Materials
specific weight,usedwaterincluded
absorption,cement, slag, finemodulus
and fineness and coarse aggregates,
of the fiber, are
fine aggregate andshown
superplasticizer.
in Table 2.
Localcoarse
The PortlandLWA cement with locally
used was a specific gravity from
produced of 3.15 and a fineness
reservoir sludge.ofIts3400
drycm 2 /g, complying
specific with
weight, water
ASTM C150/C150M
absorption, (ASTMand
unit weight, C150/C150M-15 2015) [36],
crushing strength was
are used in
listed as binding
Table 3.material.
Local steelLocal fibers
slag withanda
specific gravity of 2.9 and a fineness of 6000 cm 2 /g was used. The fine aggregate was a locally available
polypropylene fibers were used, as shown in Figure 1. The basic properties of these two fibers are
natural
listed inriver
Tablesand
4. Thethatreason
meetsforASTM usingC33/C33M
wavy steel (ASTM C33/C33M-13
fiber is that the wavy 2013) [37].can
shape The specificaweight,
produce strong
water absorption,
mechanical bonding andforce
fineness modulus the
to improve of the fine strength
shear aggregateofareconcrete.
shown inATable 2. The coarsecalled
superplasticizer LWA
used was locally produced from reservoir sludge. Its dry specific weight,
Sikament-1250 (Sika Taiwan Ltd.) was used to enhance the workability of the concrete mixtures.water absorption, unit weight,
and crushing strength are listed in Table 3. Local steel fibers and polypropylene fibers were used,
as shown in Figure 1. The basic Table 2. Physical
properties properties
of these of fineare
two fibers aggregate.
listed in Table 4. The reason for using
wavy steel fiber istype
Aggregate that the wavy shape Specificcan produce
weight (SSD) a strong mechanical
Water absorptionbonding
(SSD) (%)force to improve
FM the
shear strength of concrete. A superplasticizer
Fine aggregate 2.60 called Sikament-12501.25 (Sika Taiwan Ltd.) was used to
2.70
enhance
Notes: SSD, the workability
saturated surface dry of the concrete
condition; mixtures.
FM, fineness modulus.

Table 3.Table
Physical and mechanical
2. Physical ofoflightweight
properties aggregates.
fine aggregate.

Aggregate Unit weight (dry-rodded)

Dry specific weightType Specific
1-hr Weight (SSD)
Water absorption (%) Water Absorption (SSD) (%) FM
Crushing strength (MPa)
(kg/m3)
Fine
1.2 aggregate 2.60
4.9 707.5 1.25 2.70
3.6
Notes: SSD, saturated surface dry condition; FM, fineness modulus.
Table 4. Basic properties of fibers.
Table 3. Physical and mechanical of lightweight aggregates.
Length Diameter Density Elastic Modulus Tensile Strength Melting Point
Type of fiber
1-h Water
(mm) Absorption
(mm) (g/cm3) Unit Weight
(GPa) Crushing Strength
(MPa) (°C)
Dry Specific Weight
(%) (Dry-Rodded) (kg/m3 ) (MPa)
Wavy Steel Fibers 30 0.8 7.8 200 2000 -
1.2 Fibers
Polypropylene 12 4.9
0.05 0.9 707.5
- 300 3.6 165

(a) (b)

Figure
Figure 1.
1. Appearance
Appearance of
of fibers:
fibers: (a)
(a) wavy
wavy steel
steel fibers
fibers and
and (b)
(b) polypropylene
polypropylene fibers.
fibers.

2.3. Concrete Mix Design

In this study, ordinary LWC and fiber-reinforced LWC were prepared, the former serving as
the reference concrete. To analyze the effect of concrete strength on its residual mechanical
properties, each group of concrete was cast with low- and medium-strength specimens, and the
specified 28-day compressive strengths were 30 and 50 MPa, respectively. Through a series of trial
mixing, the concrete mixture was designed to achieve the target strength at 28 days of age and had a
proper workability of 150 to 200 mm. The concrete mixing design used is shown in Table 5. The
abbreviations for identifying each concrete indicate the type of concrete: control group (C) or
Appl. Sci. 2020, 10, 3519 5 of 17

Table 4. Basic properties of fibers.

Length Diameter Density Elastic Tensile Melting

Type of fiber
(mm) (mm) (g/cm3 ) Modulus (GPa) Strength (MPa) Point (◦ C)
Wavy Steel Fibers 30 0.8 7.8 200 2000 -
Polypropylene Fibers 12 0.05 0.9 - 300 165

2.3. Concrete Mix Design

In this study, ordinary LWC and fiber-reinforced LWC were prepared, the former serving as the
reference concrete. To analyze the effect of concrete strength on its residual mechanical properties,
each group of concrete was cast with low- and medium-strength specimens, and the specified 28-day
compressive strengths were 30 and 50 MPa, respectively. Through a series of trial mixing, the concrete
mixture was designed to achieve the target strength at 28 days of age and had a proper workability of
150 to 200 mm. The concrete mixing design used is shown in Table 5. The abbreviations for identifying
each concrete indicate the type of concrete: control group (C) or experimental group (E), the strength
of concrete (30 or 50 MPa), and the type of fiber (S: steel fiber, P: polypropylene fiber, M: hybrid fiber).

Table 5. Concrete mix design composition.

Aggregate
Cement Slag Water SP Steel Fiber PP
Mix (kg/m3 )
Group W/B (kg/m3 ) (kg/m3 ) (kg/m3 ) (kg/m3 ) (kg/m3 ) (kg/m3 )
No. FA CA
Control C30 0.50 315 105 210 824 418 2.9 - -
group C50 0.32 412 138 176 957 348 7.7 - -
E30-S 0.50 315 105 210 824 418 2.9 78 -
Experimental E50-S 0.32 412 138 176 957 348 7.7 78 -
group E50-P 0.32 412 138 176 957 348 7.7 - 0.9
E50-M 0.32 412 138 176 957 348 7.7 78 0.9
Note: C, ordinary LWC; E, fiber-reinforced LWC; digits, strength level; W/B, water/binder ratio; FA, fine aggregate;
CA, lightweight coarse aggregate; SP, superplasticizer; PP, polypropylene fiber.

Before mixing, the aggregates were cured indoors until the required saturated surface-dry
condition was reached. In the mixing process, the cement, slag, fiber, fine aggregates, and lightweight
coarse aggregates were generally blended first, and then water and superplasticizer were added.
The mixing operation was continued until a uniform and homogeneous concrete without any
segregation was obtained.

2.4. Fabrication of Specimens

Following the mixing procedure, the slump and unit weight of each mixture were measured.
Concrete specimens for each test were then cast from each mixture and compacted using an external
vibrator. Along with each mixture, 12 100-mm-diameter and 200 mm tall cylindrical specimens were
cast for compressive strength test and elastic modulus test; twelve prism specimens (360 mm long ×
100 mm wide × 100 mm thick) were cast for flexural strength of concrete. Immediately after casting,
all the specimens were covered with wet hessian and polyethylene sheets for a period of 24 h, at which
time they were then demolded. Following demolding, all specimens were placed in a laboratory water
bath. After curing, the specimens were removed from the water bath one day before the test. Then,
the specimens were placed in an oven at 100 ◦ C for 24 h to avoid spalling during the subsequent
fire test.

2.5. Testing Methods

The compressive strength, flexural strength, and elastic modulus of the concrete were tested
according to the ASTM C39 [38], ASTM C78 [39], and ASTM C469 [40]. The specimens were heated at
a prescribed rate (10 ◦ C/min). As soon as the target maximum temperature was reached, the furnace
during the subsequent fire test.

2.5. Testing Methods

The compressive strength, flexural strength, and elastic modulus of the concrete were tested
Appl. Sci. 2020, 10, 3519 6 of 17
according to the ASTM C39 [38], ASTM C78 [39], and ASTM C469 [40]. The specimens were heated
at a prescribed rate (10 °C/min). As soon as the target maximum temperature was reached, the
furnace
temperature temperature was maintained
was maintained at this temperature
at this temperature for 60 minfor 60 min thermal
to achieve to achieve thermal
stability stability
throughout
throughout
the specimen the(Figure
specimen (Figure 2). Afterwards,
2). Afterwards, the furnacethe furnace
power power
switch wasswitch
turnedwas turned
off and theoff and the
specimens
specimens
were allowed were to allowed to cool
cool slowly slowly
in the in the
furnace furnace
with withopened.
the door the door opened.
Upon Upon the specimens
the specimens cooling to
cooling to room temperature,
room temperature, the residual the residualtests
strength strength
were tests were conducted.
conducted. In these
In these tests, tests, the
the average average
value was
value was calculated
calculated using the recordings
using the recordings from three from three specimens.
specimens.

After the furnace temperature reached the target

temperature, it continued for 60 minutes.

800 C
The specimens were allowed to cool
Furnace temperature

slowly in the furnace with the door

600 C opened.

400 C

10 C/min

Time

Appl. Sci. 2020, 10, xFigure

FOR PEER REVIEW diagram of specimens heating and cooling in the furnace.
2. Schematic 6 of 17
Figure 2. Schematic diagram of specimens heating and cooling in the furnace.
3. Results
3. Resultsand
andDiscussion
Discussion

3.1. Fresh Properties of Concrete

3.1. Fresh Properties of Concrete
The fresh properties of concrete were recorded for each batch. The tested fresh properties of the
The fresh properties of concrete were recorded for each batch. The tested fresh properties of the
concrete included slump and unit weight, as shown in Figure 3. The slump value ranged from 16 to
concrete included slump and unit weight, as shown in Figure 3. The slump value ranged from 16 to
21 cm. In the control group, the slump values of the C30 and C50 mixes were 20 and 21 cm, respectively.
21 cm. In the control group, the slump values of the C30 and C50 mixes were 20 and 21 cm,
These results showed that the mixtures of the control group had good workability. In the experimental
respectively. These results showed that the mixtures of the control group had good workability. In
group, the slump value of the E30-S and E50-S mixes with steel fiber was 18 cm, and the slump value
the experimental group, the slump value of the E30-S and E50-S mixes with steel fiber was 18 cm,
of the E50-P mix with polypropylene fiber was 20 cm, but the slump value of the E50-M mix with
and the slump value of the E50-P mix with polypropylene fiber was 20 cm, but the slump value of
steel fiber and polypropylene fiber was only 16 cm because the amount of fiber used in the E50-M mix
the E50-M mix with steel fiber and polypropylene fiber was only 16 cm because the amount of fiber
was higher, resulting in a stiffer mixture and leading to reduced workability. For low strength LWC,
used in the E50-M mix was higher, resulting in a stiffer mixture and leading to reduced workability.
the unit
For low weights
strength of the C30
LWC, the and
unitE30-S mixes
weights wereC30
of the 1875 and
and E30-S kg/m3 were
1953mixes , respectively,
1875 andwhich
1953 are
kg/mnot
3,
much different. For medium-strength LWC, the unit weight
respectively, which are not much different. For medium-strength of the C50, E50-S, E50-P, and E50-M mixes
LWC, the unit weight of the C50,
with the addition of fiber ranged from 2039 to 2118 kg/m 3 , which meets the limit of unit weight for
E50-S, E50-P, and E50-M mixes with the addition of fiber ranged from 2039 to 2118 kg/m3, which
structural
meets LWC.of unit weight for structural LWC.
the limit

Figure 3. Results of slump and unit weight test of lightweight aggregate concretes.
Figure 3. Results of slump and unit weight test of lightweight aggregate concretes.
3.2. Compressive Strength
3.2. Compressive Strength
At a test age of 28 days, the cylinders of investigated concrete mixtures were capped with gypsum
At acompound
capping test age ofand28 days,
testedthe cylinders of to
in compression investigated
determine concrete mixturesstrength
the compressive were capped with
of concrete.
gypsum
As shown capping compound
in Figure andcompressive
4, the 28 day tested in compression to determine
strength of each the compressive
concrete mixture strength of
at room temperature
concrete.
was higher Asthan
shown
the in Figure 4,
designed 28the
day28compressive
day compressive strength
strength. of eachthe
Comparing concrete
strengthmixture at room
of the concrete
temperature was higher than the designed 28 day compressive strength. Comparing the strength of
the concrete with low strength C30 and E30-S mixes, the incorporation of steel fiber did not
significantly contribute to the increase in the 28 day compressive strength of the concrete; it rather
decreased slightly by 2.1%. As for the medium-strength concrete, the compressive strength of the
experimental group (E50-S, E50-P, and E50-M mixes) was 9.6%–11.7% lower than that of the control
Appl. Sci. 2020, 10, 3519 7 of 17

with low strength C30 and E30-S mixes, the incorporation of steel fiber did not significantly contribute
to the increase in the 28 day compressive strength of the concrete; it rather decreased slightly by
2.1%. As for the medium-strength concrete, the compressive strength of the experimental group
(E50-S, E50-P, and E50-M mixes) was 9.6%–11.7% lower than that of the control group (the C50 mix).
The strength of the E50-S mix was slightly lower than that of the E50-P mix, whereas the strength
of the E50-M mixture was the lowest. These results showed that regardless of whether the concrete
is low- or medium-strength, the control group had higher strength. Although it was fully stirred
during the mixing, the decrease in the compressive strength of the experimental group may be due
to difficulties in scattering and condensing the fibers in the concrete. This phenomenon has been
Appl. Sci. 2020, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 7 of 17
discussed elsewhere [5].

Figure
Figure 4.
4. Results
Results of
of compressive
compressive strength
strength test.
test.
The residual compressive strength of investigated LWC mixtures after exposure to different
The residual compressive strength of investigated LWC mixtures after exposure to different
elevated temperatures is shown in Figure 4. Taking the control group as an example, the residual
elevated temperatures is shown in Figure 4. Taking the control group as an example, the residual
compressive strength of the C30 and C50 mixes at different fire temperatures was 16.5–34.4 and
compressive strength of the C30 and C50 mixes at different fire temperatures was 16.5–34.4 and
33.2–60.8 MPa, respectively. For the experimental group, the residual compressive strengths of the
33.2–60.8 MPa, respectively. For the experimental group, the residual compressive strengths of the
E30-S, E50-S, EC50-P, and E50-M mixes at the different fire temperatures were 19.1–35.4, 29.6–54.1,
E30-S, E50-S, EC50-P, and E50-M mixes at the different fire temperatures were 19.1–35.4, 29.6–54.1,
28.5–54.7, and 32.8–52.8 MPa, respectively. Overall, the variation in the compressive strength of
28.5–54.7, and 32.8–52.8 MPa, respectively. Overall, the variation in the compressive strength of each
each group of LWC showed a trend of increasing first and then decreasing. After exposure to the
group of LWC showed a trend of increasing first and then decreasing. After exposure to the lowest target
lowest target temperature (400 °C), the residual compressive strength of all mixtures increased
temperature (400 ◦ C), the residual compressive strength of all mixtures increased relative to the initial
relative to the initial values determined at room temperature. The reason for the increase in strength
values determined at room temperature. The reason for the increase in strength is the drying effect of the
is the drying effect of the concrete specimen due to the increase in temperature [41]. Chen et al. [42]
concrete specimen due to the increase in temperature [41]. Chen et al. [42] confirmed that a significant
confirmed that a significant gap between the internal temperature of the specimen and the furnace
gap between the internal temperature of the specimen and the furnace temperature, which was only
temperature, which was only about half that of the furnace temperature. In other words, despite
about half that of the furnace temperature. In other words, despite maintaining the furnace temperature
maintaining the furnace temperature for one hour, the temperature inside ◦the concrete was still far
for one hour, the temperature inside the concrete was still far below 400 C. Therefore, under the
below 400 °C. Therefore, under the action of high temperature drying, the water vapor in the
action of high temperature drying, the water vapor in the specimen remained, which contributed
specimen remained, which contributed to the improvement of strength. Li and Bu [43] also
to the improvement of strength. Li and Bu [43] also demonstrated that the compressive strength of
demonstrated that the◦compressive strength of concrete after 200–300 °C increased with increasing
concrete after 200–300 C increased with increasing temperature. Drzymała et al. [44] showed that the
temperature. Drzymała et al. [44] showed that the compressive strength of fiber concrete after 300
compressive strength of fiber concrete after 300 ◦ C was also higher than the initial value measured
°C was also higher than the initial value measured at 20 °C. Some scholars found that when the
at 20 ◦ C. Some scholars found that when the temperature range is between room temperature and
temperature range is between room temperature and 400 °C, high temperatures cause the cement
400 ◦ C, high temperatures cause the cement hydration reaction to occur more fully, thus increasing
hydration reaction to occur more fully, thus increasing the strength [20]. From this point of view, a
the strength [20]. From this point of view, a small increase in temperature can produce favorable
small increase in temperature can produce favorable chemical changes inside the concrete
chemical changes inside the concrete microstructure and can even improve concrete’s performance [45].
microstructure and can even improve concrete’s performance [45]. However, once the temperature
However, once the temperature exceeded a certain threshold, the mechanical properties of the two
exceeded a certain threshold, the mechanical properties of the two groups of concrete tended to
groups of concrete tended to deteriorate. After exposure to 600–800 ◦ C, the residual compressive
deteriorate. After exposure to 600–800 °C, the residual compressive strength of each concrete
strength of each concrete mixture decreased significantly because the strength loss was mainly caused
mixture decreased significantly because the strength loss was mainly caused by physical changes
by physical changes below 400 ◦ C. However, at 600–800 ◦ C, the decrease in strength was mainly
below 400 °C. However, at 600–800 °C, the decrease in strength was mainly due to chemical
due to chemical degradation in hydrated products and aggregates, which was basically unrelated
degradation in hydrated products and aggregates, which was basically unrelated to the amount
to the amount and type of fiber [46]. Kong et al. [47] showed that after exposure to 800 ◦ C, the
and type of fiber [46]. Kong et al. [47] showed that after exposure to 800 °C, the residual strength of
LWC decreased to 40% of the room temperature strength. However, in this study, the residual
strength of the two groups of LWC after exposure to 800 °C was about 50%–66% of the initial
strength.
The degree of variation in strength after exposure to high temperatures can be understood
through the residual compressive strength ratio of the specimen, which is defined as the ratio of the
Appl. Sci. 2020, 10, 3519 8 of 17

residual strength of LWC decreased to 40% of the room temperature strength. However, in this study,
the residual strength of the two groups of LWC after exposure to 800 ◦ C was about 50%–66% of the
initial strength.
The degree of variation in strength after exposure to high temperatures can be understood through
the residual compressive strength ratio of the specimen, which is defined as the ratio of the strength
after exposure to the target temperature to the original strength at room temperature. Figure 5 shows
that the variation in the residual compressive strength ratio of different LWC mixtures is a function
of temperature. Notably, the residual compressive strength ratio of the two series of concrete after
exposure to 400 ◦ C significantly improved, as shown in Figure 5. In the case of low-strength LWC,
Figure
Appl. Sci.5a shows
2020, that PEER
10, x FOR the residual
REVIEW compressive strength ratio of the experimental group after exposure 8 of 17
to high temperatures was higher than that of the control group. Similarly, for medium-strength LWC,
of the experimental
Figure 5b shows that group after exposure
the residual compressive to 400–600
strength °C ratiowas higher
of the than that group
experimental of the after
control group
exposure
to 400–600 ◦
due to the bridging effect of the fibers. Figure 5b, in the experimental group, shows that the residual
C was higher than that of the control group due to the bridging effect of the fibers. Figure 5b,
compression
in of the specimens
the experimental group, shows withthat steelthe
fibers (E50-S
residual and E50-M)of
compression produced obvious
the specimens changes
with in the
steel fibers
residual
(E50-S andcompressive
E50-M) produced strength
obviousratiochanges
with increasing
in the residual temperature
compressive between
strength400ratioand
with600 °C. By
increasing
comparison, between
temperature specimens 400with 600 ◦ C. By comparison,
and polypropylene fiber (E50-P) underwent
specimens a moderate change
with polypropylene in the
fiber (E50-P)
residual compressive
underwent a moderate changestrength in the ratio with compressive
residual increasing strength
temperature because
ratio with the addition
increasing temperature of
polypropylene
because fibers of
the addition in polypropylene
concrete led to fibers improved retention
in concrete ledofto compressive strengthofatcompressive
improved retention moderately
high temperatures
strength at moderately duehigh
to the melting of polypropylene
temperatures due to the melting fibers, which created pathways
of polypropylene fibers, which within
createdthe
concrete microstructure
pathways within the concrete for the release of for
microstructure water. As canofbewater.
the release seen As in can
Figure 5b, in
be seen theFigure
residual 5b,
compressive
the strength ratiostrength
residual compressive of the E50-P ratio mix
of thewas lowermix
E50-P than that
was of the
lower control
than that group
of the after
controlexposure
group
to 800exposure
after °C. Aftertothis ◦ C. After this
800temperature, the specimens with
temperature, polypropylene
the specimens with fibers had the lowest
polypropylene fibers residual
had the
compressive
lowest residualstrength
compressive ratiostrength
amongratio allamong
testedallconcretes because
tested concretes the the
because pyrolysis
pyrolysisprocess
process of
polypropylene fibers
polypropylene fibersdestroyed
destroyed thethe internal
internal structure
structure of theofmaterial
the material
[13]. In[13].
otherInwords,
other the
words,
burning the
burning
of of polypropylene
polypropylene fibers led to fibers
creating led additional
to creatingvoids additional voidsweakened
that further that further weakened the
the microstructure,
microstructure,
which which could
could facilitate collapse.facilitate collapse.the
In contrast, In residual
contrast, compressive
the residual compressive
strength ratio strength
of the ratio
E50-M of
the E50-M
mix was higher mix than
was that
higher
of thethan that group
control of thebecause
controlthe group because
inherent high the inherent
melting high melting
temperature of the
temperature
steel of the steel
fiber guaranteed itsfiber
goodguaranteed
performance its good
underperformance
high temperatureunder conditions,
high temperature conditions,
thus allowing the
thus allowing the concrete to retain better residual compressive strength.
concrete to retain better residual compressive strength. According to the above results, the effect of the According to the above
results,fiber
added the effect
on theofresidual
the added fiber on the
compressive residual
strength of compressive
different grades strength
of theofLWCdifferent grades
was also of the
different.
LWC wasthe
Overall, also different.
hybrid fiber Overall,
reinforced theconcrete
hybrid fiber
showed reinforced concrete
better ability to showed
resist thebetter
loss ofability to resist
compressive
the loss of
strength compressive
caused by highstrength
temperature.caused by is
This high temperature.
consistent with theThis is results
test consistent with the
reported test results
by Babuji and
reported by
Varghese Babuji and Varghese [48].
[48].

(a) (b)

Figure 5.
5. Comparison
Comparisonofofresidual
residualcompressive
compressive strength
strength ratio
ratio of LWC
of LWC specimens:
specimens: (a) low-strength
(a) low-strength and
andmedium-strength
(b) (b) medium-strength concrete.
concrete.

3.3. Stress–Strain Curve

The stress–strain curves for low- and medium-strength LWC after exposure to different
temperatures are shown in Figures 6 and 7, respectively. At room temperature, the ascending
branch of the stress–strain curve of the low-strength LWC exhibited a linear relationship, as shown
in Figure 6. After exposing the specimen to temperatures above 400 °C, the stress–strain curve was
characterized by atypical non-linearities in the elastic region, that is, at the beginning of loading,
Appl. Sci. 2020, 10, 3519 9 of 17

Appl. Stress–Strain
3.3. Sci. 2020, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW
Curve 9 of 17

Theslope
and the stress–strain
was steeper curves
thanforthatlow-
at roomand temperature.
medium-strength However,LWCafterafterexposure
exposure to to different
600–800 °C,
temperatures are shown in Figures 6 and 7, respectively. At room
the ascending branch of the stress–strain curve of the experimental group was approximately linear temperature, the ascending
branch
and theofslope
the stress–strain
was relatively curve of the
small, low-strength
which was caused LWC by exhibited a linear
the difference relationship,
in expansion as shown
between the
in Figure 6. After exposing the specimen to temperatures above 400 ◦ C, the stress–strain curve was
fiber and the matrix during the heating process, resulting in interface peeling. In this case, the
characterized
position wherebythe atypical
fiber wasnon-linearities
located became in theaelastic region,
potential thatAsis,aatresult,
crack. the beginning of loading,
as the temperature
which formed
increased, the astiffness
concave-up of the curve. Thisspecimens
concrete is consistent with thedecreased.
gradually results of Chang et al. [49].
After being During
exposed the
to 800
period of pre-elastic hardening, the specimen stiffened as it approached the
°C, the slope of the descending branch of the stress–strain curve reduced, and the ultimate strain linear elastic region. As the
exposure temperature increased, this behavior became more apparent.
value markedly increased, that is, the stress–strain curve became quite gentle. As a whole, the Chang et al. confirmed that the
closing
residualofstress–strain
pre-existingcurve cracksofduethetoexperimental
heating and cooling can cause
group exposed to this
highphenomenon.
temperaturesDehydration
was relatively of
calcium hydroxide can lead to cracking, which led to the shrinkage of the matrix,
flat due to the incorporation of fibers. This also confirmed that the residual stress–strain behavior of thermal incompatibility
between the aggregate
the experimental group and was cement
superiorpaste,
to that and the control
of the expansion of steel fibers [50]. After exposure to
group.
400 ◦AsC, for
as mentioned above, due to the high temperature
the medium-strength LWC, taking the E50-M mix as an example, drying effect, the ascending
as shown branches
in Figure 7, a
of
linear relationship was found with the ascending branch of the stress–strain curve before the was
the stress–strain curves of each concrete group were approximately linear, and the slope fire
steeper ◦ C, the ascending branch
damage,than andthattheatslope
roomwas temperature.
quite steep.However, afterafter
Similarly, exposure to 600–800
exposing the specimen to temperatures
of the 400
above stress–strain curve of the
°C, the stress–strain experimental
curve group was approximately
was also characterized linear and the
by atypical non-linearities in slope was
the elastic
relatively small, which was caused by the difference in expansion between
region. The ascending branch of the stress–strain curves after exposure to high temperatures still the fiber and the matrix
during
remained thelinear,
heating process,
but the slope resulting
decreasedin interface peeling.
significantly withInincreasing
this case, the position where
temperature. Within the400
fiber
to
was located became a potential crack. As a result, as the temperature
600 °C, the damage caused by high temperature was not obvious, but within 600 to 800 °C, the increased, the stiffness of the
concrete ◦
effect of specimens graduallywas
high temperature decreased. After being exposed
more pronounced. The reason to 800 mayC,be thethat
slope inofthe
thecase
descending
of low
branch of the stress–strain curve reduced, and the ultimate strain value
temperature damage, the temperature was transmitted through pore water, colloids, and the crystal markedly increased, that is,
the stress–strain curve became quite gentle. As a whole, the residual stress–strain
skeleton. As a result, the transfer of heat energy to the center of the concrete to attenuate its strength curve of the
experimental
was slow. However,group exposed to high
in the case of temperatures
high temperature was relatively flat due to theof
fire, the transmission incorporation
heat energyofmainlyfibers.
This also confirmed that the residual stress–strain behavior of the experimental
occurred through radiation, and the heat transfer was relatively rapid, so cracks formed faster group was superior to
that of the
inside the concrete.
control group.

(a) (b)

Figure 6.
Figure 6. Stress
Stressversus
versusstrain
straincurves
curvesofof
low-strength LWC
low-strength specimens:
LWC (a) (a)
specimens: control group
control C30C30
group andand
(b)
experimental group E30-S.
(b) experimental group E30-S.
Appl. Sci. 2020, 10, 3519 10 of 17
Appl. Sci. 2020, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 10 of 17

(a) (b)
Figure 7. Stress versus strain curves of medium-strength LWC specimens: (a) control group C50 and
Figure 7. Stress versus strain curves of medium-strength LWC specimens: (a) control group C50 and
(b) experimental group E50-M.
(b) experimental group E50-M.

Thefor
As test
theresults of the elastic LWC,
medium-strength modulus of each
taking LWC specimen
the E50-M mix as anatexample,
28 days of as age
shownare in
depicted
Figure in7,
Figure 8. It shows that at room temperature, the elastic modulus of
a linear relationship was found with the ascending branch of the stress–strain curve before the firethe control group and the
experimental
damage, and the group of low-strength
slope was LWC were
quite steep. Similarly, 13.62 and
after exposing 11.64 GPa,
the specimen respectively.above
to temperatures For
medium-strength
◦ LWC, the elastic modulus of the control group was 27.86
400 C, the stress–strain curve was also characterized by atypical non-linearities in the elastic region. GPa and the elastic
modulus
The ascendingof thebranch
experimental group was curves
of the stress–strain between 22.18
after and 28.39
exposure GPatemperatures
to high (the highest was the E50-S
still remained
mix). The residual elastic modulus of each LWC mixture after exposure
linear, but the slope decreased significantly with increasing temperature. Within 400 to 600 ◦ C, to elevated temperatures of
400–800
the damage °C is also shown
caused by highintemperature
Figure 8. Inwas the not
control group,
obvious, butthe residual
within 600 elastic
to 800 ◦modulus of the
C, the effect C30
of high
mix was between 4.51 and 13.92 GPa; the residual elastic modulus of
temperature was more pronounced. The reason may be that in the case of low temperature damage, the C50 mix was between 8.79
andtemperature
the 29.51 GPa. Inwas thetransmitted
experimental group,pore
through the residual elastic modulus
water, colloids, of the E30-S,
and the crystal E50-S,
skeleton. As aEC50-P,
result,
and E50-M mixes at different fire temperatures were 6.15–12.13, 9.32–30.06,
the transfer of heat energy to the center of the concrete to attenuate its strength was slow. However, 6.52–22.96, and
11.24–24.74 GPa, respectively. In addition, the test results of the low-strength
in the case of high temperature fire, the transmission of heat energy mainly occurred through radiation, LWC (the C30 and
E30-S
and themixes) indicated
heat transfer wasthat the userapid,
relatively of steel fiber slightly
so cracks reduced
formed faster the the
inside modulus of elasticity at 28
concrete.
daysTheof age.
testFor medium-strength
results LWC (C50,
of the elastic modulus of E50-S,
each LWCE50-P, and E50at
specimen M28mixes),
days oftheage
elastic modulus
are depicted
of the E50-S mix was higher than that of the control group, but
in Figure 8. It shows that at room temperature, the elastic modulus of the control group and the the difference between the
specimens of the experimental group had no certain tendency. Figure
experimental group of low-strength LWC were 13.62 and 11.64 GPa, respectively. For medium-strength 8 shows that when the
temperature
LWC, the elasticwas 400 to of600
modulus the°C, the group
control elasticwas modulus
27.86 GPaof and
boththegroups
elasticof LWC decreased
modulus slightly.
of the experimental
However, after exposure to 800 °C, the residual elastic modulus of each
group was between 22.18 and 28.39 GPa (the highest was the E50-S mix). The residual elastic modulus group of LWC decreased
significantly.
of each LWC mixtureThis is mainly attributed
after exposure to the increase
to elevated in the volume
temperatures of 400–800 of the porous
◦ C is and the
also shown in cracking
Figure 8.
of the interface zone between the paste and the aggregate after high temperature
In the control group, the residual elastic modulus of the C30 mix was between 4.51 and 13.92 GPa; exposure.
the residual elastic modulus of the C50 mix was between 8.79 and 29.51 GPa. In the experimental
group, the residual elastic modulus of the E30-S, E50-S, EC50-P, and E50-M mixes at different fire
temperatures were 6.15–12.13, 9.32–30.06, 6.52–22.96, and 11.24–24.74 GPa, respectively. In addition,
the test results of the low-strength LWC (the C30 and E30-S mixes) indicated that the use of steel
fiber slightly reduced the modulus of elasticity at 28 days of age. For medium-strength LWC (C50,
E50-S, E50-P, and E50 M mixes), the elastic modulus of the E50-S mix was higher than that of the
control group, but the difference between the specimens of the experimental group had no certain
tendency. Figure 8 shows that when the temperature was 400 to 600 ◦ C, the elastic modulus of both
groups of LWC decreased slightly. However, after exposure to 800 ◦ C, the residual elastic modulus of
each group of LWC decreased significantly. This is mainly attributed to the increase in the volume

Figure 8. Results of elastic modulus.

 11.24–24.74 GPa, respectively. In addition, the test results of the low-strength LWC (the C30 and
E30-S mixes) indicated that the use of steel fiber slightly reduced the modulus of elasticity at 28
days of age. For medium-strength LWC (C50, E50-S, E50-P, and E50 M mixes), the elastic modulus
of the E50-S mix was higher than that of the control group, but the difference between the
specimens of the experimental group had no certain tendency. Figure 8 shows that when the
Appl. Sci. 2020, 10, 3519 11 of 17
temperature was 400 to 600 °C, the elastic modulus of both groups of LWC decreased slightly.
However, after exposure to 800 °C, the residual elastic modulus of each group of LWC decreased
significantly.
of the porous This and theis mainly attributed
cracking to the increase
of the interface in the volume
zone between ofand
the paste the the
porous and theafter
aggregate cracking
high
of the interface
temperature zone between the paste and the aggregate after high temperature exposure.
exposure.

Appl. Sci. 2020, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 11 of 17

Figure8.
Figure 8. Results
Results of
of elastic
elastic modulus.
modulus.
Figure 9 shows the residual elastic modulus ratios of each LWC mixture at different
Figure 9 shows
temperatures. the residual
The residual elastic
elastic modulus
modulus ratioratios
tended of to
each
riseLWC
firstmixture
and then atfell
different
as thetemperatures.
temperature
The residual elastic modulus ratio tended to rise first and then fell as the
increased. Figure 9a shows that the residual elastic modulus ratios were only slightly reducedtemperature increased. Figure
when9a
shows that the residual elastic modulus ratios were only slightly reduced
the temperature was 400 to 600 °C. However, at 800 °C, the residual elastic modulus ratios when the temperature was
400 to 600 ◦ C.
attenuated However,
sharply. In atthe
◦ C, the residual elastic modulus ratios attenuated sharply. In the control
800control group, the residual elastic modulus ratio was 0.33. For the
group, the residual
experimental group,elastic modulus
the residual ratiomodulus
elastic was 0.33. Forwas
ratio the maintained
experimental at group, the residual
0.53. Figure 9b shows elastic
that
modulus ratio was maintained at 0.53. Figure 9b shows that the residual
the residual elastic modulus ratios of the medium-strength LWC increased after exposure to 400 °C. elastic modulus ratios of
the medium-strength ◦ ◦
When the temperatureLWC was increased
600 °C, theafter exposure
elastic modulus to 400
of the C.control
When the grouptemperature was 600 C,
and the experimental
the elastic modulus of the control group and the experimental group
group declined slightly. After exposure to higher temperatures (600 to 800 °C), the residual declined slightly. After exposure
elastic
to higher ratios
temperatures (600 togroup ◦
800 C),
modulus of the control andthetheresidual elastic modulus
experimental ratios of the
group significantly control group
attenuated. and
Notably,
the experimental group significantly attenuated. Notably, as the
as the temperature rose, the decreasing trend of the residual elastic modulus ratio was moretemperature rose, the decreasing
trend of the
obvious than residual
that ofelastic moduluscompressive
the residual ratio was more obvious
strength than that
because theofelastic
the residual
moduluscompressive
is more
strength because
sensitive to cracksthe at elastic modulus isormore
the macroscopic sensitivescale
microscopic to cracks
inducedat thebymacroscopic
high temperatures or microscopic
[51]. At
scale induced by high temperatures [51]. At normal temperature, the higher
normal temperature, the higher the compressive strength, the higher the elastic modulus of concrete. the compressive strength,
the higher
The the elastic
relationship modulus
in which of concrete.
the modulus The relationship
of elasticity is proportionalin which thecompressive
to the modulus ofstrengthelasticity is
has
proportional
long to the compressive
been accepted. However, the strength has long
test results showedbeenthataccepted. However, the relationship
the aforementioned test results showed
should
that the aforementioned relationship should not be applied unconditionally
not be applied unconditionally to concrete affected by high temperature. Therefore, it is necessary to concrete affected by to
high
be temperature.
particularly Therefore,
cautious whenit estimating
is necessarythe to elastic
be particularly
moduluscautious when
of concrete estimating
after fire basedthe on
elastic
the
modulus ofcompressive
measured concrete after fire based
strength [13].onThis
the measured compressive
also specifically confirmsstrength [13].parameter
that the This also specifically
has a high
confirms that the parameter has a
sensitivity to heating at high temperatures. high sensitivity to heating at high temperatures.

(a) (b)
Figure 9. Comparison of residual elastic modulus ratio of LWC specimens: (a) low- and (b)
Figure 9. Comparison of residual elastic modulus ratio of LWC specimens: (a) low- and
medium-strength concrete.
(b) medium-strength concrete.

3.4. Flexural Strength

The flexural strengths at 28 days of age of each group of LWC specimens at room temperature
were higher than 5 MPa, as shown in Figure 10. Of them, the flexural strength of the E50-M
specimen with hybrid fibers was the largest (6.54 MPa). For the low-strength LWC, the addition of
steel fiber did not increase its flexural strength. For the medium-strength LWC, due to the bridging
effect of the steel fibers, the flexural strength of the steel fiber-added experimental group was
Appl. Sci. 2020, 10, 3519 12 of 17

3.4. Flexural Strength

The flexural strengths at 28 days of age of each group of LWC specimens at room temperature
were higher than 5 MPa, as shown in Figure 10. Of them, the flexural strength of the E50-M specimen
with hybrid fibers was the largest (6.54 MPa). For the low-strength LWC, the addition of steel fiber
did not increase its flexural strength. For the medium-strength LWC, due to the bridging effect of
the steel fibers, the flexural strength of the steel fiber-added experimental group was higher than
that of the control group. This is consistent with the test results reported by Lau and Anson [52].
However, the flexural strength of the polypropylene fiber-added experimental group was less than
that of the control group. With the increase in temperature, taking the specimens mixed with steel
fiber as an example, although the thermal energy generated by high temperature led to the formation
of cracks between the cement paste and the steel fiber, the steel fiber still prevented the crack from
propagating and maintained the flexural strength to a certain extent. As for the specimens mixed
with polypropylene fiber, at 400–600 ◦ C, the pores formed by the melting of the polypropylene fiber
dissipated the water vapor pressure, thereby maintaining the flexural strength. However, above 800 ◦ C,
due to the melting of polypropylene fibers, additional voids were created that further weakened the
microstructure and increased the likelihood of collapse. The residual flexural strengths of each LWC
Appl. Sci. 2020, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 12 of 17
mixture after exposure to temperatures of 400–800 ◦ C are also shown in Figure 10. In the control group,
the
alsoresidual
shown in flexural
Figurestrengths
10. In theofcontrol
the C30 mix and
group, the C50 mix were
residual between
flexural 2.14of
strengths andthe5.71
C30MPa
mix and
and 2.85
C50
and 5.51 MPa, respectively. In the experimental group, the residual flexural
mix were between 2.14 and 5.71 MPa and 2.85 and 5.51 MPa, respectively. In the experimental strength of the E30-S,
E50-S,
group,EC50-P, and E50-M
the residual flexuralmixes at different
strength fire temperatures
of the E30-S, E50-S, EC50-P,were
and2.54–5.36, 3.15–5.83,
E50-M mixes 2.48–5.17,
at different fire
and 3.89–6.72 MPa, respectively.
temperatures were 2.54–5.36, 3.15–5.83, 2.48–5.17, and 3.89–6.72 MPa, respectively.

Figure 10. Results of flexural strength.

Figure 10. Results of flexural strength.

Figure
Figure1111depicts
depicts the the
residual flexural
residual strength
flexural ratio of each
strength ratio LWC mixture
of each LWC at different
mixturetemperatures.
at different
This parameterThis
temperatures. is anparameter
importantisproperty from property
an important the viewpoint
from ofthefire resistance
viewpoint ofdue
fire to the significant
resistance due to
influence of tensile
the significant strength
influence on concrete
of tensile cracking.
strength Figurecracking.
on concrete 11 showsFigurethat the
11flexural strength
shows that of each
the flexural
group
strengthof LWC
of eachwas not influenced
group of LWC was bynot
the influenced
temperature byrising up to 400 ◦ C.
the temperature However,
rising after°C.
up to 400 exposure
However, to
an elevated temperature of 600 ◦ C, the flexural strength of each group of concrete decreased, but the
after exposure to an elevated temperature of 600 °C, the flexural strength of each group of concrete
residual
decreased, flexural
but the strength
residual ratio after exposure
flexural strength to elevated
ratio temperatures
after exposure can stilltemperatures
to elevated be maintainedcan above
still
0.8. After exposure
be maintained above 0.8. ◦After
to 800 C, a dramatic
exposureloss to was observed
800 °C, in the loss
a dramatic flexural
wasstrength
observed of in
eachthegroup of
flexural
LWC, and the residual flexural strength ratio after high temperatures was between
strength of each group of LWC, and the residual flexural strength ratio after high temperatures was 0.38 and 0.59. In the
low-strength
between 0.38LWC (Figure
and 0.59. In 11a), when the temperature
the low-strength LWC (Figure was11a), 800 ◦the
600 towhen C, the residual flexural
temperature was 600 strength
to 800
ratio
°C, theof the control
residual group and
flexural the experimental
strength group decreased
ratio of the control group and sharply as the temperature
the experimental increased,
group decreased
and the difference
sharply between increased,
as the temperature the two was andquite obvious. In
the difference the medium-strength
between the two was quite LWC (FigureIn11b),
obvious. the
the residual flexuralLWC strength ratio 11b),
of both groups slightly increased afterratio
exposure to 400 ◦ C. At 600 ◦ C,
medium-strength (Figure the residual flexural strength of both groups slightly
the residual
increased flexural
after exposurestrength ratio
to 400 °C.ofAtthe600
control
°C, thegroup and the
residual experimental
flexural groupofsignificantly
strength ratio the control
reduced.
group and Ofthe
them, the residualgroup
experimental flexural strength ratios
significantly of theOf
reduced. experimental group and
them, the residual control
flexural group
strength
were
ratiosbetween
of the 0.90 and 0.91, group
experimental and 0.83, and respectively.
control group Sincewere
steel between
fibers do 0.90
not melt
and at0.91,
temperatures
and 0.83,
respectively. Since steel fibers do not melt at temperatures below 1300 °C, they maintain their
beneficial effects of bridging cracks over a wide temperature range. The results of this study
showed that after being subjected to 600 °C, the residual flexural strengths of the E50-S and E50-M
specimens increased by 7%–8% compared with the control group. Lau and Anson [52] reported that
after being subjected to 600 °C, the use of 1% steel fiber (based on the volume of the composite
Appl. Sci. 2020, 10, 3519 13 of 17

below 1300 ◦ C, they maintain their beneficial effects of bridging cracks over a wide temperature range.
The results of this study showed that after being subjected to 600 ◦ C, the residual flexural strengths
of the E50-S and E50-M specimens increased by 7%–8% compared with the control group. Lau and
Anson [52] reported that after being subjected to 600 ◦ C, the use of 1% steel fiber (based on the volume
of the composite material) increased the residual flexural strength by about 15% compared to similar
concrete with no steel fiber. After exposure to an elevated temperature of 800 ◦ C, the residual flexural
strength ratio of the control group and the experimental group significantly reduced; the residual
flexural strength ratio of the E50-P mix was the lowest. This was attributed to polypropylene fibers
melting at a relatively low temperature of 165 ◦ C, so the crack-bridging ability was not maintained at
higher temperatures. This is the same as the result of the compressive strength because the pyrolysis
process of the polypropylene fiber damages the internal structure of the material. Overall, compared
with the loss of compressive strength, the loss of flexural strength was relatively obvious because the
flexural strength is more sensitive to macroscopic or microscopic cracks caused by high temperatures.
Appl. Sci. 2020, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 13 of 17

(a) (b)

Figure11.
Figure 11.Comparison
Comparison of residual
of residual flexural
flexural strength
strength ratio
ratio of LWCofspecimens:
LWC specimens: (a) low-strength
(a) low-strength concrete
concrete
and and (b) medium-strength
(b) medium-strength concrete. concrete.

The relationship
The relationship between
between flexural
flexural load
load and
and midspan
midspan deflection
deflection of of the
the low-strength
low-strength LWCLWCisis
shownin
shown inFigure
Figure12.12.When
Whenthe theload
loadreached
reachedthethepeak,
peak,the
thetest
testwas
wasstopped
stoppedimmediately.
immediately.Therefore,
Therefore,
thepost-peak
the post-peak behavior
behavior cannot
cannot be captured.
be captured. At all At all temperatures,
temperatures, the load
the flexural flexural load of
of concrete concrete
specimens
specimensalmost
increased increased almost
linearly withlinearly with the
the increase in increase in displacement,
displacement, and sharply and sharply decreased
decreased after
after reaching
reaching
the the peak.
peak. Figure Figurethat
12 shows 12the
shows
peak that
load the peak
of the loadgroup
control of the didcontrol groupsignificantly
not change did not change
after
significantly
exposure ◦ C, whereas
to 400after exposurethe topeak
400 °C,
loadwhereas the peak load
of the experimental groupof slightly
the experimental group
increased. As slightly
mentioned
increased.
above, this Aswasmentioned
attributedabove,
to thethis
LWCwasspecimen
attributedincreasing
to the LWC inspecimen
strength increasing
due to theindrying
strength due
effect
tohigh
of the drying effect of high
temperatures. Withtemperatures.
high temperature With drying,
high temperature
removing drying, removing
the evaporable the evaporable
water (capillary
water adsorbed
water, (capillarywater,
water,and
adsorbed water,
interlayer andfirst
water) interlayer water)
was easier. Thefirst
porewas easier.formed
pressure The pore pressure
by the high
formed by the
temperature thushigh temperature
lowered thus lowered
and the flexural load ofand
thethe flexuralincreased.
specimen load of theAt specimen increased. At
different temperatures,
different
the midspan temperatures,
deflection ofthethemidspan deflection
low-strength LWC of the low-strength
specimens LWC small,
was relatively specimens wasvalue
and the relatively
was
small,0.6–1.0
about and the mm.value was about 0.6–1.0 mm.
The load–deflection curves of medium-strength LWC specimens at room temperature and each
fire temperature are shown in Figure 13. Figure 13 demonstrates that the load–deflection curve of
the experimental group was relatively ductile at room temperature or at various firing temperatures.
Figure 13a shows that at room temperature, due to the bridging effect of the fibers, the experimental
group generally showed better ductility than the control group. After being exposed to 400 ◦ C,
the slope of the ascending branch of the load–deflection curve of the C50 specimen in the control
group had no obvious attenuation, whereas that of the E50-M sample in the experimental group
significantly increased, as shown in Figure 13b. In addition, after exposure to 600 ◦ C, the initial slopes
of ascending branches of the load–deflection of each specimen reduced but still maintained a certain
degree (Figure 13c). However, after exposure to 800 ◦ C, the slope of the ascending branch of the
(a) (b)
Figure 12. Load–deflection curves of low-strength LWC specimens: (a) control group C30 and (b)
experimental group E30-S.

The load–deflection curves of medium-strength LWC specimens at room temperature and each
 concrete and (b) medium-strength concrete.

The relationship between flexural load and midspan deflection of the low-strength LWC is
shown in Figure 12. When the load reached the peak, the test was stopped immediately. Therefore,
the Sci.
Appl. post-peak behavior cannot be captured. At all temperatures, the flexural load of concrete
2020, 10, 3519 14 of 17
specimens increased almost linearly with the increase in displacement, and sharply decreased after
reaching the peak. Figure 12 shows that the peak load of the control group did not change
load–deflection
significantly after curve of the experimental
exposure group the
to 400 °C, whereas significantly
peak loadreduced. Figure 13d shows
of the experimental group that the
slightly
failure deflection of the control group was quite close to the crack deflection; in contrast,
increased. As mentioned above, this was attributed to the LWC specimen increasing in strength due the failure
deflection of the
to the drying E50-S
effect of and
highE50-M specimens
temperatures. reached
With several timesdrying,
high temperature the crack deflection,
removing that is, the
the evaporable
ductility
water (capillary water, adsorbed water, and interlayer water) first was easier. The porealthough
of the load–deflection curve was more pronounced. Based on the above results, pressure
polypropylene
formed by the fibers had better strength
high temperature and ductility
thus lowered and theatflexural
low to moderately elevated temperatures,
load of the specimen increased. At
steel fiberstemperatures,
different could providethe fiber bridging
midspan effects at of
deflection higher temperatures,LWC
the low-strength allowing the E50-S
specimens wasand E50-M
relatively
specimens to retain a large proportion
small, and the value was about 0.6–1.0 mm. of flexural strength and ductility.

Appl. Sci. 2020, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 14 of 17

deflection; in contrast, the failure deflection of the E50-S and E50-M specimens reached several
times the crack deflection, that is, the ductility of the load–deflection curve was more pronounced.
Based on the above results, although polypropylene fibers had better strength and ductility at low
to moderately elevated(a)temperatures, steel fibers could provide fiber (b) bridging effects at higher
Figure 12. Load–deflection
temperatures, allowing the curvesand
E50-S of low-strength
E50-M LWC specimens:
specimens to (a)a control
retain large group C30 and
proportion (b)
Figure 12. Load–deflection curves of low-strength LWC specimens: (a) control group C30ofand
flexural
experimental group E30-S.
strength and ductility.
(b) experimental group E30-S.

The load–deflection curves of medium-strength LWC specimens at room temperature and each
fire temperature are shown in Figure 13. Figure 13 demonstrates that the load–deflection curve of
the experimental group was relatively ductile at room temperature or at various firing
temperatures. Figure 13a shows that at room temperature, due to the bridging effect of the fibers,
the experimental group generally showed better ductility than the control group. After being
exposed to 400 °C, the slope of the ascending branch of the load–deflection curve of the C50
specimen in the control group had no obvious attenuation, whereas that of the E50-M sample in the
experimental group significantly increased, as shown in Figure 13b. In addition, after exposure to
600 °C, the initial slopes of ascending branches of the load–deflection of each specimen reduced but
still maintained a certain degree (Figure 13c). However, after exposure to 800 °C, the slope of the
ascending branch of the (a)load–deflection curve of the experimental group(b) significantly reduced.
Figure 13d shows that the failure deflection of the control group was quite close to the crack

(c) (d)
Figure 13. Load–deflection curves of medium-strength LWC specimens: (a) room temperature, (b)
Figure 13. Load–deflection curves of medium-strength LWC specimens: (a) room temperature,
400 °C, (c) 600 °C, and (d) 800 °C.
(b) 400 ◦ C, (c) 600 ◦ C, and (d) 800 ◦ C.

4.4.Conclusions
Conclusions
Inthis
In thisstudy,
study, steel
steel fiberfiber and polypropylene
and polypropylene fiberused
fiber were were used to investigate
to investigate the effects the effects of
of individual
individual
and and mixed
mixed fiber on the fiber on the
residual residual properties
mechanical mechanicalofproperties
low- and of low- and medium-strength
medium-strength LWC after
LWC after
exposure to exposure to elevated temperatures.
elevated temperatures. On the basisOn
of the above
basis ofexperimental
the above experimental results and
results and discussion,
discussion, the following conclusions
the following conclusions were drawn: were drawn:
 Overall, the residual mechanical properties of each group of LWC decreased with increasing
temperature. After exposure to 400 °C, the residual mechanical properties of all specimens did
not attenuate due to the drying effect of high temperature. Then, after exposure to 800 °C, the
residual mechanical properties significantly reduced.
 Due to the bridging effect of steel fibers and their inherent high melting temperature, the
Appl. Sci. 2020, 10, 3519 15 of 17

• Overall, the residual mechanical properties of each group of LWC decreased with increasing
temperature. After exposure to 400 ◦ C, the residual mechanical properties of all specimens did not
attenuate due to the drying effect of high temperature. Then, after exposure to 800 ◦ C, the residual
mechanical properties significantly reduced.
• Due to the bridging effect of steel fibers and their inherent high melting temperature, the residual
mechanical properties of LWC with steel fibers exposed to high temperatures significantly
improved. Compared with individual fiber-reinforced LWC, the residual mechanical properties
of mixed fiber-reinforced LWC were the best of the mixes tested.
• The elastic modulus of each group of LWC changed with increasing temperature. After exposure
to 800 ◦ C, the residual elastic modulus decreased significantly and the residual elastic modulus
ratio was lower than 0.53. As the temperature rose, the decreasing trend of the residual elastic
modulus ratio was steeper than that of the residual compressive strength.
• After exposure to 400 ◦ C, the flexural strength of each group of LWC did not attenuate.
After exposure to 600 ◦ C, the residual flexural strength of each group of LWC reduced, but the
residual flexural strength ratio can be maintained above 0.83. After exposure to 800 ◦ C, the residual
flexural strength of each group of LWC was significantly attenuated, and the residual flexural
strength ratio was between 0.38 and 0.59. Compared with the loss of compressive strength, the loss
of flexural strength was relatively obvious.

Funding: The research was funded by the Ministry of Science and Technology of Taiwan grant number MOST
104-2221-E-230-015. And the APC was funded by the Ministry of Science and Technology of Taiwan grant number
MOST 108-2221-E-230-003-MY2.
Acknowledgments: This work was supported by the Ministry of Science and Technology (MOST), Taiwan.
The author expresses his gratitude and sincere appreciation to MOST for financing this research work.
Conflicts of Interest: The author declares no conflict of interest.

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