I.

INTRODUCTION
∑(𝑥 – 𝑥̅ )2
𝜎𝑛−1 = ±√
II. THEORY OF ERRORS AND MEASUREMENTS 𝑛−1

A. PRECISION AND ACCURACY

Precision is the degree of closeness or conformity of repeated ∑ 𝑣2
𝜎𝑛−1 = ±√
measurements of the same quantity to each other whereas the 𝑛−1
accuracy is the degree of conformity of a measurement to its true Where n = total number of observed values
value. The standard deviation given by the above expression is also called
the standard error.
B. THEORY OF PROBABILITY Simple σ will mean 𝜎𝑛−1
Probability is the number of times something will probably occur
over the range of possible occurrences. F. VARIANCE
Theory of probability is useful in indicating the precision of results Variance (V) is used as a measure of dispersion or spread of a
only in so far as they are affected by accidental errors. It is based distribution.
upon the following assumptions relative to the occurrences of error.
Laws of Probability ∑ 𝑣2
 Small errors occur more than large ones and that they are 𝑉=
𝑛−1
more probable
 Large errors happen infrequently and are therefore less 𝑉 = 𝜎2
probable G. STANDARD ERROR OF MEAN
 Positive and negative errors of the same size happen with The standard error of mean 𝜎𝑚 is given by
equal frequency; that is, they are equally probable.
The mean of an infinite number of observations is the most ∑(𝑥 – 𝑥̅ )2
𝜎𝑚 = ±√
probable value 𝑛(𝑛 − 1)

C. ERROR TYPES 𝜎
A.1 Gross errors are, in fact, not errors at all, but results of mistakes 𝜎𝑚 = ±
√𝑛
that are due to the carelessness of the observer. The gross errors must and hence the precision of the mean is enhanced with respect to that
be detected and eliminated from the survey measurements before of a single observation. There are n deviations (or residuals) from the
such measurements can be used. mean of the sample and their sum will be zero. Thus, knowing (n – 1)
A.2 Systematic errors follow some pattern and can be expressed by deviations the surveyor could deduce the remaining deviation and it
functional relationships based on some deterministic system. Like the may be said that there are (n – 1) degrees of freedom. This number is
gross errors, the systematic errors must also be removed from the used when estimating the population standard deviation.
measurements by applying necessary corrections.
A.3 The random errors are treated using probability models. Theory H. PROBABLE ERROR
of errors deals only with such type of The most probable error is defined as the error for which there are
observational errors. equal chances of the true error being less and greater than probable
error.
D. MOST PROBABLE VALUE Probable error of single measurement, PEs
A fixed value of a quantity may be conceived as its true value T.
The difference between the measured quantity and its true valueis ∑(𝑥 – 𝑥̅ )2
𝑃𝐸𝑠 = ±0.6745√
known as error, e = x – T 𝑛−1
Since the true value of a measured quantity cannot be determined, the Probable error of mean measurement, PEm
exact value of e can never be found out.
Most probable (𝑥̅ ) value is the best estimate of the true value. ∑(𝑥 – 𝑥̅ )2
𝑃𝐸𝑚 = ±0.6745√
∑𝑃 𝑛(𝑛 − 1)
𝑥̅ =
𝑛𝑇
Where: I. WEIGHT
P = nx, product of observed value and number of observation This quantity W is known as weight of the measurement indicates the
𝑛 𝑇 = total number of observations reliability of a quantity. It is inversely proportional to the variance
𝜎 2 (or probable error) of the observation, and can be expressed as
The residuals express the variations or deviations in the 𝑘
measurements. 𝑊= 2
𝜎
𝑣 = 𝑥 – 𝑥̅ where k is a constant of proportionality. If the weights and the
standard errors for observations
E. STANDARD DEVIATION x1, x2, ,….., etc., are respectively W1, W2,….., etc., and σ1, σ2 ,…..,
Standard deviation also called the root-mean square (R.M.S.) error, etc., and σuis the
is a measure of spread of a distribution and for the population, standard error for the observation having unit weight then we have
assuming the observations are of equal reliability. 𝑊1 𝜎12 = 𝑊2 𝜎22 =. . = 𝜎𝑢2
∑(𝜇 − 𝑥)2 Hence
𝜎𝑛 = ±√ 𝜎𝑢2 𝜎𝑢2
𝑛 𝑊1 = 2 , 𝑊2 = 2 , 𝑒𝑡𝑐.,
𝜎1 𝜎2
and
However, μ cannot be determined from a sample of observations. 𝑊1 𝜎22
Instead, the arithmetic mean 𝑥̅ is accepted as the most probable value = 𝑒𝑡𝑐.
and the population standard deviation is estimated as 𝑊2 𝜎12
The weights are applied to the individual measurements of unequal a. Most probable Value
reliability to reduce them to one standard. The most probable value is b. Standard Deviation
then the weighted mean 𝑥̅𝑚 of the measurements. Thus c. Standard Error
d. Probable Error of Weighted Mean Measurement
∑ 𝑊𝑥 e. Relative Precision
𝑥̅𝑚 =
∑𝑊
and standard error of the weighted mean M. RELATED QUANTITIES
∑[𝑊(𝑥 – 𝑥̅𝑚 )2 ] Problem 3: Two angles AOB and BOC and the single angle AOC
𝜎𝑥̅𝑚 = ±√
∑ 𝑊 (𝑛 − 1) are measured about a point O with results as given in the following
The standard deviation of an observation of unit weight is given by tabulation.
∑[𝑊(𝑥 – 𝑥̅𝑚 )2 ] Angle Observed Value No. of Measurements
𝜎𝑢 = ±√
(𝑛 − 1) AOB 12°36’04” 1
and the standard deviation of an observation of weight 𝑊𝑛 is given by BOC 37°42’53” 4
AOC 50°19’22” 6
∑[𝑊(𝑥 – 𝑥̅𝑚 )2 ]
𝜎𝑤 = ±√
𝑊𝑛 (𝑛 − 1) Determine the following:
a. Most probable Value of angle AOB
J. RELATIVE PRECISION b. Most probable Value of angle BOC
Relative precision is commonly expressed as fraction with unity in c. Most probable Value of angle AOC
the numerator. It is the relationship of the total error to the magnitude
of the measured quantity. It is also used to define the degree of Problem 4: The angles of a triangle are measured not under the same
refinement obtained. conditions with results given below. It is desired to determine the
𝑃𝐸𝑚 most probable values.
𝑅𝑃 =
𝑥̅
Angle Observed Value No. of Measurement
K. ADJUSTMENT OF WEIGHTED OBSERVATIONS X 33°47’01” 2
Two Cases Y 54°38’23” 5
1. Various Measurements of the same quantity Z 92°35’36” 7
The most probable value of a quantity for which
measurements of different reliability have been made is the Determine the following:
weighted mean. a. Most probable Value of angle X
2. Measurement of related quantities b. Most probable Value of angle Y
When the sum of measured values having different weights c. Most probable Value of angle Z
most equal a known value, either measured or exact, the
most probable values are the observed values each N. PROPAGATION OF ERRORS
corrected by an appropriate position of the discrepancy or
of the total error. The corrections to be applied are 1. Probable error of the sum of independent measurements Q1, Q2 , …
inversely proportional to the weights. Qn for which the probable errors are PE1 , PE2 , PE3 ,… , PEn .
𝑃𝐸𝑠𝑢𝑚 = √(𝑃𝐸1 )2 + (𝑃𝐸2 )2 +. . . (𝑃𝐸𝑛 )2
L. SAME QUANTITIES 2. Probable error of a product of a constant or known quantity K and
a measured quantity Q1, for which the probable error is PE.
Problem 1: Following is a series of 10 rod readings which were PEp = k(PE)
taken with a wye level under identical conditions. The day was calm 3. Probable error of area, representing the product of two lengths, L 1
or cloudy. The instrument was set-up and the target rod was held on a and L2 having possible errors PE1 and PE2 respectively.
point 600 ft away. Rod readings: 3.365, 3.366, 3.365, 3.363, 3.368,
𝑃𝐸𝐴 = √(𝐿1 𝑃𝐸2 )2 + (𝐿2 𝑃𝐸1 )2
3.366, 3.367, 3.364, 3.365, 3.364.
Determine the following:
a. Most probable Value Problem 5: The sides of a rectangular field are 1193.6 ± 0.60 ft and
b. Variance 582.70 ± 0.40 ft respectively.
c. Standard Deviation Determine the following:
a. Probable error of the perimeter
d. Standard Error
e. Probable Error of Single Measurement b. Probable error of the area
f. Probable Error of Mean Measurement
g. Relative Precision

Problem 2: Lines of levels to establish the elevation of a point are

run over four different routes. The observed elevations of the point
with probable errors are given below.

Line Observed Elev ± PE (m )

1 252.07 ± 0.02
2 253.68 ± 0.04
3 252.88 ± 0.05
4 252.75 ± 0.08

Determine the following: