Republic  of  the  Marshall  Islands    

Fifth  National  Report  
Convention  on  Biological  Diversity  

Office  of  Environmental  Planning  Policy  Coordination  

Majuro,  Republic  of  the  Marshall  Islands  

February  2017  

 
  

1  
 
Executive  Summary  
This  5th  National  Report  for  the  Republic  of  the  Marshall  Islands  provides  an  update  on  the  biodiversity  
status  and  trends,  as  well  as  progress  towards  the  implementation  of  the  Strategic  Plan  for  Biodiversity  
2011-­‐2020  including  the  Aichi  Biodiversity  Target  2020.  The  report  is  divided  into  three  main  parts  with  
part  one  focusing  on  the  importance  of  biodiversity  to  the  people,  the  state  and  threats  to  biodiversity  
and  the  implications  of  changes  to  biodiversity;  part  two  focuses  on  the  actions  and  implementation  of  
the   national   biodiversity   strategy   and   action   plan;   and   part   three   focuses   on   alignment   of   national  
targets   to   the   Aichi   Biodiversity   Targets.   This   report   is   the   end   product   of   a   consultative   process  
undertaken  through  the  development  of  the  national  blueprint  for  conservation  areas  plan  and  the  2016  
State  of  Environment  report  for  RMI.    

The   value   of   biodiversity   to   the   wellbeing   of   Marshallese   remains   critical   and   it   continues   to   inspire  
communities   and   the   government   to   actively   pursue   actions   and   policies   in   order   to   safeguard   it   for  
future  generations.  Biodiversity  is  the  cornerstone  for  economic  opportunities  and  development  of  the  
country.   It   strengthens   cultural   ties   of   the   current   population   to   their   fore-­‐parents   and   through   this  
connection   provides   the   knowledge   for   community   to   instill   good   practices   for   the   conservation   of  
resources.  

Some  major  key  drivers  continue  to  cause  significant  impacts  to  RMI’s  biodiversity  and  environment.  Old  
challenges   such   as   the   fallout   from   nuclear   testing   and   bombing   of   atolls   combined   with   climate   change  
and   associated   extreme   weather   events   (severe   and   increasingly   frequent   typhoon   events   and   drought)  
are  seriously  challenging  the  viability  of  communities  in  many  of  the  atolls  in  RMI.  Scientists  fear  that  a  
storm   surge   or   typhoon   brought   about   by   climate   change   could   dismantle   the   Runit   Dome   releasing  
84,000m3   of   plutonium   radioactive   waste   into   the   Pacific   Ocean.   Furthermore,   accumulation   of   heavy  
metals  in  the  seabed  and  subsequent  uptake  by  marine  species  make  these  resources  toxic  for  human  
consumption.   Ongoing   challenges   with   population   growth,   waste   management   and   urbanization   are  
putting   pressure   on   an   already   stressed   biodiversity   and   environment.   While   the   fisheries   provide   the  
much   needed   economic   revenue   for   the   government   (14%   of   the   revenue   in   2014),   the   state   of   the  
fishery  resources  is  in  dire  straits.  The  bigeye  tuna  is  in  a  critical  situation  with  harvesting  rate  above  its  
maximum  sustainable  yield;  the  yellowfin  tuna  becoming  vulnerable  to  overfishing.    

Despite  these  challenging  drivers,  there  are  many  positive  initiatives  implemented  by  the  government,  
communities   and   partners   in   protecting   and   conserving   biodiversity   and   ecosystems.   These   initiatives  
include   developing   policies,   strengthening   legislative   support   and   declaring   of   conservation   areas  
including   the   whole   of   RMI’s   exclusive   economic   zone   as   a   shark   sanctuary.   Establishing   national  
frameworks   and   mechanisms   and   providing   an   enabling   environment   to   foster   collaboration   and  
cooperation   amongst   the   various   sectors   are   some   of   the   positives   steps.   The   establishment   of   the  
Coastal  Management  Advisory  Council  comprising  of  a  wide  range  of  stakeholders  enables  biodiversity  
mainstreaming   and   overseeing   a   coherent   conservation   development   in   the   country.   The   uptake   of  
traditional   system   and   marrying   it   with   modern   methods   has   enabled   the   inclusion   of   ‘Mo’   as   an  
important  management  tool  for  protected  areas.    

RMI  working  in  partnership  with  neighboring  countries  of  Micronesia,  as  well  as  the  wider  Pacific  Island  
community   embarks   on   setting   ambitious   biodiversity   targets   to   ensure   that   biodiversity   is   not   only  
protected   but   also   thriving.   Under   the   Micronesia   Challenge,   RMI’s   has   achieved   a   15%   target   for  
terrestrial   conservation   and   a   20%   target   for   marine   conservation   areas.   These   achievements   have  

2  
 
surpassed   the   targets   set   under   the   Aichi   Biodiversity   Target.   In   terms   of   practical   outcomes   –   the   Mule  
(an   endemic   pigeon)   was   close   to   extinction   with   eight   breeding   pairs.   The   efforts   by   the   government  
and  the  Marshall  Islands  Conservation  Society  contributed  to  Mule  numbers  increasing  to  over  80  birds.    

The   government   have   also   identified   a   number   of   initiatives   to   generate   the   much   needed   funds   to  
support   the   implementation   of   biodiversity   conservation   activities.   Through   the   Micronesia  
Conservation  Trust,  RMI  stakeholders  can  access  parts  of  the  Micronesia  Challenge  endowment  fund  for  
conservation  purposes.  

While   the   2015   MDGs   targets   have   passed,   the   progress   and   achievements   by   RMI   have   been   mixed.  
Great   progress   has   been   made   with   regards   to   provision   of   safe   drinking   water   for   the   population  
(Target   7C);   good   progress   towards   reducing   biodiversity   loss   (Target   7B);   steady   to   somewhat   slow  
progress   in   mainstreaming   sustainable   development   principles   and   practices   into   planning   and  
development   processes;   serious   deficiency   in   addressing   sanitation   for   communities   (Target   7C);   and  
concerns   with   high   population   densities   in   Majuro   and   Ebeye   with   adverse   socio-­‐economic   impacts  
(Target  7D).  

Biodiversity   and   conservation   efforts   in   RMI   have   been   progressive   over   the   past   decade.   The   Aichi  
Biodiversity   Targets   are   well   within   the   achievable   realm   for   the   government   and   its   partners.   While  
funding   and   capacity   are   the   biggest   hurdles   when   it   comes   to   implementing   biodiversity   actions,   the  
leadership   by   the   Government   through   supporting   civil   society,   private   sector   and   communities   and  
innovative  thinking  to  resolve  ongoing  challenges.  

   

3  
 
Acknowledgements  
Much  of  the  information  used  for  the  5th  National  Report  came  from  the  latest  State  of  the  Environment  
Report   2016.   The   process   was   kindly   assisted   and   facilitated   by   the   SPREP   staff   with   special  
acknowledgement  to  Paul  Anderson,  Easter  Galuvao,  Kilom  Ishiguro  and  Amanda  Wheatley.    

The   contribution   of   partners,   especially   members   of   the   Coastal   Management   Advisory   Council   (CMAC),  
is   acknowledged   with   appreciation.   In   particular   acknowledge   contribution   from   the   Marshall   Islands  
Marine   Resource   Authority   (MIMRA),   the   Republic   of   the   Marshall   Islands   Environmental   Protection  
Authority  (RMIEPA),  the  Ministry  of  Resource  &  Development  (MoR&D),  the  Economic  Planning  Policy  &  
Statistic   Office   (EPPSO),   the   Office   of   the   Chief   Secretary   and   the   Office   of   Environmental   Planning   &  
Policy  Coordination  (OEPPC)  –  kommol  tata.  

   

4  
 
Acronyms  
 

ABS   Access  and  Benefit  Sharing  

CCCT   Climate  Change  Country  Team  
CFC   Chloroflurocarbon  
CITES     Convention  on  the  International  Trade  of  Endangered  Species  
CMAC     Coastal  Management  Advisory  Council  
CNMI   Commonwealth  of  Northern  Mariana  Islands  
COTS     Crown  of  thorns  starfish  
EDRR   Early  Detection  Rapid  Response  
EEZ     Exclusive  Economic  Zone  
ENSO   El  Niño–Southern  Oscillation  
FFA     Forum  Fisheries  Agency  
FSM     Federated  States  of  Micronesia  
GDP     Gross  Domestic  Product  
GEF     Global  Environment  Facility  
GHG   Green  House  Gas  
HCFC   Hydro-­‐Chlorofluro  Carbon  
IAS     Invasive  Alien  Species  
IUCN     International  Union  for  the  Conservation  of  Nature  
MICS     Marshall  Islands  Conservation  Society  
MIMRA     Marshall  Islands  Marine  Resources  Authority  
MRISC     Micronesia  Regional  Invasive  Species  Council  
NBSAP     National  Biodiversity  Strategy  and  Action  Plan  
NISSAP     National  Invasive  Species  Strategy  and  Action  Plan  
ODP   Ozone  Depleting  Potential  
ODS   Ozone  Depleting  Substance  
PAN   Protected  Area  Network  
PNA     Parties  to  the  Nauru  Agreement  
PROCFish     Pacific  Regional  Oceanic  and  Coastal  Fisheries    
RMI     Republic  of  the  Marshall  Islands  
SPC     Secretariat  for  the  Pacific  Community  
SPREP     Secretariat  of  the  Pacific  Regional  Environment  Programme    
SST     Sea  Surface  Temperature  
TREDS     Turtle  Research  and  Monitoring  Database  System  
US     United  States  
VDS   Vessel  Day  Scheme  
WCPFC     Western  Central  Pacific  Fisheries  Commission  
 

   

5  
 
Table  of  Contents  
Executive  Summary  ......................................................................................................................................  2  
Acknowledgements  ......................................................................................................................................  4  
Acronyms  ......................................................................................................................................................  5  
PART  1:  An  update  of  biodiversity  status,  trends  and  threats,  and  implications  for  human  well-­‐being  ......  8  
1.0   The  importance  of  biodiversity  for  the  Republic  of  the  Marshall  Islands  (RMI)  ...........................  8  
1.1  Economy  .........................................................................................................................................  8  
1.2  Cultural  connection  ........................................................................................................................  9  
2.0   Changes  in  the  status  and  trends  of  biodiversity  in  Marshall  Islands  ........................................  10  
2.1  Endemic  Species  ...........................................................................................................................  10  
2.2  Species  of  local  Concern  ...............................................................................................................  11  
2.3  Threatened  species  ......................................................................................................................  12  
2.4  The  marine  environment  ..............................................................................................................  13  
2.5  Wetlands  ......................................................................................................................................  16  
2.6  Agriculture  ....................................................................................................................................  17  
2.7  Forests  ..........................................................................................................................................  18  
2.8  Atmosphere  and  Climate  Change  .................................................................................................  19  
3.0   Main  threats  to  the  biodiversity  of  RMI  .....................................................................................  20  
3.1  Population  growth  ........................................................................................................................  21  
3.2  Climate  change  .............................................................................................................................  22  
3.3  Invasive  Species  ............................................................................................................................  23  
3.4  Overharvesting  .............................................................................................................................  23  
3.5  Solid  and  Hazardous  Waste  ..........................................................................................................  24  
3.6  Loss  of  traditional  conservation  practices  ....................................................................................  26  
4.0   Impact   of   the   changes   in   biodiversity   for   ecosystem   services   and   the   socio-­‐economic   and  
cultural  aspects  of  these  impacts.  ..........................................................................................................  26  
PART  2.  The  national  biodiversity  strategy  and  action  plan,  its  implementation,  and  the  mainstreaming  
of  biodiversity  .............................................................................................................................................  27  
5.0   Republic  of  the  Marshall  Islands  Biodiversity  Targets  ................................................................  27  
6.0   NBSAP  targets  and  biodiversity  mainstreaming  .........................................................................  29  
7.0   Actions  taken  to  implement  CBD  and  outcomes  ........................................................................  30  
7.1  Legislative  &  regulatory  framework  .............................................................................................  30  
7.2  Strategies  and  action  plans  ..........................................................................................................  31  

6  
 
 7.3  Conservation  implementation  ......................................................................................................  32  
7.4  Knowledge  development  ..............................................................................................................  32  
7.5  Resource  mobilization  ..................................................................................................................  32  
8.0   Mainstreaming  of  biodiversity  into  relevant  sectors  .................................................................  33  
9.0   NBSAP  implementation  progress  ...............................................................................................  34  
PART  3:  Progress  towards  the  2020  Aichi  Biodiversity  Targets  and  contributions  to  the  2015  MDG  targets
 ....................................................................................................................................................................  38  
10.0   Progress   made   towards   implementation   of   the   Strategic   Plan   for   Biodiversity   2011-­‐2020   and  
its  Aichi  Biodiversity  Targets.  .................................................................................................................  38  
11.0   Implementing  the  Convention  towards  achieving  the  relevant  2015  MDGs  .............................  39  
12.0   Lessons  learned  from  the  implementation  of  the  Convention  in  Marshall  Islands  ....................  39  
Appendix  I.  Reporting  Information  .........................................................................................................  41  
Appendix  II.  Further  sources  of  information  ..........................................................................................  42  
Appendix  III.  RMI  and  Aichi  Biodiversity  Targets  ....................................................................................  44  
 

   

7  
 
PART   1:   An   update   of   biodiversity   status,   trends   and   threats,   and   implications  
for  human  well-­‐being  
 

1.0 The  importance  of  biodiversity  for  the  Republic  of  the  Marshall  Islands  (RMI)  
People   of   the   Marshall   Islands   have   a   strong   bond   with   the   land   and   the   sea   and   the   array   of   species  
associated   with   these   ecosystems.   Marshallese’s   existence   depended   on   these   natural   resources.   The  
people  of  RMI  is  said  to  be  much  more  part  of  the  land  biodiversity  than  many  other  areas  due  to  their  
influence   in   shaping   the   various   atolls   in   the   country   (Muller   &   Vander-­‐Velde   1999).   The   forests   and  
trees   are   important   to   RMI   because   they   provide   ecosystem   services   such   as   stabilizing   the   otherwise  
sandy  and  rocky  soil,  protecting  other  trees  and  living  things  from  the  constant  influence  of  salt  spray,  
wave  protection  and  providing  habitat  for  endangered  and  endemic  animals.   The  people  recognized  the  
importance   of   a   healthy   marine   environment   because   of   the   abundant   resources   that   benefit   them.  
Furthermore,  the  environment  provides  food  for  the  people  and  a  major  part  of  the  economy.    

The  people  of  the  Marshall  Islands  are  accomplished  seafarers,  

navigators   and   fishermen   (Fig.   1).   The   many   fishing   methods  
devised  and  used  demonstrate  a  deep  understanding  of  sea  life,  
ranging   from   the   simple   hook   and   line   to   nets,   traps,   spears,  
clubs,  rope  and  coconut  fronds.  Some  methods  were  used  only  
for   specific   types   of   fish,   in   specific   areas   or   seasons.   Some  
methods   involved   the   participation   of   many   people   and   some  
were   practiced   by   the   individual.   In   the   past,   fishing   was  
accompanied  by  complex  taboos,  procedures  and  magic  chants  
that  integrated  the  spiritual  and  social  life  with  the  methods  for  
gathering  food.  Social  hierarchy  determined  who  could  fish  and  
where.  Accomplished  fishermen  were  granted  prestige  in  their  
Fig.  1:  Wapepe  –  a  traditional  Marshallese   communities.   Many   traditional   fishing   practices   remain   in   use  
navigation  chart   today,   but   many   are   being   lost   along   with   the   in-­‐depth  
understanding  of  the  sea  and  its  creatures.  Moreover,  fish  and  other  marine  creatures  remain  important  
subsistence  foods,  the  catching  and  sharing  of  which  revive  culture  and  community  (Reimaanlok  2007).  

1.1  Economy  

The   Republic   of   the   Marshall   Islands   (RMI)   per   capita   gross  

domestic  product  (GDP)  (Fig.  2)  is  underpinned  by  the  country’s  
natural   environment.   Biodiversity   is   the   foundation   to   the  
subsistence   living   of   the   people   and   is   of   significant   cultural  
importance.   With   its   small   land   area   and   a   small   proportion  
suitable   for   settlement,   land   is   the   most   prized   possession   and  
the  basis  of  Marshallese  culture.  The  people  have  developed  and   Fig.  2:  RMI’s  per  capita  GDP  [source:  
www.tradigneconomics.com  /  World  Bank]  
maintained  a  remarkable  knowledge  of  native  forests  and  plants,  

8  
 
and  strong  skills  in  agro-­‐forestry.  The  terrestrial  vegetation   2007  Fisher ies  expor t   US$  
is   dominated   by   coconuts,   and   occupies   some   60%   of   the  
Coastal  export   450,000  
land.   The   fishery   sector   contributes   significantly   (12%)   to  
Aquaculture  export   130,000  
the   country’s   economy   (Table   1).   Copra   was   once   a   main  
Local  Longliner  export   1,430,000  
income   earner   for   many   outer   islands   but   the   challenge  
TOTAL   2,010,000  
with  erratic  shipping  to  these  remote  places  caused  a  shift  
towards   handicrafts.   Handicraft   making   was   once   the    
domain   of   the   women,   but   more   and   more   men   have   Table  1:  2007  Fisheries  export  revenue.  [source:  
shifted   from   copra   production   to   this   sector   due   to   Gillett  2011]  
 
convenience,  especially  in  terms  of  shipping  to  tourist  areas.    

1.2  Cultural  connection  

The  culture,  history  and  natural  environment  of  the  Marshallese  cannot  be  separated  because  specific  
places,   rocks,   trees   and   animals   have   powerful   cultural   meaning.   Land   is   97%   privately   owned   and  
controlled  by  three  titles:  Iroij  (chief),  Alap  (landowner  or  clan  elder)  and  Ri-­‐jerbal  (land  steward).  The  
Iroij   has   the   highest   authority   and   he   or   she   controls   all   affairs   concerning   land   rights.   Land   is   prized  
above   all   else   and   the   conservation   and   use   of   the   environment   is   linked   to   Marshallese   culture   and  
traditions.  The  Mo  sites  (tradition  conservation  sites)  continue  to  influence  the  land  management  today.  
There   are   conditions   that   apply   to   Mo   which   include   seasonal   harvesting   in   the   marine,   coastal   and  
terrestrial  environments,  taboo  sites  for  Iroij  and  Alap,  as  well  as  burial  sites.    

The   backbone   of   the   Marshallese   culture   is   the   traditional   outrigger   canoes,   known   locally   as   Walap,  
Tipnol   or   Korkor.   The   outrigger   is   an   important   metaphor   of   the   Marshallese   culture.   It   links   to   the  
navigation   and   weather   skills   of   the   people.   The   stick   charts   Rebbelip   (showing   sailing   direction)   and  
Wapepe  (showing  wave  patterns)  are  used  for  traditional  navigational  training  (Fig.  1).  The  lines  in  the  
Rebbelip,   Meto   and   Wapepe   –   representing   the   currents   are   made   of   coconut   fronds   or   hibiscus,  
whereas  the  points  of  islands  are  made  of  Likajir  (cowry)  shells.    

Biodiversity   and   ecosystem   services   are   critical   for   the  

well-­‐being   of   Marshallese.   Biodiversity   provides   material  
for  the  manufacture  of  crafts.  Overpopulation  on  some  of  
the   atolls   remains   a   challenge,   with   Majuro   and   Ebeye  
having  densities  among  the  highest  in  the  world.  The  RMI  
population   has   steadily   increased   from   9800   in   the   1920’s  
census  to  53,158  in  the  2011  census  (Fig.  3).  The  majority  
(74%)  live  on  Majuro  atoll,  whereas  the  outer  islands  have  
diminishing   populations.   An   increasing   number   of   people   Fig.  3:  Population  growth  since  1920.    [RMI  Census  
2012]  
on  the  outer  islands  have  migrated  to  Majuro  and  a  mass  
out-­‐migration  of  people  has  seen  some  11,000  depart  to  live  overseas,  with  the  majority  moving  to  the  
state  of  Arkansas  in  the  United  States.  If  this  trend  continues  it  will  have  an  impact  on  biodiversity.  

   

9  
 
  

2.0   Changes  in  the  status  and  trends  of  biodiversity  in  Marshall  Islands  
The   RMI’s   floral   and   faunal   composition   is   mostly   marine.   Marine  
Flor a  &  Fa una   To ta l  
biodiversity   give   RMI   its   distinctiveness,   with   certain   atoll  
Total  number  of  species   5821  
communities   known   locally   for   their   unique   marine   settings   Number  of  native  species   1524  
(Table   2).   The   natural   terrestrial   ecosystem   all   contain   species   Percent  of  native  species   26.18%  
Number  of  species  endemic  to   57  
normally   associated   with   the   ocean   (e.g.   sea   birds,   land   crabs,   RMI  
land  algae,  etc.).  Most  of  the  native  land  animals  in  RMI  are  crabs    
–   hermit   crabs   (Coenobita   spp.),   coconut   crab   (Birgus   latro)   and   Table  2:  Total  recorded  species  in  RMI.  
[source:  SOE  2016]  
other  land  crabs  (Muller  &  Vander-­‐Velde  1999).    

While   much   of   the   outer   islands   remain   relatively   unscathed   from   the   pressures   experienced   in  
urbanized   areas,   it   is   just   a   matter   of   time   before   they   are   also   impacted.   The   reduction   of   fish   diversity  
and   shark   abundance   in   urban   centers   such   as   Majuro   is   a   negative   trend   and   serves   as   a   warning   signal  
for   the   outer   islands.   Increasing   demand   for   fish   production   in   the   urban   centers   may   lead   fishers   to  
shift  to  alternate  fishing  grounds  in  the  outer  islands,  which  can  threaten  biodiversity  in  these  areas  if  
management  measures  are  not  in  place.  

The   state   of   health   for   the   marine   environment   is   mixed   based   on   the   unique   characteristics   of   the  
islands  –  some  pristine,  some  with  low  fishing  pressure  due  to  low  population  density,  and  some  with  
high   fishing   pressure.   There   is   a   serious   concern   in   the   increasing   trend   of   importing   fish   from   the   outer  
islands  to  the  urban  centers.  Ultimately,  this  will  affect  the  integrity  and  the  ecological  function  of  those  
remote  ecosystem.  Another  highly  concerning  development  is  the  safety  of  consuming  reef  fish  from  the  
Kwajalein  area.  A  recent  report  from  the  US  army  indicates  a  high  toxicity  of  all  reef  fish  in  Kwajalein  and  
that   an   immediate   ban   on   fish   consumption   should   be   considered.   The   issue   should   be   addressed   by  
fully  understanding  the  source  of  the  contamination,  taking  steps  to  prevent  additional  contamination,  
remediating  the  Kwajalein  lagoon  and  ensuring  that  no  additional  areas  in  RMI  are  contaminated.  

The   introduction   of   invasive   alien   species   pose   one   of   the   greatest   threats   to   island   biodiversity.  
Together  with  other  threats  like  pollution,  over-­‐harvesting  and  diseases,  will  cause  irreversible  harm  to  
RMIs  biodiversity.  

2.1  Endemic  Species  

Endemism   in   RMI’s   is   relatively   low   due   to   evolutionary   and   geographical   influences.   Colonization   of  
land  relies  on  currents  and  wind,  as  well  as  attaching  on  floating  objects.  While  estimating  the  number  
of   species   to   be   native   is   an   educated   guess,   there   is   consensus   that   at   least   three   plant   species   (two  
grasses  and  a  false-­‐spider  lily)  are  the  only  endemics  on  land.    

10  
 
Many  of  RMIs  endangered  species  are  endemic  which  means  they  occur  nowhere  else  on  earth  (Table  
2).   These   species   are   of   particular   concern   because   of   their   limited   geographic   range   (Fig.   4).   Some  
species   of   mangroves   (Sonneratia   alba)   are   found   on   a   few   atolls.   There   is   concern   that   due   to   their  

Fig.  4:  Map  showing  the  location  of  RMI’s  endemic   Fig.  5:  Number  of  RMI  species  categorized  under  the  IUCN  Red  List  
species  [source:  RMI  SOE  2016]   [source:  RMI  SOE  2016]  

limited  range  they  could  easily  be  threatened  by  human  pressure,  development  or  pollution.  

The  general  consensus  is  that  the  country’s  biodiversity  is  deteriorating,  with  the  decline  of  the  coastal  
and   near   shore   areas   of   the   greatest   challenge.   Some   recovery   plans   exist   but   are   generally   poorly  
supported,  and  there  is  a  very  low  state  of  knowledge  about  the  country’s  overall  biodiversity.    

Of   the   57   endemic   species,   only   four   have   been   assessed   by   the   IUCN:   three   are   endangered   and   one   is  
extinct.   The   very   nature   of   endemic   species   is   that   they   are   sensitive   to   extinction.   A   few   of   these  
endemic   species   only   occur   in   one   atoll,   making   them   extremely   rare.   Enewetak   has   eight   endemic  
species   (the   highest   number   of   all   atolls),   followed   by   Arno   and   Kwajalein   with   four   endemic   species.  
Ailinglaplap,  Bikini,  Ebon,  Jaluit  and  Rongerik  all  have  one  endemic  species  which  makes  them  a  priority  
for  conservation  and  protection.    

2.2  Species  of  local  Concern    

There  are  61  species  and  subspecies  considered  for  conservation  by  RMIs  government  and  its  partners  
(IUCN,  CITES  and  US  Fish  and  Wildlife).  Based  on  the  nationally  compiled  list  of  animals  and  plants:  

• 13   nationally   endangered   or   critically   endangered   species   (five   marine   mammals,   three   birds,  
and  five  marine  reptiles:  one  being  critically  endangered).    
• 5  are  vulnerable  species  –  one  bird,  one  shark,  three  arthropods,  (Tridacna  gigas  and  T.  derasa  
giant  clam  species,  and  the  Triton’s  shell  Charonia  tritonis)  –  and  one  extinct  species,  the  Wake  
Rail  (Gallirallus  wakensis).    

11  
 
The   18   threatened   species   represent   31%   of   total   species   considered   for   conservation.   The   other   43  
species  are  listed  as  Near  Threatened,  Low  Risk  or  (with  conservation  measures),  Data  Deficient  or  Least  
Concern  (Fig.  5).  

2.3  Threatened  species  

The  RMI  government  takes  the  threatened  species  issue  seriously  and  has  made  initiatives  to  establish  
legislation   to   protect   19   endangered   species:   18   are   marine   and   one   terrestrial   species.   Other  
threatened   species   are   protected   by   individual   atoll   local   government   jurisdictions.   The   local  
governments   set   the   restrictions   on   land   and   near-­‐shore   marine   resources,   which   include   the  
conservation   of   biodiversity.   The   Marshall   Islands   Marine   Resources   Authority   (MIMRA)   provides   advice  
and  technical  assistance  to  local  governments.    

The   RMIs   threatened   species   list   includes   the   endangered,   vulnerable   and   critically   endangered   –  
species,   and   most   are   found   in   the   marine   environment.   Terrestrial   species   make   up   about   0.5%.   The  
most   comprehensive   survey   of   biodiversity   in   2000   found   that   RMI   has   more   than   5,821   species  
(Vander-­‐Velde,  2000).  The  IUCN  assessed  1130  species  of  the  5821  species  identified  by  Vander-­‐Velde  
and   found   that   101   were   threatened   by   extinction.   The   Hawksbill   turtle   is   perhaps   the   only   species  
found  in  RMI  that  is  critically  endangered.  Eight  species  are  listed  as  endangered  and  88  as  vulnerable,  
while   the   remaining   species   are   listed   as   near   threatened   (NT),   lower   risk   (conservation   dependent),  
data  deficient  (DD)  or  least  concern  (LC)  (Fig.  5).    

• Coral  Reefs  

Coral   reef   ecosystems   are   relatively   intact   and   provide   key   ecosystem   services,   including   food.   The  
condition   of   the   reefs,   particularly   in   the   less   populated   islands,   has   a   major   positive   impact   on  
sustainable  livelihoods,  including  fisheries.  

Coral  cover  provides  an  indirect  measure  of  land-­‐use  impacts  and  erosion,  fishing  pressure,  relative  sea  
surface   temperature   (SST),   presence   of   disease   and   predators   like   the   crown   of   thorns   starfish  (COTS)  
and  mechanical  damage  from  anthropogenic  sources  or  natural  phenomena  like  typhoons.  Trends  in  live  
coral  cover  indicate  the  relative  resiliency  and  health  of  coral  ecosystem  at  a  given  site.  

Coral  reefs  in  RMI  undergo  a  cycle  of  decline  and  recovery  from  COTS  or  typhoons.  One  example  is  the  
COTS   outbreak   in   southern   Majuro   between   2004   and   2009   (Waddell,   J.E.   and   A.M.   Clarke   (eds.),   2008).  
Coral  cover  in  RMI  is  relatively  healthy.  However,  the  coral  bleaching  event  in  2014  may  have  reduced  
coral  cover  and  recovery.  A  survey  at  the  end  of  2014  suggested  that  up  to  half  of  Majuro’s  coral  cover  
was  affected.  Documentation  of  coral  bleaching  events  in  Majuro  from  2008  to  2014  indicates  that  this  
is  becoming  more  common.  However,  the  dominant  coral  species  found  in  Majuro  is  Porites  rus,  which  is  
more  resistant  to  changes  in  temperature  and  sunlight  exposure  compared  to  other  species.  Variations  
in   coral   cover   trends   show   higher   coral   cover   in   rural   atolls,   compared   to   urban   atolls.   However,   the  
overall   healthy   reef   system   has   the   capacity   to   provide   all   the   fish   protein   needed   for   human  
consumption   now   and   into   the   future,   provided   appropriate   management   measures   are   put   in   place  
(PROCFish,  2009).  Majuro’s  reef  system  is  under  significant  pressure  due  to  human  impacts,  over-­‐fishing  

12  
 
and   developments   such   as   over-­‐population   and   aggregate   mining.   Generally,   the   coral   reefs   on   the  
northern  islands  of  Majuro  are  healthy,  although  there  is  limited  data  available  from  the  surveys.  

Reef  condition  (e.g.  coral  and  algal  cover)  can  impact  the  relative  density,  species  and  size  of  fish.  For  
example,  reefs  in  a  state  of  heavy  algae  cover  are  indicative  of  the  absence  of  algal-­‐eating  herbivores,  
like  parrotfish  and  surgeonfish  that  could  otherwise  facilitate  coral  recovery.  High  coral  cover  supports  a  
diverse  array  of  fish,  who  use  corals  for  shelter  and  feeding.  Inshore  fishing  typically  targets  larger  reef  
fish  (e.g.  goatfish,  parrotfish  and  surgeonfish),  and  therefore  can  impact  the  health  of  reefs  by  removing  
important  grazers  from  the  ecosystem.  Fishing  pressure  is  mainly  led  by  human  population  and  access  to  
fish  markets.  

Reef   fisheries   target   both   reef   fish   and   invertebrates   (e.g.   crustaceans,   clams,   sea   cucumbers   and  
trochus).  The  Marshallese  people  are  reliant  on  reef  fishing  for  subsistence.  Reefs  and  inshore  species  
are  mutually  supportive,  where  reefs  support  fish  and  invertebrates  with  food  and  shelter,  and  fish  and  
invertebrates   help   maintain   and   establish   reef   systems.   The   biomass   of   reef   fish   provides   an   insight   into  
the   health   of   the   inshore   environment   in   addition   to   anthropogenic   pressures   like   fishing   and  
development.    

2.4  The  marine  environment  

Marine   species   make   up   most   of   the   biodiversity   of  

RMI   (Fig.   6).   The   overall   state   of   RMI’s   marine  
environment   is   intact   and   in   good   and   stable  
condition.   There   are   over   1000   species   of   fish,   1600   of  
mollusk   species,   and   more   than   250   species   of   algae  
and   stony   corals.   Further   surveys   are   likely   to   reveal  
more   species   in   all   categories.   The   recent   State   of  
Environment   report   for   RMI   shows   a   mixed   picture  
with  regards  to  the  health  of  the  marine  environment.    

• Offshore  marine  environment    

Fig.  6:  The  oceanic  white-­‐tipped  shark   Carcharhinus  
The   offshore   marine   environment   is   in   fair   condition   longimanus  is  the  most  vulnerable  shark  species.  [photo  
but  the  trend  is  deteriorating.  This  is  attributed  to  the   Terry  Goss]  
state  of  the  tuna  fishery  where  the  biomass  is  said  to  
have  declined  to  40%,  whereas  fishing  effort  has  increased  dramatically.  Most  of  the  tuna  species  have  
reached   or   exceeded   their   maximum   sustainable   yield.   The   inshore   environment   is   in   relative   good  
condition   with   a   trend   of   good   (mostly   in   outer   islands)   and   needs   improving   (mostly   around   Majuro  
where   the   population   is   expected   to   continue   to   grow).   In   terms   of   conservation   area,   RMI   has  
established   63   marine   managed   areas   covering   about   70%   of   reef   in   RMI.   Management   plans   for   the  
majority  of  these  managed  areas  are  lacking.    

• Marine  water  quality  

13  
 
The  water  quality  in  the  lagoons  is  said  to  be  in  poor  state  and  the  prognosis  does  not  look  good.  Not  
only  the  bacterial  counts  are  very  high  (24,000MPN/100ml)  but  in  some  areas  the  contamination  from  
pesticides  and  heavy  metals  make  consumption  of  seafood  deadly.  

• Marine  mammals  and  turtles  

The  country  is  blessed  with  having  diverse  species  of  turtles,  sharks  and  other  economic  and  culturally  
important  species.  Most  of  the  species  have  some  conservation  management  consideration  supported  
by  legislation  but  the  lack  of  enforcement  remains  a  challenge.    

The   marine   turtle   populations   are   declining   regionally   and   globally.   Five   turtle   species   are   known   to  
occur   in   the   Pacific   region,   and   four   are   known   from   RMI.   There   is   limited   information   to   fully  
understand   the   state   of   stock   structure,   abundance   and   trend   in   turtle   populations   in   RMI   and   the  
region.  Turtles  have  played  an  important  role  in  the  lives  of  the  Marshallese  people  for  centuries.  They  
are   a   prestigious   ceremonial   food,   with   cultural   restrictions   on   take   and   consumption.   They   are   also  
iconized   in   Marshall   Island   symbolism,   visual   art,   legends/myths,   and   rituals.   However,   globalization,  
changes  in  social  practices,  and  loss  of  respect  for  the  culture,  has  resulted  in  negative  impacts  on  turtle  
populations.  Reduction  of  this  resource  is  recognized  as  a  loss  to  the  Marshallese  way  of  life.  The  term  
‘subsistence   take’   is   not   well   defined,   and   it   seems   to   be   open   season   on   turtles   in   RMI,   the   only  
restriction  being  a  minimum  size  limit.  

Fig.  8:  Turtle  numbers  recorded  in  surveys  carried  out  in  1992,  
Fig.  7:  The  Hawksbill  turtle  is  the  only  critically   2006  &  2007.  [source:  RMI  SOE2016  
endangered  listed  species  found  on  Marshall  Islands  
[photo:  Marine  Photobank]  

The   Green   turtle   (Chelonia   mydas)   is   the   most   common   of   the   four   turtle   species   that   occur   in   RMI.  
There  were  over  620  nesting  sites  and  over  70  individuals  recorded  during  the  surveys  of  1998,  2006  and  
2007.   The   number   of   nesting   turtles   in   Bikar   alone   was   estimated   at   100–500,   considered   to   be   the  
largest   nesting   site   in   Micronesia   in   the   early   1970s   (NMFS   and   FWS   1998;   Hendrickson,   1972).  
Exploitation  of  sea  turtles  has  become  easier  with  the  use  of  motor  boats  and  other  modern  equipment.  
Hawksbill  turtles  (Eretmochelys  imbricata)  are  listed  as  critically  endangered  in  the  IUCN  Red  List  and  are  
considered   rare   in   the   waters   of   RMI,   with   only   a   single   nesting   site   recorded   in   the   1970s.   Bikar,   Erikub  
and  Jemo  are  the  three  main  nesting  sites  for  the  Green  turtle.    

14  
 
There   are   still   cases   of   the   traditional   practice   of   seeking   permission   from   a   high   chief,   prior   to  
harvesting  turtles.  The  lack  of  awareness  on  existing  laws,  lack  of  a  monitoring  program  and  very  limited  
enforcement   has   led   to   uncontrolled   turtle   harvesting,   resulting   in   a   ‘poor’   status   of   RMI   turtle  
populations.  Moreover,  turtles  have  moved  into  the  monetary  economy,  despite  laws  prohibiting  such  
practices.  With  these  factors,  turtle  numbers  will  continue  to  decline.    

The   Reimaanlok:   National   Conservation   Area   Plan   is   a   key  

instrument   used   by   MIMRA   and   its   CMAC   members   to  
designate   protected   areas   and   develop   community-­‐based  
management   plans   for   natural   resources,   including   turtles  
and   turtle   nesting   sites.   With   the   growth   of   protected   areas  
through   Reimaanlok,   the   potential   for   local   communities   to  
increase  protection  and  management  of  these  species  should  
be   considered,   given   the   limited   capacity   to   monitor   and  
enforce  legislation  and  implement  conservation  policy.    

Cetaceans   (whales   and   dolphins)   have   a   very   slow  

reproductive   rate,   making   them   (much   like   most   shark   Fig.  9:    List  of  cetaceans  recorded  from  RMI  
species)   particularly   at   risk   from   any   harvesting   activity.  
Fifteen   species   have   been   reported   from   RMI   (Figure   9).  
However,   this   is   most   likely   an   under-­‐representation   of   the  
numbers   as   there   is   no   formal   monitoring   program   for  
cetaceans.    

Sharks   are   now   protected   following   the   RMI   government’s  

declaration  of  their  EEZ  as  a  Shark  Sanctuary  in  2011.  RMI’s  
efforts  is  part  of  the  Micronesia  overall  commitment  towards   Fig.  10:  Number  of  shark  by-­‐catch  reported  since  
2004  in  RMI’s  EEZ  (MIMRA  2012)  
a   regional   sanctuary   for   shark.   This   covers   an   area   of   6.5  
million   km2.   About   183   metric   tons   of   sharks   were   caught   annually   from   2005   to   2011   before   the  
sanctuary  was  established  (MIMRA  by-­‐catch  data)  (Fig.  10).  Whale  sharks  Rhincodon  typus  are  listed  as  
vulnerable  under  the  IUCN  Red  List  and  occasionally  get  caught  up  in  fishing  nets  from  purse  seiners.  

• Tuna  fishery  

The  tuna  fishery  and  the  offshore  fishery  in  general  are  the  top  income  earners  for  RMI  which  is  about  
14%  in  2014  (Graduate  School,  2015).  The  average  fish  consumption  per  person  per  year  is  about  39  kg  
with   rather   more   in   the   outer   islands.   However,   the   Marshallese   people   consume   most   of   their   fish  
protein  from  reef  fish.  The  reefs  are  able  to  supply  700  kg  of  fish  per  person  per  year  (Bell,  2011).    

Serious   concerns   have   been   expressed   on   the   state   of   the   tuna   fishery.   Strengthening   the   monitoring  
and   surveillance   is   necessary   to   ensure   the   tuna   stocks   are   sustainably   harvested   and   managed   in   the  
EEZ.  The  main  consumers  are  canneries  in  Thailand  and  Indonesia.  A  concern  with  the  increased  number  
of  large  fishing  vessels  operating  in  the  country  is  the  potential  for  accidents  such  as  that  seen  when  the  
purse  seiner  Fong  Seong  666  grounded  on  a  reef  off  Majuro  resulting  in  over  2,415m2  of  coral  reef  being  
damaged.  

15  
 
Offshore   fisheries   production   is   an   important   indicator   of   pelagic   (offshore)   fish   stock   health.   This  
indicator   measures   the   state   of   offshore   fisheries   and   management,   as   well   as   the   general   state   of  
commercial   species   and   by-­‐catch   trends,   including   sharks   and   other   species.   From   2002   to   2012,   the  
tuna   fishery   in   RMI   was   dominated   by   foreign   purse   seine   fleets   from   Asia,   Europe   and   the   United  
States,   mainly   targeting   skipjack   tuna.   There   are   a   growing   number   of   domestic   long   line   vessels   of  
mainly  Asian-­‐flagged  companies.  These  long-­‐liners  target  other  tuna  species  such  as  albacore,  yellowfin  
and  bigeye.  Skipjack  tuna  harvested  by  purse  seining  is  the  major  component  of  the  fishery  in  the  EEZ.  
The   other   two   target   species   are   bigeye   and   yellowfin   tuna   which   make   up   20   percent   of   the   total  
fisheries  catch.    

In  the  last  decade  the  tuna  catch  has  been  stable  except  in  2003,  when  it  declined  in  RMI  and  the  rest  of  
the  region.  During  the  same  period  the  RMI  skipjack  catch  has  topped  out  between  15,000  and  20,000  
metric  tons.  Current  trends  indicate  that  the  tuna  catch  for  RMI  is  stable  but,  potentially,  is  maxed  out  
due   to   negative   trends   in   pre-­‐harvest   biomass   levels.   One   notable   negative   trend   is   the   bigeye   tuna  
stock,   which   is   being   harvested   unsustainably   in   the   western   central   Pacific   region.   Regional   stock  
assessments   indicate   that   key   tuna   stocks   in   sub-­‐regional   waters   encompassing   RMI   have   declined   in  
biomass  up  to  40%,  based  on  a  2000  baseline  study  (SPC,  2013).  Recent  SPC  stock  assessments  for  the  
western   Pacific   report   that   albacore,   yellowfin   and   skipjack   fisheries   all   exceed   maximum   sustained  
yields.  

2.5  W etlands  

Atoll   Type   Area  (km2)  

Jaluit   Whole  atoll   11.34  
Namdrik   Madad  islet   0.04  

 
Table  3.  Total  wetlands  in  the  RMI  

Fig.  11:  State  of  wetlands  in  RMI  [source  RMI  SOE2016]  
 

The  state  of  the  wetlands  in  RMI  is  currently  good  although  in  terms  of  the  trend  it  is  unknown  (Fig.  10).  
RMI  has  two  declared  wetlands  of  international  importance  with  a  combined  area  of  11.38  km2  (Table  
3).   A   third   site   is   currently   being   considered   (Lib   Island).   The   declared   sites   (Jaluit   and   Namdrik)   are  
important  breeding  areas  for  the  endangered  hawksbill  and  green  turtles,  the  coconut  crab  and  other  
rare  species  (See  Table  4).  These  sites  are  mapped  and  being  formally  managed.  Namdrik  consists  of  two  
wooded   islets   with   an   extensive   reef   flat   between   them.   A   subterranean   Ghyben-­‐Herzberg   water   lens  
lies  under  the  islets,  which  provides  a  precious  supply  of  freshwater.  The  atoll  is  unique  because  there  
are  no  navigable  passes  into  the  central  lagoon,  and  it  supports  a  rich  mangrove  forest  that  is  home  to  
some   150   species   of   fish.   Active   management   of   the   Ramsar   sites   is   limited   by   distance   and   budget  
limitations.  Both  Ramsar  sites  have  local  management  plans  that  are  managed  by  the  local  government  

16  
 
with  support  from  the  RMI  EPA  office.  An  ecological  study  in  Namdrik  found  that  the  reefs  are  healthy  
and  intact  (Hulk  et.  al.,  2013).    
Specie s     Type   Ha bitat   A tol l     IUNC   R ed   List  
Status  
Mangroves   Forest   Terrestrial   Jaluit,  Namdrik   Endangered  
Giant  Swamp  Taro   Plant   Terrestrial   Namdrik   Vulnerable  
Serrated   Ribbon   Plant   Marine   Namdrik   Endangered  
Seagrass  
Ponapean  peperomia   Plant     Terrestrial   Namdrik   Vulnerable  
Green  Turtle   Turtle   Marine   Jaluit,  Namdrik   Endangered  
Hawksbill  Turtle   Turtle   Marine   Jaluit,  Namdrik   Critically  Endangered  
Humphead  Wrasse   Fish   Marine   Namdrik   Endangered  
Bristle-­‐Thighed  Curlew   Bird   Terrestrial   Namdrik   Endangered  
Frigate   Bird   Terrestrial   Jaluit   Vulnerable  
Noddy  Tern   Bird   Terrestrial   Jaluit   Least  Concern  
White-­‐tailed  tropicbirds   Bird   Terrestrial   Jaluit   Least  Concern  
Crested  Tern   Bird   Terrestrial   Jaluit   Least  Concern  
Brown  Boobies   Bird   Terrestrial   Jaluit   Least  Concern  
White  Tern   Bird   Terrestrial   Jaluit   Least  Concern  
Micronesia  pigeon   Bird   Terrestrial   Jaluit   Near  Threatened  
White-­‐browed  Rail   Bird   Terrestrial   Namdrik   Least  Concern  
Tree-­‐hole  Mosquito   Insect   Terrestrial   Namdrik   Data  Deficient  
Crane  Fly   Insect   Terrestrial   Namdrik   Data  Deficient  
Arno  Skink   Lizard   Terrestrial   Namdrik   Least  Concern  
Coconut  crab   Crab   Terrestrial   Jaluit   Data  Deficient  
Mangrove  crab   Crab   Marine   Jaluit   Data  Deficient  
Mantis  Shrimp   Crustacean   Marine   Namdrik   Data  Deficient  
Trochus   Mollusc   Marine   Jaluit   Data  Deficient  
Sea  cucumbers   Echinoderm   Marine   Jaluit,  Namdrik   Data  Deficient  
Blacklip  Pearl  Oysters   Mollusc   Marine   Jaluit   Data  Deficient  
Tridacna  gigas   Mollusc   Marine   Jaluit   Data  Deficient  
T.  maxima   Mollusc   Marine   Jaluit   Data  Deficient  
T.  squamosal   Mollusc   Marine   Jaluit   Data  Deficient  
Hippopus  hippopus     Mollusc   Marine   Jaluit   Data  Deficient  
Table  3.  Species  found  in  the  two  wetlands.  
 

2.6  Agriculture    

Agriculture   in   atoll   environments   has   always   been  

challenging,   as   illustrated   by   the   Pat   (traditional   taro   pit).  
The   Marshallese   have   a   long   history   of   making   major  
investments   to   grow   staple   crops.   Agriculture   was  
traditionally   a   key   component   of   RMI’s   economy,   mainly  
permanent   crops   and   plantations   (Fig.   12).   Nearly   all   Fig.  12:  Households  engaged  in  agricultural  
families  were  once  involved  in  agriculture.  There  has  been  a   activities  
steady   decline   and   loss   of   engagement   in   the   agricultural   sector   with   about   less   than   half   of   households  
involved  (Fig.  13).  Various  factors  are  attributed  to  this  decline  with  reduction  of  soil  fertility  through  the  
loss   of   organic   matter   and   nutrients   an   important   consideration.   The   nuclear   tests   in   the   1940s   and  
1950s   have   changed   the   terrestrial   environment   and   human   interaction   with   the   environment   by  
reducing  the  already  scarce  area  available  to  grow  crops  by  removing  thousands  of  metric  tons  of  topsoil  
and  by  vaporizing  several  islets.    

17  
 
The   abandonment   of   historic   plantations   and  
crop   areas   have   led   to   the   spread   of   invasive  
species,   placing   more   pressure   on   the  
environment  and  reducing  biodiversity.    

The   impacts   which   have   negative   effects   on  

the   agriculture   sector   include   less   food   being  
produced   locally,   more   imported   food,   loss   of  
traditional  agricultural  practices,  and  prevalent   Fig.  13:  Agriculture  trend  in  the  SOE  report  shows  a  deteriorating  
spread  of  invasive  species.  The  effects  of  rapid   trend  in  the  sector.  [source:  RMI  SOE  2016]  
development   in   the   main   urban   centers,   as   well   as   climate   change   (particularly   changing   rainfall  
patterns,  drying  out  of  soil  and  water  land  lenses,  and  saltwater  intrusion)  have  further  exacerbate  the  
agriculture   sector   and   the   will   of   the   people.   Reduced   agricultural   output   is   also   affected   by  
globalization.   For   example,   the   relatively   low   price   of   imported   food,   and   the   challenges   of   transporting  
locally  produced  crops,  makes  it  harder  for  local  farmers  to  market  their  produce.  

2.7  Forests  

The   original   forests   have   been   replaced   by  

agro-­‐forestry   to   support   human  
settlements.   The   status   of   RMI’s   forest   is  
said   to   be   fair   and   the   trend   is   currently  
stable   (Fig.   14).   However,   this   is   likely   to  
change   as   drivers   such   as   climate   change  
and   population   growth   start   to   make  
inroads   towards   intact   forest   areas.   Only   a  
few   atolls   hold   the   last   remaining   native  
forest  ecosystems.  Pisonia  grandis  is  one  of   Fig.14.  Forest  status  and  trend  from  SOE  report  2016.  [source:  SOE  
the   main   forest   ecosystems   found   2016]  
throughout   the   RMI.   Today,   the   agro-­‐forest   is   a   mixture   of   coconut,   breadfruit,   pandanus   and   banana  
trees,  shrubs  and  herbaceous  species.  Other  fruit  trees  were  introduced  to  diversify  food  crops.  Due  to  
low   soil   fertility,   there   are   few   crops   that   can   be   grown   in   an   atoll   soil.   RMI   has   a   stable   forest   cover,  
which  has  changed  very  little  in  the  last  25  years.  There  are  34  atolls  and  islands,  of  which  the  largest  ten  
islands  make  up  74%  (13,403  hectares)  of  the  land  area.  Land  cover  mapping  has  been  carried  out  on  
these  larger  atolls.  RMI  has  about  70%  total  forest  cover,  which  includes  native  forest,  agro-­‐forest,  and  
coconut  plantations.  Fourteen  percent  of  land  cover  area  is  listed  as  barren  lands,  which  includes  coastal  
areas   and   sand   spits.   About   12%   of   the   landscape   is   urban   land   including   roads   and   infrastructure,  
mostly   on   Kwajalein   and   Majuro,   and   about   4%   is   non-­‐forest   vegetation   including   rangeland   and  
agricultural  lands.  A  comprehensive  study  of  botanicals  has  yet  to  be  carried  out  although  some  atolls  
were  studied  decades  ago.  Three  of  these  atolls  have  not  been  permanently  occupied  and  represent  an  
example   of   native   vegetation.   To   understand   the   complexity   of   the   forests   ecosystems,   a   national  
baseline  is  needed  for  trend  analysis  and  comparisons  (SWARS,  2010–2015).    

18  
 
 The   information   on   forest   condition   indicates   that   about  
37%   of   sampled   trees   had   some   form   of   damage,   mostly  
caused   by   unspecified   insects   and   other   vegetation,  
including   vines   (SWARS,   2010–2015).   This   indicates   that  
the   existing   forest   cover   is   in   moderate   to   fair   condition.  
The  land  cover  data  is  available  for  10  atolls  out  of  29  and  
five   islands,   in   GIS   format.   It   shows   that   RMI   is   mainly  
covered   by   forest   except   in   a   few   select   locations   where  
urban  areas  dominate.  These  are  Majuro  (49%  urban)  and  
Fig.  15:  Land  cover  type  in  10  atolls   Kwajalein   (30%   urban).   Barren   land   cover   is   the   second  
most  common  land  cover  type  –  this  is  made  up  of  sand  and  coral  bars  along  and  between  islets  (Fig.  
15).    

2.8  Atm osphere  and  Clim ate  Change  

Four   key   areas   where   RMI’s   has   been   focusing   on  

include  Greenhouse  Gases  (GHGs),  Ozone  Depleting  
Substances  (ODS),  Physical  Climate  (air  temperature,  
precipitation,   and   extreme   climatic   events),   and  
Climate   Adaptation   (food   security,   water   security,  
health   and   flood   risks)   (see   Figure   16).   GHGs   have  
been   shown   to   strongly   influence   climate   change,  
which  results  in  more  intense  storms  and  droughts,  
and   higher   sea   level   and   temperatures.   Tracking  
GHG   emissions   is   important   because   it   helps  
understand   RMI’s   contribution   to   the   global   level  
and  this  in  turn  will  help  develop  national  targets  as  
part   of   its   obligations   under   the   UNFCCC.   Although  
the   RMI’s   GHG   emission   trend   has   increased   over  
the   last   decade   (Fig.   17),   it   is   negligible   compared   to  
developed   countries.   The   need   to   develop   a  
monitoring   system   for   GHG   emission   is   vital   for  
RMI’s  efforts.  In  2015,  an  unseasonal  storm  that  hit  
Majuro  causing  serious  property  and  environmental  
damage.   This   was   made   worse   in   2016   when   RMI  
went   through   an   extreme   drought   even   that   was  
more   severe   than   the   1997-­‐1998   event.   This  
Fig.  16:  Status  and  trends  of  GHG,  ODS,  Physical  Climate   stressed  many  of  the  natural  resources  including  the  
and  Climate  Adaptation  in  RMI   biodiversity  of  the  country.    

A  success  story  for  RMI  is  the  phasing  out  of  ozone  depleting  substances  over  the  last  decade.  RMI  has  
fully  complied  with  the  Montreal  Protocol.  In  2004,  RMI  banned  the  importation  of  Chloroflurocarbons  
CFCs  and  has  committed  to  phasing  out  Hydrofluorocarbons  (HCFCs)  by  2030.  

19  
 
  

The   three   types   of   ozone   depleting   substances   to  

have  been  imported  into  RMI  are  CFCs,  HCFCs  and  
methyl   bromide.   Most   of   the   CFCs   and   HCFCs   are  
used   in   the   refrigeration   and   air-­‐conditioning  
sector,   whereas   methyl   bromide   is   exclusively   for  
fumigation   of   goods   by   quarantine   officials.   RMI  
made   a   commitment   to   the   Ozone   Secretariat   to  
freeze   its   use   of   CFCs   at   1.16   ODP   tonnes   from   1  
July  1999.  In  2000,  the  importation  of  CFCs  to  RMI  
resulting   in   a   0.53   ODP   tonnes   –   well   below   its  
Fig.  17:  GHG  emission  from  2000-­‐2010  
commitment.   CFC   is   banned   since   1994   and   HCFC  
will  be  phased  out  by  2030.    

The  physical  climate  trend  for  RMI  does  not  look  positive  with  annual  rainfall  declining  significantly  by  
5%.   Temperature   trends   are   consistent   with   global   warming   trends,   and   there   is   frequency   of   warm  
days,  whereas  the  number  of  cool  nights  has  decreased.    

3.0   Main  threats  to  the  biodiversity  of  RMI  

The   threats   to   the   biodiversity   of   RMI   are   driven   by   a   range   of   global   and   regional   pressures   such   as  
globalization   and   exposure   to   world   markets,   rising   incomes   and   population,   urbanization,   rapid  
expansion   and   growth   of   technologies,   new   and   existing   cultural   norms   and   global   climate   change.  
These   drivers   are   fueling   local   pressures   such   as   land   development,   over-­‐crowding   of   urban   centers,  
waste  generation  and  energy  consumption  and  resource  extraction.  This  is  exacerbated  by  the  following  
factors:    

• Small  land  areas  compared  to  the  vast  distances  between  atolls,  combined  with  the  relative  isolation  
of  the  country,  resulting  in  communication  problems;  
• Limited  natural  terrestrial  resources  placing  a  high  pressure  on  cultivable  land  and  agricultural  crops;    
• Coastal  erosion  due  to  construction  activities  in  urban  areas  and  to  changes  in  sea-­‐level;  
• Destruction   of   coral   reefs   from   human   activities   such   as   dredging,   channel   blasting,   and   boat  
anchoring;  
• Pressure   on   marine   resources   within   lagoons   from   overfishing   and   pollution,   an   on   deep-­‐sea  
fisheries  from  unregulated  commercial  exploitation;  
• A   high   rate   of   population   growth   and   concentration   of   people   in   a   few   urban   areas   leading   to  
environmental  pressures  on  land  and  sea  resources;  
• Increased  pollution  from  solid  and  hazardous  wastes,  particularly  in  the  urban  areas;  ·∙    
• Increased  eutrophication  and  pollution  of  coastal  areas  from  sewage  and  industrial  wastes;  and  
• Susceptibility  to  sea-­‐level  rise  due  to  climate  change.    

The  overpopulation  in  urban  areas  especially  in  Majuro,  is  one  of  the  key  local  challenges  for  RMI.  The  
impact   can   be   seen   by   the   demand   for   resources   far   outweighing   what   can   be   provided   or   supplied.  
More   people   generate   more   solid   and   liquid   waste,   and   the   severe   lack   of   infrastructure   means   that  

20  
 
much   of   the   wastes   are   dumped   or   discharged   to   the   environment.   The   only   waste   management   facility  
in   RMI   that   collects   data   has   breached   its   carrying   capacity   and   poorly   functioning   septic   systems   are  
polluting  the  foreshore  with  high  fecal  coliforms.  

Another   unique   threat   to   RMI’s   biodiversity   is   the   fall-­‐out   from   nuclear   testing.   The   impacts   of   radiation  
on  the  flora  of  the  islands  remain  to  be  determined,  although  initial  observations  by  experts  including  
Raymond   Fosberg   and   reported   in   Muller   &   Vander-­‐Veld   (1999)   indicated   some   abnormal   growth  
impacts  on  certain  plants.  Some  plants  such  as  coconuts  have  been  found  to  retain  significant  amount  of  
Cesium-­‐137  and  hence  when  coconut  crabs  eat  them,  there  is  a  build-­‐up  of  Cesium-­‐137  in  their  bodies.  
This  will  have  devastating  impacts  on  people  that  consume  both  the  coconut  and  the  coconut  crab.  

A  number  of  other  challenges  are  adding  pressure  to  the  health  of  RMI’s  biodiversity  and  ultimately  to  
the  wellbeing  of  the  community.  These  threats  are  outlined  below.  Also  refer  to  Case  Studies  1  and  2.  

Case  Stu d y  1   Case  Study  2  

   
Population  influencing  fish  biomass   Fo od  Se curity  in  RMI  
In  2013  and  2014,  two  surveys  were  undertaken   Food   production   in   an   atoll   environment   is   not  
easy.   The   early   Marshallese   developed   a   unique  
in   three   atolls   with   different   population   density  
system   of   cultivation   adapted   to   the   poor   soil  
and  lagoon  sizes.    
quality  of  the  islands.  They  also  preserved  food  in  
• Rongelap   has   a   particularly   large   lagoon   case  of  famine  or  for  long  voyages.  The  status  of  
(>1,000   km2)   with   a   very   low   human   food  security  is  vulnerable,  due  to  the  increased  
population.   dependence  on  imported  food  products  and  the  
• Majuro  has  a  moderate  sized  lagoon  with  the   decline   in   traditional   food   preparation   and  
highest   population   in   RMI   (Houk   and   preservation.   Major   crops   adapted   to   atolls  
Musburger,  2013).     include   coconut,   pandanus,   breadfruit,   and  
• Namdrik   has   a   very   small   lagoon   (about   8   swamp  taro  grown  in  marsh  areas.  Sea  level  rise  
km2)   and   a   moderate   human   population   of   poses   threats   to   taro   farms   and   food   security.  
~500  people  (Houk  et  al,  2014).     Most   introduced   crops   require   modification   for  
  their   growing   to   survive   in   the   harsh   atoll  
The   surveys   found   Rongelap   to   have   a   high   fish   environment.  Some  breadfruit  varieties  are  more  
biomass   (six   times   that   of   Majuro),   whereas   resilient   to   atoll   conditions.   However,   breadfruit  
Majuro   and   Namdrik   have   lower  biomass.   While   does   not   tolerate   salt   water   spray   or   prolonged  
the   biomass   range   in   Majuro   is   broad   (~0–200   dry   periods   which   affect   most   introduced   crops.  
(kg/   m2),   biomass   for   Rongelap   is   higher   than   The   main   livestock   on   atolls   are   pigs   and  
Majuro  and   Namdrik.  Namdrik   has  a   low  human   chickens.   The   influence   of   climate   change,   pests  
population,   however   the   lagoon   is   small   and   and   diseases   are   an   increasing   concern   for   both  
isolated,   which   may   explain   its   low   biomass   livestock,  introduced  crops  and  the  people.  
(Houk   and   Musburger   2013   and   Houk   et   al,  
2014).  

3.1  Population  growth  

RMI   was   one   of   the   fastest   growing   island   nations   with   an   annual   growth   rate   of   4.2   percent   from   1980  
to   1988.   This   slowed   to   0.4%   in   the   last   decade.   Between   1999   and   2011,   only   2318   people   were   added  
to  the  total  population.  On  the  other  hand  there  is  a  large  population  loss  (estimated  over  11,000  based  
on   the   2011   census   and   1999   projections).   Another   recent   phenomenon   is   the   smaller   family   size   of  
Marshallese.  Internal  migration  from  rural  areas  to  the  urban  centers  has  continued.  In  2011  Majuro  had  
27,797   people   or   a   52%   share   of   the   total   population.   This   percentage   was   lower   (45%)   in   1988.   This  

21  
 
trend   has   mixed   impacts   on   the   environment,   with   urban   areas   adversely   impacted,   whereas   outer  
islands  are  largely  left  in  good  condition,  except  where  fishing  pressure  to  cater  for  urban  demand  takes  
place  (see  Case  Study  1).    

3.2  Clim ate  change  

The  country  has  never  been  more  vulnerable  to  extreme  climate  and  weather  events.  Global  warming  is  
threatening   the   very   existence   of   the   nation   with   storms   that   produce   more   frequent   and   stronger  
waves.   El   Niño–Southern   Oscillation   (ENSO)   events   act   on   this   increasing   sea   level   baseline,   ranging  
between   10cm   below   neutral   for   an   El   Niño   and   30cm   above   neutral   for   La   Nina.   The   last   decade   up  
until   2014   has   seen   La   Nina   dominance,   exasperating   shoreline   erosion.   Climate   change   has   contributed  
to   the   growing   list   of   problems   for   biodiversity   in   RMI.   Together   with   human   activities,   such   as   over-­‐
population,   over-­‐fishing,   habitat   destruction,   coastal   development,   poor   waste   management   and  
pollution   have   significant   impacts   on   loss   of   or   changes   to   biodiversity.   Furthermore   the   atoll  
environment  is  fragile  and  more  vulnerable  to  change  than  in  high  islands.  Climate  change  is  referable  to  
global   issues   such   as   increases   in   sea   surface   temperatures   (SST),   sea-­‐level   rise,   increases   in   ocean  
acidity,   and   increases   in   destructive   typhoons.   By   mitigating   human   aspects   the   long-­‐term   impacts   of  
climate  change  the  RMI  may  be  able  to  stave  off  some  impacts  of  climate  change,  although  ultimately  
they   can   do   little   to   alter   its   impacts   on   a   global   scale.   Some   examples   of   the   impacts   of   climate   change  
include:  

• Damage   to   coral   reefs   resulting   in   reduction   or   loss  

Case  Study  3   of  food  security.  
 
Clima te  cha ng e  a nd  ra dioa ctiv e  thre at   • Damage   to   corals   and   other   calcified   species   from  
Marshallese,   scientists   and   environmentalists   increasing   ocean   acidity,   resulting   in   loss   of   coral   diversity  
fear   that   a   storm   surge,   typhoon   or   another  
cataclysmic   event   brought   on   by   climate  
and  hence  reef  health.  
change   could   tear   the   concrete   mantel   of   the   • SLR   which   may   cause   loss   of   some   coral   species  
Runit   Dome   releasing   Plutonium-­‐239   unable  to  react  to  the  changes.  
radioactive   waste   into   the   Pacific   Ocean.  
84,000  cubic  metres  of  this  radioactive  waste  is   • Changes   to   the   water   lens   because   of   SLR,   with   a  
stored  temporary  in  the  Runit  Dome,  in  view  of   resultant  loss  of  drinking  water  security.  
a   permanent   solution,   which   decades   later  
remain  elusive.  Enewetak  atoll  was  the  scene  of   • Loss   of   land   for   human   habitation,   resulting   in  
43   atomic   bombs   tested   and   much   of   the   migration  to  already  over-­‐crowded  population  centers.  
lagoon   sediments   is   believed   to   contain   the  
fallout  of  radionuclides.  In  2015,  Tropical  Storm  
• Loss  of  land  for  agroforestry,  with  a  resultant  loss  in  
Nangka  caused  a  surge  of  lagoon  water  to  flood   food  security.  
across  the  resettled  island  of  Enewetak  causing   • Release   of   thousands   of   cubic   yards   of   radioactive  
concerns   for   local   residents   on   possible  
contamination  of  their  homes  and  lands.     debris  from  the  nuclear  testing  (Case  Study  3)  
• Damage   to   infrastructure   including   cultural  
important  sites  
• Reduced  rainfall  affecting  water  availability  

22  
 
 3.3  Invasive  Species  

Invasive  species  are  one  of  the  biggest  threats  to  biodiversity  in  
RMI,   including   predation   on   the   endemic   Mule.   Other   impacts  
include   those   on   economic   revenue,   e.g.   lower   crop  
productivity,   reduced   export   potential,   and   habitat   change.  
Social   impacts   include   increased   human   labor   costs,   reduced  
aesthetic   value,   loss   of   culturally   important   species   including  
traditional   medicines,   and   increased   erosion   affecting   water  
cycles   and   supply.   A   study   conducted   in   RMI   in   2015   recorded  
523   alien   species   that   impact   the   environment,   as   invasive   and   Fig.  18:  Animals  vs  plants  as  invasive  
potentially  invasive  species.  Most  are  terrestrial  plants.   species  in  RMI  

Of   the   523   alien   species,   41   are   animals,   the   remainder   is   plants   (Fig.   18).   The   most   harmful   ones   to  
native  flora  and  fauna  are  cats  and  rats.  Many  land  and  marine  invasive  species,  plants  or  animals  are  
threatening  the  biodiversity.  The  invasive  species  are  unevenly  distributed  across  the  nation.  Eight  atolls  
have   more   than   fifty   identified   invasives;   these   include   Arno,   Enewetak,   Jaluit,   Kili,   Kwajalein,   Majuro,  
Mili  and  Wotje.  Majuro  and  Kwajalein  have  the  highest  number  of  invasives,  244  and  187  respectively,  
as  the  two  atolls  are  the  main  ports  of  entry  to  the  country.  Once  an  invasive  species  establishes  itself,  
eradication   and   control   can   be   extremely   difficult   and   costly.   The   well-­‐established   Merremia   vine,   the  
yellow   crazy   ant   and   red-­‐vented   bulbul   bird   are   already   having   negative   impacts   by   taking   over  
ecosystem   niches.   RMI   strengthened   its   management   of   Invasive   Alien   Species   (IAS)   and   has   its   own  
cross-­‐sectoral  IAS  Committee.  RMI  is  a  member  of  the  Micronesia  Regional  Invasive  Species  Council,  and  
joined   with   FSM,   Palau,   CNMI,   Guam   and   Hawaii   to   develop   the   Micronesia   and   Hawaii   Regional  
Biosecurity  plan.  In  2015,  RMI  approved  its  National  Invasive  Species  Strategy  and  Action  Plan  (NISSAP)  
and  has  completed  a  desktop  survey  of  IAS  in  priority  sites.  The  cross-­‐sectoral  IAS  Committee  is  also  a  
member  of  the  Pacific  wide  –  Pacific  Invasives  Learning  Network  (PILN).    

Biosecurity  procedures  exist  at  international  ports  of  entry  and  there  is  capacity  in  Early  Detection  Rapid  
Response  (EDRR).  There  are  also  weed  management  actions  on  Majuro,  Bikini  and  Kili  atolls  (Moverley,  
2016).  Border  responses  are  driven  by  economic  pests;  e.g.  African  snail  and  oriental  fruit  fly,  but  there  
is   a   need   to   increase   support   for   invasives   that   do   not   have   a   perceived   economic   impact.   A   National  
Biodiversity  Steering  Committee  has  been  established,  and  with  the  new  NISSAP,  RMI  has  a  plan  in  place  
to   address   the   threats   on   invasive   species.   RMI   has   endorsed   their   participation   in   the   Regional   GEF6  
Invasive  Species  Project  with  a  contribution  of  US$1m  –  this  will  improve  the  current  situation  and  also  
shows  the  political  will  to  improve.  

3.4  Overharvesting  

Bigeye   tuna   is   of   particular   concern   because   the   recent   2015   assessment   reports   that   bigeye   catch   is  
well   above   its   maximum   sustainable   yield   and   is   considered   overfished,   with   only   16%   biomass   pre-­‐
harvest  remaining  (FFA  2015).  Albacore  is  vulnerable  to  being  overfished  as  longline  catch  continues  to  
increase   dramatically.   In   addition,   yellowfin   is   considered   fully   exploited   with   no   room   for   expansion  
(WCPFC   yearbook,   2014).   The   RMI   pelagic   fishery   is   dominated   by   skipjack   tuna,   followed   by   bigeye   and  

23  
 
 yellowfin.  Skipjack  tuna  harvest  data  from  2002  shows  a  maximum  catch  of  35,000  tons,  with  an  average  
catch  of  about  18,000  tons.  Regionally,  both  bigeye  and  yellowfin  are  at  risk.  According  to  the  Western  
and  Central  Pacific  Fisheries  Commission  (WCPFC),  bigeye  is  subject  to  overfishing  and  yellowfin  stocks  
are  vulnerable  to  overfishing  (WCPFC,  2014).  

By-­‐catch  represents  over  1000  mt  per  year,  composed  primarily  of  blue  marlin,  followed  by  wahoo  and  
mahimahi.  The  highest  by-­‐catch  was  recorded  in  2010  where  over  1,150  mt  was  caught.  Although  the  
numbers  of  annual  by-­‐catches  seems  low,  over  time  if  the  trends  increase,  it  can  have  major  negative  
impacts  on  these  untargeted  fish  species.  There  is  a  need  for  better  fishing  practices  to  control,  better  
manage  and  determine  the  status  of  these  fish  species.    

The   leading   cause   of   overfishing   is   economic   exploitation.   Unsustainable   fishing   leads   to   a   collapse   in  
stocks  which  balance  the  marine  ecosystem.  The  removal  of  key  species  like  sharks,  that  maintain  the  
trophic   balance,   can   impact   the   inshore   and   offshore   ecosystems.   A   third   of   shark   populations  
worldwide  are  considered  endangered  under  the  IUCN  Red  List.  Prior  to  the  shark  ban,  up  to  250  metric  
tons   of   shark   per   year   were   either   caught   as   by-­‐catch   or   targeted.   Shark   harvesting   in   the   Pacific   is  
mainly  of  silky,  hammerhead,  white-­‐tip  and  blue  sharks,  all  of  which  are  classified  by  the  IUCN  as  near-­‐
threatened.   Shark   populations   are   extremely   vulnerable   to   overfishing   because   sharks   grow   very   slowly,  
and  have  a  much  lower  capacity  to  reproduce  than  other  bony  fish  species.  

RMI   is   a   member   of   the   Parties   to   the   Nauru   Agreement   (PNA)   and   the   Forum   Fisheries   Agency   (FFA)  
and   is   signatory   to   some   international   maritime   conventions   and   treaties.   The   RMI   tuna   fishery   is  
managed  under  PNA’s  Vessel  Day  Scheme  (VDS),  where  member  countries  agreed  to  limit  the  number  
of  fishing  days.  The  number  of  fishing  days  are  then  allocated  to  each  country  and  sold  to  the  highest  
bidder.   The   PNA   has   benefitted   RMI’s   economy   and   its   marine   resources.  RMI  is  also  part  of  the   Niue  
treaty   which   was   ratified   in   1995.   Under   the   treaty,   the   members   of   the   FFA   agreed   to   enhance   the  
ability   of   surveillance   and   enforcement   of   their   fisheries   laws   by   working   together   to   address   illegal  
fishing  and  other  unlawful  activities.    

Much   like   the   oceanic   sharks,   reef   sharks   are   susceptible   to   fishing   pressure   and   are   more   likely   to  
decline   in   number   in   highly   populated   areas.   They   are   an   important   apex   predator   to   the   marine  
ecosystem  as  they  help  to  maintain  the  healthy  function  of  the  reef  ecosystem.  Namdrik  and  Rongelap  
have   three   times   more   sharks   compared   to   Majuro   which   has   the   most   development   and   highest  
population  density  in  RMI.  

3.5  Solid  and  Hazardous  W aste  

Management   of   solid   waste   is   improving   since  

concerted   efforts   were   put   in   place   from   2007  
(Fig.   19).   Recent   figures   collated   in   2011  
indicated  that  58%  of  waste  is  taken  to  landfill  
with   the   rest   being   dumped   into   pits,   burnt,  
composted   or   dumped   at   sea.   Collection   of  
waste  takes  place  only  on  the  two  main  centers  
of   Majuro   and   Ebeye,   but   even   then   it   doesn’t  

24  
 
Fig.  19:  Solid  and  hazardous  waste  status  and  trend  showing  
improvement  in  how  this  is  managed  in  RMI.  [source:  SOE  2016]  
cover  all  of  the  households.  Residents  on  the  Laura  side  of  the  island  transport  their  own  waste  to  the  
landfill   or   dispose   of   it   by   burying   and   burning.   A   total   of   668   illegal   or   unauthorized   dumpsites   were  
recorded   in   2011.   Unregulated   dumpsites   are   putting   more   pressure   on   the   surrounding   areas   which  
leads  to  other  social,  environmental  and  health  issues.    

Managing   the   landfill   and   the   waste   is   very   expensive.   Operations   are  
funded  by  commercial  collection  and  recycling  activities  (14%)  with  the  
remainder   of   the   funds   subsidised   by   the   Compact   arrangement,  
bilateral   and   other   outside   donors   (86%).   The   projections   for  
operational   costs   were   to   increase   by   40%   due   to   the   costs   of   a   new  
landfill.   The   increase   in   waste   generation   is   influenced   by   increased  
population   in   Majuro   and   changes   in   the   consumption   of   goods.   It   is  
estimated  that  about  1kg  of  waste  is  generated  by  individual  on  a  daily  
basis   (See   Fig.   20   for   a   breakdown   of   waste   types).   This   rate   is  
Fig.  20:  Types  of  waste  and  volume  
generated   considerably   higher   when   compared   to   other   urban   areas   in   the   Pacific.  
More  inorganic  goods  are  entering  the  country,  without  an  increase  in  
recycling   options.   The   landfill   has   also   reached   its   carrying   capacity   in   2011,   but   the   continuing   use  
makes  it  the  highest  elevation  in  RMI.  This  has  also  put  stress  on  the  retaining  wall  therefore  making  it  
vulnerable   to   sea   water   incursion.   A   big   proportion   of   the   waste   is   organic   or   compostable   waste  
(cardboard,  paper,  green  waste  and  kitchen  waste).    

The  impact  of  this  issue  includes  the  leaching  of  pollutants  into  the  surrounding  land,  sea  and  ground-­‐
water.   It   also   contributes   to   greenhouse   gas   emissions   due   to   waste   decomposition.   Furthermore   it  
attracts  disease  ridden  animals  and  therefore  a  source  for  diseases  to  the  surrounding  population.    

Hazardous  wastes  encompass  a  wide  variety  and  types  of  material  including  e-­‐waste  (electronic),  white  
goods,  medical,  asbestos,  batteries  and  household  items  (paints,  pesticides  and  chemicals).   Most  of  the  
hazardous  wastes  are  collected  as  general  waste  and  taken  to  Majuro  landfill.  However,  there  is  still  a  
lot  not  known  on  the  fate  of  hazardous  waste  but  it  is  suspected  that  most  are  being  illegally  dumped.  
Medical   wastes   are   incinerated   with   the   ash   buried   in   multiple   cement   lined   pits.   There   has   been   an  
influx   in   e-­‐wastes   due   to   high   importation   of   electronic   goods.   Most   are   illegally   dumped   in   private  
property   or   in   the   general   waste.   Another   important   hazardous   wastes   include   radioactive   nuclear  
wastes  that  was  a  legacy  of  World  War  2  (see  Case  Study  4).    

Case  Study  4  
   
Ea t  a t  yo ur  pe ril  
A  study  to  determine  if  the  concentrations  of  metals,  pesticides  and  polychlorinated  
biphenyls  (PCBs)  pose  an  unacceptable  risk  to  humans  who  consume  fish  from  islets  in  
the  southern  portion  of  Kwajalein  Atoll  found:  
• Contaminant  concentrations  were  higher  in  fish/water  collected  from  Kwajalein  
Habor  
• Concentrations  of  PCBs  and  pesticides  in  fish  tissue  exceed  available  screening  
guidelines  for  the  protection  of  human  health  
• Fish  ingestion  poses  unacceptable  cancer  risk  to  Marshallese  who  fish  from  
Kwajalein  and  Meck  harbors  
• Contaminant  concentrations  in  lagoon  reef  fish  may  adversely  affect  public  health,  
the  marine  environment,  and  protected  beneficial  uses  of  surface  waters  
Study  recommended  a  continuing  banned  in  taking  fish  from  Kwajalein  harbour,  and  the  
ban  to  extend  to  Meck  and  Illeginni  harbors.  
25  
Study  further  recommend  halting  any  discharge  of  contaminants  into  the  sea.    
 
  

3.6  Loss  of  traditional  conservation  practices  

Traditional   conservation   practices,   governed   by   Iroij   (chiefs),   were   designed   to   protect   and   manage  
natural   resources   in   order   to   secure   reliable   food   supplies.   The   erosion   of   traditional   resource  
management  has  negative  implications  for  biodiversity  in  the  Marshall  Islands.  Today  many  of  the  iroij  
no   longer   live   on   the   atolls   they   represent,   and   few   atoll   communities   have   living   memory   of   traditional  
taboo   or   mo.   In   some   cases,   the   loss   of   knowledge,   absence   of   the   iroij   and   a   lack   of   enforcement   of  
traditional  practices  has  led  to  unchecked  harvesting  of  marine  resources.  

4.0   Impact   of   the   changes   in   biodiversity   for   ecosystem   services   and   the   socio-­‐economic  
and  cultural  aspects  of  these  impacts.  
Changes   in   biodiversity   can   have   a   serious   impact   on   ecosystem   services,   socio-­‐economic   and   cultural  
aspects  for  the  people  of  RMI,  who  are  dependent  on  70%  of  their  daily  nutrition  from  inshore  and  coral  
reef  species.  The  following  impacts  are  identified.  

• Loss   of   inshore   and   coral   reefs   and   reef   biodiversity   will   directly   affect   the   availability   of  
essential  food  to  the  people.  

These  losses  can  be  caused  by:  

• Habitat  destruction  from  coastal  development  

• Overfishing  and  non-­‐regulation  of  the  subsistence  fishery  
• Use  of  destructive  fishing  methods  
• Coral  and  sand  mining  
• Pollution,  especially  in  urban  and  highly  populated  areas    
• Dredging  and  construction  of  causeways  
• Presence  of  invasive  species  
• Climate   variability,   including   sea   level   rise,   coral   bleaching   caused   by   increase   in   sea   surface  
temperature,  increasing  ocean  acidity  
• Increase  in  intensity  and  frequency  of  typhoons  

Loss  of  terrestrial  resources  such  as  forests  and  marshlands  will  reduce  already  limited  areas  available  
for  agroforestry.  These  losses  are  exacerbated  by:  

• Urbanization  and  habitat  destruction  

• Poor  waste  disposal  and  waste  management  
• Damage  from  typhoons  
• Flooding  caused  by  sea  level  rise  

Loss  of  iconic  species  including  endemic  species  can  result  in  loss  of  cultural  aspects  of  life  such  as:  

• Loss  of  the  Mule  

• Reductions  in  turtle  numbers  
• Reductions  or  loss  of  Giant  clam  species  

26  
 
 • Reductions  in  key  predators  such  as  sharks  
• Depletion   of   important   fish   stocks   such   as   Bigeye   Tuna   or   other   tuna   species   through   over-­‐
fishing.  This  will  result  if  major  losses  of  income  over  the  longer-­‐term.  
• Increasing  scarcity  of  the  Whale  Shark  

In  terms  of  social    and  lifestyle  changes,  there  will  be  a  shift  in  nutritional  uptake  as  people  relies  more  
on  imported  goods.  This  can  lead  to  health  issues,  and  is  exacerbated  by  the  land  becoming  less  usable  
for  physical  activities  due  to  sea  level  rise,  waste  including  radioactive  wastes.    

Mitigating  measures  are  well  in  motion  including  the  Reimaanlok  National  Plan  for  conservation,  specific  
plans  for  protection  of  forests,  coral  reefs  and  iconic  species  such  as  turtles,  sharks,  and  Mules.    

PART   2.   The   national   biodiversity   strategy   and   action   plan,   its  

implementation,  and  the  mainstreaming  of  biodiversity    
 

5.0   Republic  of  the  Marshall  Islands  Biodiversity  Targets  

RMI  completed  its  first  national  biodiversity  strategy  and  action  plan  in  2000.  It  submitted  two  national  
reports   to   the   CBD   Secretariat   (https://www.cbd.int/reports/).   This   report   provides   an   update   of   the  
current  status  of  biodiversity  and  ecosystem  services  of  RMI  and  highlight  achievements  and  activities  to  
align  national  goals  with  the  global  strategic  plan  and  the  Aichi  Targets  

Since  the  development  and  endorsement  of  the  NBSAP  in  2000,  RMI  embarked  on  the  development  of  
its   national   conservation   area   plan   or   Reimaanlok.   The   Reimaanlok   builds   on   the   NBSAP   process  
providing   the   overarching   framework   for   conservation   area   planning   in   the   country.   It   recognizes   the  
good  will  of  the  government,  communities  and  civil  society  towards  establishing  conservation  areas  for  
the   protection   of   biodiversity,   as   well   as   for   the   use   by   the   people.   Reimaanlok   also   became   a   key  
instrument  for  RMI’s  response  towards  its  commitment  to  the  Micronesian  Challenge.  A  regional  review  
of   NBSAPs   in   the   Pacific   was   undertaken   in   2007,   which   included   RMI.   The   review   noted   the   lack   of  
targets   and   indicators   in   many   of   the   countries’   NBSAPs   including   RMI   (Carter   2007).   RMI’s   current  
NBSAP  contains  16  goals  and  46  actions.  
Fine  scale  conservation   Type  1   Type  2   Percentage   Although   these   goals   and   actions   are  
targets/  special  features   Goal   Goal   under   broad,   they   provide   guidance   for   the  
  conservation  
Terrestrial   government   sectors   and   national  
Bird  Island   100%   50%   41%   stakeholders   to   engage   with   their  
Breadfruit  forest  mā   100%   0%     implementation.    
Climax   forest   communities:   20%   10%    
kanal  and  kōjbar  
In   2006,   RMI   endorsed   ambitious  
Mangrove  area   90%     25%  
Permphis  acidula  forest   100%   50%     regional   targets   through   the   Micronesia  
Pond   60-­‐80%   -­‐     Challenge   including   establishing   20%   of  
Shrubland  and  grassland   100%   50%    
terrestrial   and   30%   of   nearshore   marine  
Turtle  nesting  beach   100%   100%   27%  
Windward  forest     100%   -­‐     resources   for   effective   conservation   by  
Marine   the   year   2020.   It   has   further   developed  
Clam  site   50%   30%    
national   targets   under   the   Reimaanlok  
Fish   spawning   aggregation   100%   -­‐    
area  
Point   with   extended   ocean   30%   -­‐    
reef  bōke  
27  
 Reef  hole  nam   30%   -­‐    
Seagrass  meadow     100%   -­‐    
 
Table  4:  Conservation  goals  for  fine-­‐scale  conservation  targets  
2008  –  A  Blueprint  for  national  conservation  in  Marshall  Islands,  identifying  two  types  of  conservation  
areas  (see  Fig.  21)  and  the  resolution  of  conservation  targets  (see  Fig.  22).    

The   national   targets   illustrated   in   tables   4   and   5   show   that   RMI   is   well   on   its   way   to   meeting   and  
exceeding   the   Aichi   Target   11.   Refining   the   resolution   for   protected   areas   to   coarse,   fine   and   species  
scale   helps   in   ensuring   effective   management   strategies   are   used   utilized   to   target   specific   conservation  
outcomes.    

Local   conservation   efforts   are   also   in   place   for   the   conservation   of   threatened   species   to   ensure   of   their  
survival.   The   Micronesia   pigeon   or   Mule   is   one   example   (see   Case   Study   4;   Fig.   23)   where   only   a   few  
breeding  pairs  found  in  a  2007  were  protected  and  allowed  to  recover  to  over  80  individuals  two  years  
later.    

Coarse   scale   Conservation   Type   1   Type   2   Total   Area   Existing  

Targets  /  environmental  units   Goal   Goal   (km2)   conservation   areas  
(%  of  total)  
Terrestrial  (Land)   181.9   16%  
Agroforests   50%   -­‐      
Indigenous   broadleaf   80%   10%      
forests  
Wetlands   80%   -­‐      
Marine  (Nearshore  Marine)   14066.6   18%  
Deep  lagoon   30%   0-­‐5%   10239.7   17%  
Lagoon  pinnacles   30-­‐40%   0-­‐15%   77.8    
Lagoon  slope   50%   0-­‐15%   1120.4   23%  
Ocean  leeward  reef  liklal   30-­‐50%   0-­‐10%   627.3   17%  
Ocean  reef   100%   -­‐      
Ocean  seabed   -­‐   -­‐      
Ocean  windward  reef   30-­‐50%   0-­‐10%      
Pelagic  system   -­‐   -­‐      
Reef  flat   30-­‐50%   0-­‐10%   1354.6   23%  
Reef  pass  and  channel   80-­‐100%   0-­‐30%   646.7   21%  
 
 
Table  5:  Conservation  goals  for  coarse-­‐scale  conservation  targets  

Type   I   –   Subsistence   Only.   This   area   is   managed   for   a. Coarse-­‐scale   conservation   targets:   broad  
subsistence   non-­‐commercial   use.   In   international   categorization   of   habitats   and   ecosystems  
standards  this  relates  to  IUCN  Category  VI   –   Managed   that  encompass  all  the  biota  of  the  Marshall  
Resource  Protected  Area.  The   management  area  may   Islands.  
include   some   Type   II   –   Special   Reserve   no-­‐take   or    
highly   restricted   areas   as   part   of   the   management   b. Fine-­‐scale   conservation   targets:   important  
regime.   areas   for   species   targets,   rare   or   imperiled  
communities,  places  of  cultural   significance.  
Type   II   –   Special   Reserve.   This   area   is   subject   to   a    
high   level   protection,   and   occasionally   a   very   low   c. Species   conservation   targets:   threatened  
level   of   subsistence   or   special   occasion   activities.   In   species,   endemic/restricted   range,   flagship  
international  standards,  this  relates  to  IUCN  Category   species,   species   of   cultural   significance   and  
Ib  –  Wilderness  Area.  Examples  of  this  are  the  atolls   species  of  economic  importance.  
of   Ailinginae   and   Bikini   that   have   high   levels   of  
protection  and  restrictions  on  human  activities.    

Fig.  21:  Conservation  area  types   Fig.  22:  Conservation  targets  scale  
28  
 
  

6.0   NBSAP  targets  and  biodiversity  mainstreaming    

A   number   of   existing   plans   and   initiatives   addresse   components   of   the   Aichi   Targets,   especially   the  
national   conservation   areas   plan   or   Reimaanlok.   See   Appendix   3   for   more   information   on   RMI’s  
response  to  the  Aichi  Targets.  Examples  of  responses  by  RMI  include  the  participation  of  community  and  
developing   financial   arrangements.   This   is   in   line   with   the   Aichi   target   20   (resource   mobilization)   and  
targets   17   and   18   (community   participation).   Aichi   target   1   on   awareness   raising   is   included   as   a   key  
activity   of   local   officers   working   with   communities   on   threatened   species.   In   addition,   education   and  
awareness   are   being   built   into   the   community-­‐based   fisheries   and   resource   management   planning  
including   the   RARE   Pride   campaign   (utilization   of   charismatic   flagship   species   to   build   local   pride)   and  
Just  Act  Natural  (raising  awareness  on  cultural  and  natural  heritage  through  theatre).    

Case  Stu d y  4  
 
M ul e  -­‐  th e  Rat ak  M icro ne sian  Pi ge o n  
Management  plans  are  yet  to  be  put  in  place  for  a  number  of  species  e.g.  
Ratak   Micronesian   Pigeon   or   known   locally   as   Mule   (Ducula   oceanica  
ratakensis),  which  is  extinct  in  other  atolls.  One  other  endemic  land  bird  
was  the  Wake  rail  (Gallirallus  wakensis)  which  became  extinct  from  Wake  
and  Wilkes  atolls  shortly  after  World  War  2.  In  2006,  the  Marshall  Islands  
Conservation   Society   (MICS)   initiated   a   project   to   restore   the   Mule  
population.   The   Mule   plays   a   vital   role   in   distributing   the   seeds   of   the  
Mejwan  (seeded  breadfruit  tree).  The  population  of  Mule  declined  to  just  
eight  breeding  pairs  due  to  the  loss  of  habitat  (removal  of  native  trees),  
human  activity  and  predators  (mainly  rats  and  cats).  The  Mule  campaign  
made   significant   progress   in   population   recovery   where   80   birds   were   Fig.  23:  Ratak  Micronesian  
recorded   two   years   after   the   campaign.   The   restoration   of   their  natural   Pigeon  
habit   and   community   awareness   campaigns   made   a   big   difference   with  
the  numbers  of  Mule  increasing.  
It   is   highly   recommended   that   conservation   and   management   plans   are  
prioritized   for   these   threatened   species.   It   is   highly   recommended   that  
traditional  knowledge  on  biodiversity  is  taught  in  the  schools.  By  doing  so,  
the   traditional   knowledge   and   practice   of   conserving   the   natural  
surroundings  can  be  revived  to  help  preserve  the  Marshallese  traditions  
and  heritage.  

The   establishment   of   the   Coastal   Management   Advisory   Council   in   2006   is   one   of   the   strongest  
mainstreaming  tool  employed  by  RMI,  whereby  a  cross-­‐sectoral  working  group  of  people  from  a  range  
of   organizations,   all   with   a   common   interest   in   the   conservation,   development   and   management   of  
coastal  and  marine  resources.  CMAC  as  the  name  suggests,  is  an  advisory  and  coordination  body,  with  
activities  carried  out  under  the  member  organizations.  This  ensures  that  resources  are  maximized  and  
that  everyone  is  aware  of  who’s  working  where  and  with  what  community.  Members  of  CMAC  include:  

• Marshall  Islands  Marine  Resources  Authority  

• RMI  Environmental  Protection  Agency  

29  
 
 • College  of  the  Marshall  Islands  
• Marshall  Islands  Visitors  Authority  
• Office  of  Environmental  Planning  and  Policy  Coordination  
• Marshall  Islands  Conservation  Society  
• Natural  Resources  Assessments  Surveys  Marshall  Islands  

Core  roles  of  these  organisations  are  provided  in  Fig.  25.  Other  organizations  will  be  added  as  part  of  the  
ongoing  engagement  process.  

One   of   the   components   under   the   CBD   is   the   use   of   living   modified   organisms   (LMOs),   which   is   also  
covered  under  international  agreement  such  as  the  International  Treaty  on  Plant  Genetic  Resources  and  
importantly  the  Cartagena  Protocol.  A  comprehensive  legislative  review  of  this  issue  in  Marshall  Islands  
found   many   deficiencies,   but   provided   some   clear   recommendations   on   how   this   could   be   addressed  
with   the   existing   national   framework.   The   review   recommended   the   development   of   a   National  
Biosafety   Framework   with   several   components   including   a   coherent   government   policy,   regulatory  
regime,  permitting  system,  monitoring  and  enforcement  regime  and  a  public  awareness,  education  and  
participation   programme.   The   review   highlighted   the   importance   of   working   with   other   sectors  
including  public  health,  agriculture,  biosecurity,  customs,  legal  and  fisheries.  A  cross-­‐sector  framework  
was   further   recommended   as   a   mean   of   overseeing   biosafety   development   in   RMI.   This   included   the  
central  role  being  spearheaded  by  the  Quarantines  Research  &  Development  section,  with  oversight  by  
the   Environment   Protection   Authority,   MIMRA   and   OEPPC.   Hence   a   working   group   should   be  
established  with  support  from  cabinet.    

7.0   Actions  taken  to  implement  CBD  and  outcomes  

The   RMI   government   has   instituted   a   number   of   important   conservation   measures   that   fall   within   its  
obligations   and   commitments   to   CBD.   These   measures   can   broadly   be   categorized   in   the   following   –  
policy   level   actions,   legislative   and   regulatory   framework,   strategies   and   action   plans,   conservation  
implementation,  and  resource  mobilization.    

7.1  Legislative  &  regulatory  framework  

In  2011  RMI  made  a  bold  move  by  declaring  the  whole  of  its  exclusive  economic  zone  (EEZ)  as  a  shark  
sanctuary.   This   places   a   ban   on   all   activities   associated   with   harvesting   sharks   (shark   finning   and  
possession  of  shark  fins  and  body  parts)  for  commercial  purposes.  Prior  to  this  declaration,  about  183-­‐
250   metric   tons   of   sharks   were   caught   annually   from   2005   to   2011.   Even   the   iconic   Whale   shark  
(Rhincodon   typus)   listed   as   vulnerable   under   the   IUCN   Red   List   was   occasionally   caught   in   fishing   nets  
from  purse  seiners.  After  the  declaration  no  shark  catch  was  recorded  in  2012.  RMI’s  shark  conservation  
effort  is  echoed  by  the  rest  of  Micronesia  provide  a  safe-­‐haven  for  sharks  in  the  region.    

The   passing   of   the   protected  area  network   (PAN)   legislation   in   2015   allows   protected   area   managers   to  
join   the   national   network,   which   allows   them   to   access   funding   from   the   RMI’s   Micronesia   Challenge  
Endowment   Fund.   A   further   commitment   by   the   government   to   establish   its   own   PAN   Fund   with  
additional  sources  of  local  funds  (e.g.  through  fisheries  fees,  visitor  fees,  etc.).    

30  
 
RMI   has   joined   forces   with   other   Micronesian   countries   in   building   its   capacity   through   Conservation  
Enforcement   Alliance   training   supported   by   MCT,   PIMPAC,   the   Pew   Charitable   Trusts   and   the   Nature  
Conservancy.  This  is  a  critical  gap  and  a  priority  action  under  the  RMI’s  NBSAP.  

7.2  Strategies  and  action  plans  

Another   significant   milestone   for   RMI   is   At oll     MMA  Sites     Ma nag e me nt  ty pe     Km 2    
the   development   of   its   national   Ailuk     6     Subsistence  with  a  Whole   24.08    
blueprint   for   conservation   or   the   Atoll  management  plan  in  
place.    
Reimaanlok  –  the  national  conservation   Rongelap     Whole  atoll     Subsistence  only     2787.48    
area   plan.   Reimaanlok   presents   a   clear   Ailinginae     Whole  atoll     Special  Reserve  –  No  take     1024.74    
Bikini     Whole  atoll     Special  Reserve  –  No  take     2032.87    
roadmap   of   the   way   forward   for  
Arno     16     4  No  Take,  12  Subsistence   62.25    
conservation   in   RMI.   The   blueprint   with  a  management  plan  in  
provides   a   strategic   guide   towards   place    
Jaluit     21     14  No  Take,  7  Subsistence   127.4    
addressing   the   ambitious   targets   of   the   with  a  conservation  plan  in  
Micronesia   Challenge.   It   outlines   the   place  (Ramsar  site)    
principles,  process  and  guidelines  for  the   Rongerik     Whole  atoll     Special  Reserve  –  No  take     1002.38    
Kwajalein     2     Special  Reserve  –  No  take   7.77    
design,   establishment   and   management   with  management  plan  in  
of   conservation   areas   that   are   fully   place    
owned,   led   and   endorsed   by   local   Mili     3     Not  specified  -­‐  traditional  Mo     96.10    
Namdrik     1     Not  stated,  with  management   16.19    
communities   based   on   their   needs,   plan  (Ramsar  Site)    
values  and  cultural  heritage.   Likiep     2     Management  Plan     0.31    
Majuro     5     Special  Reserve  –  No  take   2.59    
The  revitalization  of  ‘Mo’  the  traditional   with  different  management  
plans    
tool   used   for   conservation   of   resources   Wotje     Whole  atoll     Special  Reserve  –  No  take     624    
has   given   additional   mana   to   modern   Erikub     Whole  atoll     Traditional  Mo  Site,   230    
conservation   efforts   by   recognizing   the   important  turtle  nesting  
ground,  control  by  
value   and   role   of   iroji   (chiefs)   in   Paramount  chief  (Iroijlaplap  
community   affairs.   This   has   made   it   Remios  Hermios)    
 
possible   to   gain   traction   for   establish  
Table  6:  Marine  managed  sites  in  RMI  
community  based  conservation  areas.    

The  development  and  update  of  the  State  of  Environment  report  2016  provides  RMI  a  clear  framework  
in   achieving   sustainable   development   through   addressing   key   drivers   for   biodiversity   loss,   threats   and  
environmental   degradation.   The   recommendations   contained   under   each   of   the   drivers   provide  
practical  guidance  for  RMI  and  stakeholders  in  order  to  secure  their  future  and  achieve  their  vision.    

Marshall  Islands  now  has  in  place  a  National  Invasive  Species  Strategy  and  Action  Plan  (NISSAP)  2016  -­‐  
2021   which   was   developed   as   an   output   of   the   GEFPAS   regional   invasive   species   project.   NISSAP’s  
overarching   goal   is   to   conserve   and   protect   biodiversity,   food   security,   livelihoods,   health,   sustainable  
development,  economics  and  resilience  to  climate  change  by  preventing  the  introduction  of  new  alien  
invasive   species   to   the   contry,   limiting   further   spread   of   invasive   species   within   the   country   and  
managing  existing  invasive  species  including  eradication  when  feasible.  The  NISSAP  also  aims  at  ensuring  
that  Marshall  Islands  responds  to,  and  contribute  to  the  achievement  of  the  Aichi  Target  9.  

31  
 
 7.3  Conservation  implementation    

RMI  places  high  priority  on  marine  conservation  areas,  with  about  70%  (or  over  8,000  km2)  of  the  reef  
being  conserved.  The  number  of  marine  managed  areas  is  considerable  (Table  6)  and  includes  various  
types  of  land  and  seascapes.  Of  these,  57  are  specified  areas  within  the  atolls,  and  six  are  whole  atoll  
marine  managed  areas:  Bikini,  Ailinginae,  Rongelap,  Rongerik,  Wotje,  and  Erikub  atolls.    

Terrestrial   protected   areas   is   currently   estimated   at   15%   of   land   area.   A   total   of   36   terrestrial   protected  
areas  on  13  atolls,  of  which  six  are  listed  as  whole-­‐atoll  protected  areas,  whereas  the  other  seven  have  
specified   protected   sites.   RMI   continues   to   make   good   progress   towards   achieving   it’s   commitment  
under  the  Micronesia  Challenge  (20%  target),  whereas  it  has  exceeded  the  Aichi  Target.  

There  are  plans  and  guidelines  that  cover  89%  of  marine  managed  areas.  They  range  from  fisheries  and  
resources   management   plans,   atoll   conservation   plans,   and   coastal   zone   management   plans   (the  
exception   is   Bikini   Atoll   which   is   a   World   Heritage   site).   Two   plans   are   being   developed   for   Ene   Kalamur  
and   Bokanbotin   on   Majuro,   while   Woja   Conservation   Area   is   developing   an   Alternative   Livelihoods  
program.   The   management   of   the   marine   managed   areas   is   overseen   by   local   governments   and/   or  
Local  Resources  Committees,  with  technical  support  provided  by  CMAC.    

7.4  Knowledge  development  

MPA  management  effectiveness  studies  have  been  undertaken  in  several  sites  –  Ailuk,  Jaluit,  Namdrik,  
Anenuaan   on   Likiep,   and   Woja   Conservation   Area   and   Bikirin   on   Majuro.   Similar   studies   are   being  
developed  for  Enekalamur  and  Bokanbotin,  also  on  Majuro.    

7.5  Resource  mobilization  

The  RMI  government  has  made  a  number  of  financial  commitments  and  undertakings  to  invest  more  in  
the   protection   and   conservation   of   its   biodiversity   and   environment.   This   included   investing   into   the  
Micronesia  Challenge  Endowment  Fund,  which  provides  grants  to  communities  in  RMI  and  Micronesia  
for  conservation  work.  The  Global  Environment  Facility  remains  a  key  source  of  funding  for  conservation  
work   in   the   Marshall   Islands   which   has   assisted   in   developing   the   first   NBSAP   for   RMI   including   the  
NISSAP   which   was   developed   under   GEF-­‐4.   A   Ridge   to   Reef   GEF   funded   project   is   being   developed   to  
implement   the   Reimaanlok   National   Conservation   Area   Plan   for   the   Marshall   Islands.   RMI   has   also  
committed   a   significant   proportion   of   its   GEF   6   allocation   towards   addressing   invasive   species,   one   of  
the   main   threats   to   biodiversity.   The   Micronesia   Conservation   Trust   provides   financial   support   to   the  
Micronesia   Challenge   by   supporting   member   countries   including   RMI   in   fund   raising,   investing,  
disbursing   and   managing   the   Micronesia   Challenge   endowment   fund.   A   recent   partnership   between  
MCT  and  the  National  Oceanic  and  Atmospheric  Administration  (NOAA)  sees  surveys  of  coral  reefs  and  
fish   community   as   efforts   to   build   network   of   MPAs   and   strengthen   local   management   capacity   to  
improve  and  maintain  resilience  of  ecosystems.    

32  
 
 8.0   Mainstreaming  of  biodiversity  into  relevant  sectors  
The  RMI’s  Strategic  Development  Plan  (SDP)  Framework  2003-­‐2018  provides  an  overarching  perspective  
towards   sustainable   development   for   the   country.   The   document   was   developed   following   extensive  
consultation   starting   with   a   national   economic   and   social   summit   and   extended   deliberations   by   various  
working  committees  established  by  the  Cabinet.  The  process  of  implementation  of  the  SDP  framework  is  
two-­‐fold   starting   with   developing   master   plans   focusing   on   major   policy   areas,   and   action   plans   for  
Ministries   and   Statutory   agencies.   The   action   planning   will   be   rolled   out   to   include   all   atoll   local  
governments   using   the   overall   SDP   framework   as   a   guide.   The   master   plans   will   cover   a   range   of   sectors  
including   human   resources   development,   outer   islands   development,   culture   and   traditions,  
environment,   resources   and   development,   information   technology,   private   sector   development,  
infrastructure  and  tourism.  Environmental  sustainability  is  one  of  the  10  strategic  goals  for  the  country  
under   the   SDP   framework   (Fig.   24).   The   Environmental   Sustainability   aligns   closely   with   the   goals   and  
objectives  of  RMI’s  NBSAP.    

Goal  10:  Environmental  Sustainability  

An   important   threat   and   an   opportunity   to   mainstream  
biodiversity   through   the   various   sectors   is   presented   by  
(i) Developing   a   regulatory   system   that   can  
concerns   over   climate   change   impacts.   There   is   no   denying  
be   enforced   with   a   high   degree   of  
compliance   at   all   levels,   in   order   to  
that   climate   change   will   adversely   impact   the   lives   of   the  
achieve   the   sustainable   development   of  
people,   as   well   as   the   resources   needed   to   sustain   their   well-­‐
our   natural   resources,   while   protecting  
being.   Part   of   the   country’s   response   to   climate   change   is  
our   environment   from   any   adverse  
impacts;  and     developing   contingency   and   adaptation   plan,   as   well   as  
(ii) Strengthening   the   relevant   institutions  
securing  the  involvement  of  elected  and  traditional  leaders  in  
and   improve   procedural   mechanisms,   so  
climate  change  country  team  (CCCT).  A  nationwide  education  
as   to   be   able   to   secure   the   optimum  
program  will  be  carried  out  to  educate  people  including  the  
support   from   both   international   and  
regional  efforts,  in  minimizing  the  adverse  
private   sector   about   climate   change,   sea   level   rise   and   ozone  
impact  of  climate  change.  
depletion   and   atoll   environment.   These   are   also   milestones  
under   the   Marshall   Islands   commitment   and   progress  
Fig.  24:  Environmental  sustainability   towards  the  Millennium  Development  Goals  (Goal  7  –  Target  
9).   Efforts   will   be   strengthened   to   minimize   environmental  
degradation   and   to   harmonize   development   efforts   with   environmental   protection.   This   includes  
strengthening   institutions   such   as   the   EPA,   HOP   and   other   regulatory   authorities,   as   well   as   laws,  
regulations  and  procedures.  Greater  coordination  and  collaborative  action  among  all  relevant  regulatory  
agencies   in   Government   is   also   advocated.   In   addition,   the   government   will   implement   policies   and  
programs   to   ensure   greater   compliance   to   environmental   protection   laws   and   regulations   from   the  
private   sector   and   the   general   public.   Intensive   public   education   and   awareness   programs   and  
campaigns   will   be   implemented   and   strict   adherence   to   environmental   impact   assessments   for   all   aid  
donors.  Development  of  a  national  waste  management  plan  will  provide  for  the  better  management  of  
wastes  in  communities  and  in  urban  areas.  Education  curriculum  will  also  include  environmental  studies.    

Underpinning  the  mainstreaming  efforts  is  the  need  to  address  barriers  that  have  been  voiced  through  
various   reports,   consultations   and   conversations.   Some   of   the   barriers   are   articulated   in   the   SDP  
framework:  

• Help  ourselves  first  

• Change  in  attitudes  and  behavior  at  all  levels  of  society  

33  
 
 • Build  capacity  and  commit  to  the  principles  of  transparency  and  accountability  
• Promote  innovation  and  competency    
• Rebuild  on  the  lessons  from  our  culture  and  traditions  where  environmental  sustainability  has  
always  been  a  major  consideration  in  the  lives  of  atoll  communities.  

9.0   NBSAP  implementation  progress  

RMI  is  proud  to  have  made  considerable  progress  towards  the  implementation  of  its  NBSAP.  Almost  all  
of  the  16  goals  and  46  actions  have  been  implemented,  although  a  concerted  national  effort  is  needed  
to   collate   the   outcomes   and   achievements.   It   is   also   pleasing   to   note   that   since   the   NBSAP   was  
developed,  many  of  its  goals  and  activities  align  well  with  the  new  Strategic  Biodiversity  Plan  as  well  as  
the  Aichi  Biodiversity  Targets  as  outlined  in  Table  7.  
NBSAP  themes   Relevant   Aichi  
Biodiversity  Targets  
Awareness  raising   Target  1  
Traditional  knowledge   Target  18  
Legislative   review   and   national   Target  17  
consultation    
Resource  management     Targets  1-­‐4,  6,  7,  10-­‐20  
Enforcement     Target  3  
Engagement   of   civil   society   and   other   Target  17  
local  and  national  actors  
Agro-­‐biodiversity     Targets  7,  13  
Food  security  and  adaptation   Targets  13,  16  
Capacity  building   Target  19  
Education   Target  19  
Research  and  knowledge  management   Target  19  
Solid  waste  management  [Aichi  Target  8]   Target  8  
Intellectual   property   rights   [Aichi   Target   Target  16  
16]  
Biosafety   Targets  3,  13,  16  
 
Table  7.    NBSAP  and  Aichi  Targets  
 

In   terms   of   progress   towards   the   implementation   of   the   NBSAP,   a   number   of   achievements   can   be  
demonstrated   (see   below).   Many   of   the   activities   undertaken   by   the   various   government   ministries,  
community  groups  and  civil  society  have  been  carried  out  without  explicit  linkage  to  the  NBSAP.    

• Goal  A1  –  Activate  traditional  ‘Mo’  Conservation  Site.  

Key   activities   under   this   goal   include   raising   awareness   especially   targeting   youth   and   outer  
communities,   documenting   the   knowledge   around   this   traditional   practice   (e.g.   relationship   between  
‘mo’   and   sustainable   use   of   natural   resources,   as   well   as   the   land   tenure),   strengthening   national  
institutions   such   as   the   Alele   Museum   and   national   legislation   to   allow   for   the   declaration   of   ‘mo’   or  
conservation   areas.   The   RMI   Strategic   Development   Plan   2003-­‐2018   (Goal   10:   Objective   5)   –  
Environmental   Sustainability   provides   support   to   the   NBSAP   Goal   by   advocating   the   new   for   a   strong  
regulatory   system   to   protect   the   environment.   Additional   progress   on   this   goal   is   through   the  

34  
 
establishment   of   the   Coastal   Management   Advisory   Council   and   the   development   of   a   strategic   plan.  
Conservation   sites   began   to   increase   including   the   declaration   of   Jaluit   Atoll   Conservation   Area   as   a  
Ramsar  site  in  2004,  the  declaration  of  Ailinginae,  Rongelap  and  Rongerik  as  protected  areas  under  local  
government   ordinances.   Management   plans   were   developed   for   areas   such   as   Likiep   and   Arno   atolls,  
Mili  Conservation  Area  and  Ailuk  Atoll.    

• Goal  A2  –  Imposition  of  fines  and  penalties  on  those  who  destroy  our  resources  

Key   actions   include   revisions   of  

national   legislation   and   local  
government   ordinances   in   order   to  
amalgamate   traditional   and   current  
practices,   review   the   adequacy   of  
fines  and  penalties,  review  resources  
and   build   capacity   to   support   the  
implementation   of   these   actions.   A  
review  of  the  national  legislation  was  
undertaken   during   the   development  
of   the   Reimaanlok.   The   review  
recommended   a   national   level  
legislation   that   provides   for   the  
establishment   and   management   of  
conservation   areas   but   which   is   not  
unnecessarily   demanding   or  
prescriptive.   The   provisions   within  
this   legislation   should   allow   for   soft-­‐
policy,   local   law   and   subsidiary  
regulations   to   develop   detailed  
processes   and   management   regimes  
for   conservation   areas.   These   soft  
policy,   local   law   and   subsidiary  
regulations   should   remain   flexible   Fig.  25:  Agencies  within  CMAC  and  their  roles  
and  be  allowed  to  evolve.  

• Goal  A3  –  People  taking  the  initiatives  in  planting  trees  and  crops  

Three   activities   under   this   strategic   goal   focusing   on   enhancing   agro-­‐biodiversity   and   forestry  
biodiversity  through  engagement  of  youth  and  communities  and  improving  understanding  of  indigenous  
crop  species  and  farming  systems.  A  number  of  biological  surveys  have  been  carried  out  in  various  atolls  
in   RMI   including   surveys   in   Jaluit   in   2000,   Likiep   in   2001,   Ailinginae   and   Bikini   in   2002,   Mili,   Likiep,  
Ailinginae   and   Rongelap   in   2003,   Namu   and   Majuro   in   2004   and   Ailuk   in   2006,   with   the   specific   purpose  
of   helping   to   identify   areas   of   biodiversity   significance   for   the   establishment   of   conservation   areas.  
Furthermore,  Government  has  also  undertaken  research  and  development  and  action  plan  (2005-­‐2010)  

35  
 
and  the  RMI  state  wide  assessment  and  resource  strategy  (2010-­‐2015).  These  documents  are  available  
from  the  US  Forest  Service  website.  

• Goal  B1  –  Training  and  capacity  building  toward  conserving  our  resources  

Activities   including   incorporating   principles   of   sustainable   resource   management   based   on   traditional  

and   modern   knowledge   into   education   system.   Encouraging   more   students   to   study   resource  
management   and   provide   scholarship   to   support   this.   Provide   in-­‐house   training   for   government   staff  
and   decision   makers   in   resource   management   and   to   roll   this   out   to   community.   Progress   of   this   goal  
includes  the  establishment  of  an  Education  and  Awareness  Division  under  the  Environment  Protection  
Agency   (EPA).   This   Division   is   working   with   atoll   local   governments,   donor   agencies,   government  
ministries   and   the   University   of   the   South   Pacific   to   include   resource   management   into   educational  
curriculum.   The   main   responsibility   of   the   Division   is   to   increase   public   awareness   and   understanding   at  
national  and  local  levels  and  to  relay  environmental  issues  and  activities  of  the  EPA  to  schools  and  the  
general   public.   More   information   on   this   work   can   be   found   on  
https://www.facebook.com/rmiepa.outreach/.   Environmental   education   has   also   been   developed   by  
MIMRA  including  turtles  and  reusable  bag  campaign.  Legislation  for  the  protection  of  resources  include  
the  marine  turtle  legislation.  

• Goal  B2  –  Sustainable  fishing  practices  

Three   key   activities   that   are   also   cross-­‐cutting   with   other   strategic   goals   include   research,   awareness  
and   legislative   review.   Progress   made   under   this   strategic   goal   is   included   in   the   other   goals   and  
activities.  

• Goal  C1  –  Apply  traditional  skills  knowledge  

Activities  include  supporting  capacity  building  on  canoe-­‐making  and  handicrafts,  especially  the  work  of  
non-­‐governmental   organisations,   revise   legislation   and   promote   the   benefits   of   using   local   products.  
Considerable  progress  has  been  made  with  regards  to  legislative  review  (refer  to  Reimaanlok),  as  well  as  
progress  in  promoting  traditional  knowledge.    

• Goal  C2  –  Institute  learning  of  the  culture  through  the  traditional  way  of  passing  knowledge  
from  elders  to  the  young,  through  schools,  community  meetings  and  workshops  

Two   activities   include   strengthening   of   school   curriculum   through   the   use   of   traditional   elders   and  
support   of   NGOs.   Progress   in   this   area   has   been   made   through   the   implementation   of   other   activities   of  
the  NBSAP.  

• Goal  C3  –  A  move  toward  more  use  of  local  products  

36  
 
The   two   activities   focus   on   research   for   effective   use   of   local   materials   and   strengthening   of  
governments   initiatives   to   promote   the   use   of   local   products.   The   goal   and   actions   are   similarly  
addressed  under  Goals  D1  and  E1.  

• Goal  D1  –  Self-­‐reliance  through  traditional  values  and  culture  

The   three   activities   are   cross-­‐cutting   in   nature   focusing   on   public   awareness,   strengthening   government  
policies  and  research  to  promote  understanding  of  traditional  knowledge.  There  is  a  link  to  other  goals  
and  actions  focusing  on  discouraging  dependency  on  imported  goods.  The  need  to  combine  traditional  
knowledge  with  modern  ideas  is  also  an  important  consideration  of  this  goal,  which  ties  in  with  actions  
and  goals  (Goals  C3,  D4  and  E1).  The  avenue  to  implement  this  goal  is  presented  through  the  CMAC  as  
well  as  other  national  initiatives.    

• Goal  D2  –  Population  awareness  

One  of  the  interesting  challenges  for  the  country  is  managing  population  growth  and  associated  social  
issues   such   as   employment   and   urban   migration.   Under   this   goal   there   is   a   clear   need   for   providing  
adequate   resources   to   support   the   implementation   of   the   activities.   RMI   continues   to   work   with   the  
private  sector  and  development  partners  to  address  this  challenge.    

• Goal  D3  –  Working  cooperatively  and  justly  with  one  another  

There  was  no  activity  identified  for  this  goal,  given  that  this  is  how  business  is  done  in  RMI.  However,  
the  establishment  of  the  Coastal  Management  Advisory  Committee  (CMAC)  is  an  example  of  what  Goal  
D3  aims  at  achieving  particularly  where  different  organizations  and  people  work  together  cooperatively  
and  collaboratively  for  a  common  purpose.  

• Goal  D4  –  Cleanup  the  Environment    

Activities   include   education   and   awareness   to   encourage   people   to   reduce   their   reliance   on   imported  
products   that   produce   excess   waste,   improve   solid   waste   management,   instituting   government   policy  
on  wastes  from  imported  goods,  improve  legislative  framework  and  promote  reduce,  reuse  and  recycle  
to  public  and  private  sectors.  There  has  been  an  enormous  effort  to  address  solid  and  other  wastes,  as  
well   as   recycling   in   RMI.   The   effort   is   being   challenged   by   the   enormity   of   wastes   being   generated  
especially  in  urban  areas.  About  two-­‐thirds  of  the  waste  makes  it  to  the  landfill  with  the  remainder  still  
being  dumped  in  the  ocean,  backyard  pits  or  burned.  Recycling  at  landfill  stations  is  lacking.  Policies  and  
legislative  framework  have  been  developed  providing  the  blue-­‐print  for  dealing  with  this  challenge.  

• Goal  E1  –  Conservation  of  genetic  diversity  

37  
 
Documenting   traditional   knowledge   on   species   (plants,   animals   and   terrestrial,   marine)   by   working   with  
elders   and   explore   scientific   potential   of   these   species   for   the   benefit   of   the   community.   Additionally   to  
establish   in   situ   and   ex   situ   gene   banks   for   species   from   RMI.   Revitalizing   and   valuing   traditional  
knowledge   has   been   a   key   ingredient   for   the   conservation   area   plan   blueprint   (Reimaanlok)   whereby  
‘mo’   is   an   important   consideration   for   new   conservation   areas.   Scientific   studies   and   surveys   are  
continuing  and  the  potential  to  explore  scientific  value  of  RIM’s  genetic  resources  remains  on  the  card.  
Ex   situ   conservation   of   important   crops   for   RMI   is   part   of   a   regional   gene   bank   being   stored   at   the   Plant  
and  Genetic  Resources  unit  with  the  Secretariat  of  the  Pacific  Community  (SPC)  in  Suva.  

• Goal  F1  –  To  have  in  place  legislation  and  regulatory  framework  for  biosafety  

The   two   activities   include   reviewing   and   revising   of   the   existing   legislation   on   biosafety   taking   into  
account   provisions   for   the   importation   of   genetically   modified   organisms   (GMOs),   controls   over   field  
testing,  labelling  and  provisions  for  environmental  and  social-­‐impact  assessments.  Part  of  the  review  is  
to  strengthen  enforcement  procedures  for  infringement.  A  review  of  the  biosafety  framework  has  been  
completed  and  key  recommendations  have  been  proposed.  This  included  the  need  to  establish  a  multi-­‐
agency   working   group   to   oversee   the   development   and   implementation   of   a   national   biosafety  
framework.  

• Goal  F2  –  Establish  systems  to  implement  new  or  revise  legislation  and  regulation  of  biosafety  

The   main   activities   under   this   strategic   goal   include   the   delegation   of   the   various   provisions   of   biosafety  
to   different   ministers   and   agencies,   ensuring   adequate   capacity   to   provide   risk   assessment,   risk  
management,   environmental   impact   assessment   and   social-­‐impact   assessments.   Awareness   raising   is  
also   a   critical   part   of   this   goal,   especially   targeting   political   leaders,   government   officials   and   the   private  
sector.  Funding  for  the  biosafety  systems  through  user-­‐pay  charges  or  through  government  support  is  
advocated  for.  Finally,  strengthen  ties  with  national  and  regional  organisations  to  provide  the  technical  
backstop  on  biosafety  for  the  country.    

PART   3:   Progress   towards   the   2020   Aichi   Biodiversity   Targets   and  

contributions  to  the  2015  MDG  targets    
 

10.0   Progress  made  towards  implementation  of  the  Strategic  Plan  for  Biodiversity  2011-­‐2020  
and  its  Aichi  Biodiversity  Targets.  
On  the  ground  biodiversity  and  conservation  activities  are  steadily  progressing  towards  addressing  the  
global  Strategic  Plan  for  Biodiversity  and  the  Aichi  Targets.  These  activities  can  be  summarized  through  
various   processes   such   as   legislative   review,   policy   development,   capacity   building,   awareness   raising,  
designation  of  conservation  areas  and  mainstreaming  biodiversity  through  national  development  plans.  
Further  details  of  progress  can  be  found  in  Appendix  III.  

38  
 
 11.0   Implementing  the  Convention  towards  achieving  the  relevant  2015  MDGs  
RMI’s  progress  towards  the  relevant  MDGs  has  been  mixed.  Great  progress  has  been  made  with  regards  
to   provision   of   safe   drinking   water   for   the   population   (Target   7C);   good   progress   towards   reducing  
biodiversity   loss   (Target   7B);   steady   to   somewhat   slow   progress   in   mainstreaming   sustainable  
development   principles   and   practices   into   planning   and   development   processes;   serious   deficiency   in  
addressing   sanitation   for   communities   (Target   7C);   and   concerns   with   high   population   densities   in  
Majuro   and   Ebeye   with   adverse   socio-­‐economic   impacts   (Target   7D).   RMI   is   now   looking   towards  
addressing  the  new  17  goals  under  the  2030  Agenda  for  Sustainable  Development.  

12.0   Lessons  learned  from  the  implementation  of  the  Convention  in  Marshall  Islands  
RMI  held  a  national  stock-­‐taking  workshop  in  2007  to  consider  lessons  learned  from  past  conservation  
activities.   The   outcome   highlighted   a   need   for   an   over-­‐arching   resource   management   framework   that  
addresses   fisheries,   conservation   and   coastal   zone   management.   It   also   noted   the   need   for   a   multi-­‐
agency  approach  to  be  used  the  development  of  the  atoll  management  plan.  The  underlying  principles  
of  this  process  are  that  resource  management  must  be  community-­‐driven,  while  being  supported  with  
resources  and  expertise  from  national  agencies.  The  Reimaanlok  was  the  product  of  the  national  stock-­‐
take  workshop  as  is  the  CMAC.  Under  the  Reimaanlok  an  eight  step  process  was  developed  as  part  of  
the  lessons  learned  towards  developing  conservation  and  fisheries  management  development.    

1. Initiation   –   a   need   to   develop   a   community-­‐based   resource   management   plan   is   identified   either  

at  the  local  government  level  or  at  the  national  level  
2. Project   Scoping   and   Setup   –   establishment   of   a   project   workplan,   a   team   of   facilitators   and  
identification  of  budget  and  resources    
3. Building  Commitment  –  an  initial  visit  is  made  by  the  national  team  to  carry  out  education  and  
awareness  about  the  benefits  of  conservation  and  resource  management,  and  to  build  trust  with  
community  
4. Collective   &   Managing   Information   –   further   visits   focus   on   collection   and   documentation   of  
local   knowledge   and   use   of   resources,   socio-­‐economic   information   and   baseline   scientific  
information  
5. Developing  the  Management  Plan  –  several  visits  are  made  to  the  community  to  develop,  draft  
and  revise  a  detailed  management  plan  
6. Sign  Off  –  achieve  commitment  to  the  plan  through  sign-­‐off  of  management  plan  
7. Monitoring,   Evaluation   and   Adaptive   Management   –   monitor   achievement   of   the   objectives   –  
both  biological  and  socio-­‐economic.  Adapt  the  management  plan  accordingly  
8. Maintaining  Commitment  –  ensure  community  has  adequate  support  for  ongoing  management    

Another  important  consideration  from  the  perspective  of  RMI  in  relations  to  the  implementation  of  the  
Convention  is  noted  in  the  2000  NBSAP,  as  well  as  iterated  in  the  regional  review  of  NBSAP  in  2007,  is  
economic  and  financial.  Funding  remains  a  serious  challenge  and  an  obstacle  for  the  implementation  of  
many  of  the  activities  and  Convention  commitments.  The  commitment  by  the  government  in  supporting  
the  Micronesia  Conservation  Endowment  fund  goes  in  some  way  to  addressing  the  financial  challenge.  
There   are   some   unknown   implications   when   the   Compact   Agreement   comes   to   an   end.   The  

39  
 
establishment   of   the   multi-­‐agency   Coastal   Management   Advisory   Council   provides   the   mechanism   to  
coordinate  conservation  efforts  in  RMI.  

   

40  
 
 Appendix  I.  Reporting  Information  
The  5th  National  Report  is  based  on  a  consultative  process  undertaken  through  the  development  of  two  
key   government   initiatives   –   the   National   Blueprint   for   Conservation   Areas   Plan   and   the   State   of  
Environment   Report.   The   consultation   includes   workshops   and   interviews   with   a   wide-­‐range   of  
stakeholders  and  communities,  as  well  as  the  private  sector  and  the  scientific  community.  Many  of  the  
historical  case-­‐studies,  reports  and  literature  were  reviewed  and  incorporated  in  this  report.  

This   report   provides   a   summary   of   the   current   state   of   biodiversity   and   conservation   in   RMI.   For   a  
complete   and   comprehensive   analysis,   it   is   recommended   that   the   State   of   Environment   and  
Reimaanlok  reports  should  be  consulted.    

   

41  
 
  

Appendix  II.  Further  sources  of  information  

 

Anon.  2006.  National  Development  Policy  Implications  Resulting  from  the  2006  RMI  community  survey.  
Economic  Policy,  Planning  and  Statistics  Office,  Office  of  the  President.  15  p.  

Carter,   E.   2007.   National   Biodiversity   Strategies   &   Action   Plans.   Pacific   Regional   Review.   SPREP.   Apia,  
Samoa.  49  p.  

Crawford,   M.J.   1993.   National   environment   management   strategy.   Part   A   &   B.   SPREP,   Apia.   Samoa.  
112p.    

Coastal   and   Land   Management   Department.   2008.   Coastal   Management   Framework.   Republic   of   the  
Marshall  Islands.  45p.  

Hess,   D.,   McClennen,   C.   2006.   National   Biosafety   Framework   (RMI   NBF-­‐Biosafety   Project).   Office   of  
Environmental   Planning   Policy   Coordination   (OEPPC)   Office   of   the   President.   Majuro,   Marshall   Islands.  
24p.  

http://www.indexmundi.com/marshall_islands/millennium-­‐development-­‐goals.html  

Marshall  Islands.  2000.  Biodiversity  Strategy  and  Action  Plan.  Majuro,  Marshall  Islands.  33p.    

Marshall  Islands.  2001.  Second  National  Report  to  the  CBD.  94p.    

Marshall   Islands.   2001.   The   Strategic   Development   Plan   Framework   2003-­‐2018.   Vision   2018.   Majuro,  
Republic  of  the  Marshall  Islands.  117p.    

Marshall   Islands.   ND.   Second   National   Communication.   United   Nations   Framework   Convention   on  
Climate  Change.  157p.    

Marshall  Islands  &  UNDP  2009.  Millennium  Development  Goals.  Progress  Report  2009.  Republic  of  the  
Marshall  Islands.  84  p.  

Merlin,   M.,   Capelle,   A.,   Keene,   T.,   Juvik,   J.,   &   Maragos,   J.   1994.   Plants   and   Environments   of   the   Marshall  
Islands.  18p.  

Muller,  F.,  &  Vander-­‐Velde,  N.  1999.  Overview  of  the  Marshall  Island’s  Forest  Resources.  Presented  at  
the  Pacific  Sub-­‐regional  Workshop  on  Forest  and  Tree  Genetic  Resources.  Apia,  Samoa.  29p.  

OEPPC.  2006.  Climate  Change  Strategic  Plan.  Republic  of  the  Marshall  Islands.  16p.  

Reimaanlok   –   Looking   to   the   Future.   National   Conservation   Area   Plan   for   the   Marshall   Islands.   May  
2008.    

RMI  &  UNDP,  2009.  Millennium  Development  Goals  –  Progress  Report  2009.  RMI  &  UNDP.  84p.  

SOE.   2016.   The   Republic   of   the   Marshall   Islands:   state   of   the   environment   report   2016.   Apia,   Samoa.  
SPREP  2016.  1-­‐160pp.  

42  
 
    

43  
 
  

Appendix  III.  RMI  and  Aichi  Biodiversity  Targets  

 

Aichi  Biodiversity  Targets   RMI  Progress  and  Response  

Strategic  goal  A.  Address  the  underlying  causes  of  biodiversity  loss  by  mainstreaming  biodiversity  across  government  and  society  
Currently  many  of  the  conservation  areas  are  community  driven.  Under  the  Reimaanlok  a  clear  eight  step  process  
of  community  and  stakeholder  engagement  has  been  developed.  This  is  supported  by  the  various  agencies  under  
  the   CMAC,   many   of   whose   primary   roles   are   education   and   awareness   raising.   Under   the   eight   step   process,  
Target  1:  By  2020,  at  the  latest,  people  are  aware  of  the   building   commitment   (Step   3)   specifies   building   awareness   for   the   community   to   allow   them   to   consider   the  
values   of   biodiversity   and   the   steps   they   can   take   to   possibilities  and  implications  of  resource  management  and  conservation.  Ongoing  education  and  awareness  raising  
conserve  and  use  it  sustainably.   (Step  8)  is  noted  as  important  consideration  for  community  engagement.  
  RMI   has   included   biodiversity   as   an   important   pillar   of   its   national   development   plan.   Furthermore   the   State   of  
Target  2:  By  2020,  at  the  latest,  biodiversity  values  have   Environment  Report  supports  the  Reimaanlok  plan  –  both  considers  the  value  of  biodiversity  as  fundamental  to  the  
been  integrated  into  national  and  local  development  and   wellbeing  of  Marshallese  people.    
poverty  reduction  strategies  and  planning  processes  and  
are   being   incorporated   into   national   accounting,   as  
appropriate,  and  reporting  systems.  
     
Target   3:   By   2020,   at   the   latest,   incentives,   including   The   government   has   undertaken   reviews   of   issues   relevant   to   the   protection   of   biodiversity.   This   includes  
subsidies,  harmful  to  biodiversity  are  eliminated,  phased   reviewing   the   biosafety   regulatory   framework   that   has   led   to   the   process   of   developing   a   national   biosafety  
out   or   reformed   in   order   to   minimize   or   avoid   negative   framework.   The   government   has   also   taken   steps   to   ban   the   importation   of   CFC   products,   and   phasing   out   the  
impacts,  and  positive  incentives  for  the  conservation  and   importation  of  HCFCs.  Over  the  past  decade  ODS  has  been  phased  out,  which  makes  RMI  in  compliance  with  the  
sustainable   use   of   biodiversity   are   developed   and   Montreal  Protocol.  
applied,   consistent   and   in   harmony   with   the   Convention  
and   other   relevant   international   obligations,   taking   into  
account  national  socio-­‐economic  conditions.  
 
 Target   4:   By   2020,   at   the   latest,   Governments,   business   The   national   strategic   development   plan   provides   the   framework   for   the   government,   the   private   sector   and  
and  stakeholders  at  all  levels  have  taken  steps  to  achieve   stakeholders  for  sustainable  development.  The  plan  will  need  to  be  updated  in  2018.  There  is  a  need  to  seriously  
or   have   implemented   plans   for   sustainable   production   look  at  the  state  of  fisheries  in  the  region  to  ensure  its  sustainability.  Serious  concerns  continue  to  be  called  for  in  
and   consumption   and   have   kept   the   impacts   of   use   of   terms  of  species  over-­‐exploitation  and  management  response  must  react  to  this  scenario.  The  role  and  advice  of  
natural  resources  well  within  safe  ecological  limits.   regional  partners  is  needed.    
Strategic  goal  B.  Reduce  the  direct  pressures  on  biodiversity  and  promote  sustainable  use  
 
    Efforts  to  conserve  and  protect  natural  habitats  are  already  developed  especially  in  the  marine  and  coastal  zones.  
Target  5:  By  2020,  the  rate  of  loss  of  all  natural  habitats,   While  the  same  aim  is  for  the  terrestrial  environment,  there  have  been  considerable  impacts  on  land  since  human  
including   forests,   is   at   least   halved   and   where   feasible   settlement.  Not  only  the  first  inhabitants  changed  and  moulded  the  environment,  the  impacts  from  colonisation  
brought   close   to   zero,   and   degradation   and   including  World  War  2  have  left  a  profound  legacy  that  threatens  the  viability  of  these  atolls  and  communities.  The  
fragmentation  is  significantly  reduced.   government  and  partners  are  doing  what  is  feasibly  possible  in  managing  local  pressures  but  external  forces  such  

44  
 
 as  climate  change  will  require  a  global  response  and  assistance.    
     
Target   6:   By   2020   all   fish   and   invertebrate   stocks   and   The   government   has   already   declared   one   of   the   largest   sanctuary   for   sharks   in   the   world.   Closer   to   shore   63  
aquatic   plants   are   managed   and   harvested   sustainably,   marine   managed   areas   covering   some   70%   of   all   reefs   in   RMI   have   been   designated.   Many   of   these   marine  
legally  and  applying  ecosystem  based  approaches,  so  that   managed  areas  include  whole  atoll  ecosystems.  The  inclusion  of  Mo  –  traditional  conservation  area  has  given  mana  
overfishing   is   avoided,   recovery   plans   and   measures   are   to  these  managed  areas.  The  offshore  fisheries,  especially  those  targeted  commercially  by  long-­‐liners  and  purse-­‐
in   place   for   all   depleted   species,   fisheries   have   no   seiners,   require   a   concerted   regional   effort   to   ensure   their   sustainability.   The   role   of   the   WCPTC,   SPC,   FFA   and  
significant   adverse   impacts   on   threatened   species   and   other  regional  partners  is  critical,  as  many  decisions  will  impact  opportunities  for  RMI  and  its  people.  Conservation  
vulnerable   ecosystems   and   the   impacts   of   fisheries   on   efforts  by  communities  are  ensuring  that  many  of  the  inshore  fish  stocks  are  in  healthy  state.  The  population  spurt  
stocks,  species  and  ecosystems  are  within  safe  ecological   in  urban  areas  demanding  fresh  seafood  is  putting  pressure  on  regional  and  remote  fishery  resources.  
limits.  
 
Much  of  the  original  native  forest  have  been  converted  into  agro-­‐forestry  in  order  to  support  human  settlement.  
What  forest  that  remains  is  in  a  stable  state,  however,  like  whole  atoll  ecosystems,  is  vulnerable  to  climate  change  
associated  events  such  as  drought,  typhoons  and  sea  level  rise.  There  is  generally  good  understanding  of  the  land  
    cover  type  for  most  of  the  big  land  mass  where  70%  is  comprised  of  forest,  agro-­‐forest  and  coconut  plantations.  
Target   7:   By   2020   areas   under   agriculture,   aquaculture   Sand  pits  and  coastal  areas,  generally  referred  to  as  barren  land  makes  up  14%,  with  the  remainder  being  urban  
and   forestry   are   managed   sustainably,   ensuring   and  non-­‐forest  vegetation  (e.g.  rangeland  and  agriculture).  Protection  of  forests  is  included  as  a  key  conservation  
conservation  of  biodiversity.   target  in  the  national  conservation  areas  plan  (Reimaanlok).  
 
The  RMI  government  takes  the  issue  of  pollution  seriously.  It  continues  to  work  closely  with  partners  to  implement  
    measures  to  mitigate  and  reduce  the  impacts  of  pollution.  Since  2007,  government  has  instigated  the  collection  of  
Target   8:   By   2020,   pollution,   including   from   excess   waste  to  be  taken  to  the  landfill.  There  are  also  national  and  community  led  efforts  to  reduce,  reuse  and  recycle  
nutrients,   has   been   brought   to   levels   that   are   not   waste,   as   well   as   composting.   The   landfill   is   also   being   rehabilitated   with   a   new   landfill   currently   in   the   pipeline.  
detrimental  to  ecosystem  function  and  biodiversity.   There  are  also  measures  to  avoid  establishing  conservation  areas  next  to  sources  of  pollution  (Reimaanlok).    
 
Invasive   species   undoubtedly   are   a   threat   to   biodiversity   including   agro-­‐biodiversity.   There   are   523   recorded  
invasive  species  in  RMI,  with  the  majority  being  invasive  plants.  The  government’s  response  includes  establishing  a  
    cross-­‐sector   and   multi-­‐agency   national   team   to   coordinate   and   plan   how   best   to   address   invasive   species.   A  
Target   9:   By   2020,   invasive   alien   species   and   pathways   national   invasive   species   strategic   action   plan   has   been   developed   for   the   country,   and   capacity   building   efforts  
are   identified   and   prioritized,   priority   species   are   have   been   implemented   jointly   with   regional   partners   such   as   SPREP   and   SPC,   and   initiatives   such   as   the   Pacific  
controlled   or   eradicated,   and   measures   are   in   place   to   Invasives   Partnership   and   the   Pacific   Invasives   Learning   Network.   RMI   has   also   committed   its   GEF-­‐6   allocation  
manage   pathways   to   prevent   their   introduction   and   towards  combatting  the  harmful  impacts  of  invasive  species.  It  has  led  the  call  at  the  highest  political  level  in  the  
establishment.     Pacific  –  the  Pacific  Forum  Leaders  meeting,  for  a  more  proactive  approach  to  managing  invasive  species.  
 
    RMI   continues   to   advocate   for   more   global   attention   and   action   on   climate   change.   It   has   developed   a   national  
Target  10:  By  2015,  the  multiple  anthropogenic  pressures   climate  change  strategic  plan  focusing  on  building  local  capacity  and  national  strengthening  institutions.  There  is  a  
on   coral   reefs,   and   other   vulnerable   ecosystems   strong   link   between   the   climate   change   policy   and   environmental   management   and   the   formation   of   a   climate  
impacted   by   climate   change   or   ocean   acidification   are   change  steering  committee  provides  a  mechanism  for  overseeing  this  linkage.  Local  community  effort  to  maintain  
minimized,   so   as   to   maintain   their   integrity   and   the   integrity   of   their   environment   through   conservation   and   protected   areas   is   the   most   practical   action   that   is  
functioning.   being  carried  out  to  lessen  climate  change  impact.    
Strategic  goal  C:  Improve  the  status  of  biodiversity  by  safeguarding  ecosystems,  species  and  genetic  diversity  

45  
 
      
Target  11:  By  2020,  at  least  17  per  cent  of  terrestrial  and   Currently   RMI   has   achieved   a   20%   target   for   the   conservation   of   its   coastal   and   marine   areas   and   15%   for  
inland  water  areas,  and  10  per  cent  of  coastal  and  marine   terrestrial   areas.   RMI   continues   to   make   progress   towards   achieving   ambitious   targets   of   30%   marine   and   20%  
areas,   especially   areas   of   particular   importance   for   terrestrial  as  a  commitment  to  the  Micronesia  Challenge.  In  solidarity  with  neighbouring  countries,  RMI  declared  its  
biodiversity   and   ecosystem   services,   are   conserved   exclusive   economic   zone   a   shark   sanctuary,   making   the   Micronesia   the   largest   area   for   the   protection   of   sharks.  
through   effectively   and   equitably   managed,   ecologically   The  passing  of  the  protected  area  network  legislation  is  a  further  testament  of  RMI’s  commitment  to  managing  its  
representative  and  well  connected  systems  of  protected   connected  and  vulnerable  ecosystems.  
areas   and   other   effective   area-­‐based   conservation  
measures,  and  integrated  into  the  wider  landscapes  and  
seascapes.  
 
While  RMI  may  not  have  a  rich  endemic  terrestrial  fauna  and  flora,  the  few  species  that  are  unique  to  the  country  
require  as  much  support  as  possible  due  to  the  limited  geographic  distribution.  Threats  from  invasive  species  and  
climate   change   are   seriously   jeopardising   their   survival.   Efforts   for   their   protection   are   supported   through  
    legislation   as   well   as   through   national   policies.   RMI   is   fortunate   to   have   a   good   example   demonstrating   positive  
Target   12:   By   2020   the   extinction   of   known   threatened   outcomes  with  regards  to  conservation  measure  on  the  endemic  Mule.  A  concerted  regional  and  global  effort  is  
species   has   been   prevented   and   their   conservation   needed  for  halting  the  decline  in  population  of  migratory  species  such  as  turtles,  whales  and  sharks.  RMI  is  party  to  
status,   particularly   of   those   most   in   decline,   has   been   many   of   the   international   multi-­‐lateral   environmental   agreements,   as   well   as   regional   instruments   and  
improved  and  sustained.   organisations.  
     
Target   13:   By   2020,   the   genetic   diversity   of   cultivated   RMI   has   undertaken   effort   to   document   traditional   knowledge   on   species   through   working   with   elders.   This  
plants  and  farmed  and  domesticated  animals  and  of  wild   included  identifying  genetic  resources  unique  to  the  area  for  possible  ex  situ  conservation.  This  includes  working  
relatives,   including   other   socio-­‐economically   as   well   as   closely  with  SPC  and  Bioversity  International.    
culturally   valuable   species,   is   maintained,   and   strategies  
have   been   developed   and   implemented   for   minimizing  
genetic  erosion  and  safeguarding  their  genetic  diversity.  
Strategic  goal  D:  Enhance  the  benefits  to  all  from  biodiversity  and  ecosystem  services  
     
Target   14:   By   2020,   ecosystems   that   provide   essential   A   number   of   initiatives   for   the   protection   of   ecosystem   services   is   being   employed   including   the   designation   of  
services,   including   services   related   to   water,   and   Jaluit  and  Namdrik  atolls  as  Ramsar  Sites.  These  two  atolls  are  important  breeding  areas  for  hawksbill  and  green  
contribute   to   health,   livelihoods   and   well-­‐being,   are   turtles,   coconut   crab   and   other   rare   species.   A   subterranean   Ghyben-­‐Herzberg   water   lens   lies   under   the   islets  
restored  and  safeguarded,  taking  into  account  the  needs   providing   precious   supply   of   freshwater.   The   islands   support   a   rich   mangrove   forest   that   is   home   to   some   150  
of   women,   indigenous   and   local   communities,   and   the   species  of  fish.    
poor  and  vulnerable.  
     
Target   15:   By   2020,   ecosystem   resilience   and   the   The  government  continues  to  conserve  many  of  its  terrestrial  and  marine  environment  as  part  of  its  commitment  
contribution   of   biodiversity   to   carbon   stocks   has   been   to  the  Micronesia  Challenge  and  also  to  national  aspirations.  Activities  to  enhance  and  restore  degraded  sites  are  
enhanced,   through   conservation   and   restoration,   being  undertaken  through  public  awareness  and  also  through  the  education  system.  There  are  some  sites  that  will  
including  restoration  of  at  least  15  per  cent  of  degraded   require  ongoing  international  support,  especially  dealing  with  hazardous  wastes  and  fallout  from  nuclear  testing.  
ecosystems,   thereby   contributing   to   climate   change   Currently,  these  areas  are  environmental  and  social  disaster  in  waiting.  Due  to  the  limited  land  area,  RMI  considers  
mitigation   and   adaptation   and   to   combating   the  conservation  of  the  marine  and  coastal  environment  as  its  contributions  towards  carbon  sequestration.    
desertification.  

46  
 
     RMI  has  acceded  to  the  Nagoya  Protocol  as  of  January  2015.  This  follows  its  ratification  of  the  International  Treaty  
Target   16:   By   2015,   the   Nagoya   Protocol   on   Access   to   on  Plan  Genetic  Resources.  RMI  is  well  placed  to  oversee  the  sustainable  use  of  its  genetic  resources  for  the  benefit  
Genetic  Resources  and  the  Fair  and  Equitable  Sharing  of   of  its  people.    
Benefits   Arising   from   their   Utilization   is   in   force   and  
operational,  consistent  with  national  legislation.  
Strategic  goal  E.  Enhance  implementation  through  participatory  planning,  knowledge  management  and  capacity  building  
    Developed  the  following  policy  documents  through  a  participatory  process:  
Target  17:  By  2015  each  Party  has  developed,  adopted  as   • Reimaanlok  –  National  Conservation  Area  Plan    
a   policy   instrument,   and   has   commenced   implementing   • RMI  State  of  Environment  Report  
an   effective,   participatory   and   updated   national   • Strategic  Development  Plan  Framework  
biodiversity  strategy  and  action  plan.     Implementation  of  these  policy  documents  are  currently  in  progress.  
     
Target   18:   By   2020,   the   traditional   knowledge,   RMI  has  instituted  the  inclusion  of  Mo  –  a  traditional  system  to  designate  parts  of  land,  a  whole  island,  or  a  reef  
innovations   and   practices   of   indigenous   and   local   area,  as  a  restricted  site.  Special  permission  from  the  Iroij  (Chief)  was  required  to  visit  a  mo.  Traditional  sites  are  
communities   relevant   for   the   conservation   and   included   under   the   National   Conservation   Area   Plan,   which   include   Mo   (traditional   reserve),   bwebwenato  
sustainable   use   of   biodiversity,   and   their   customary   use   (traditional  special  purpose  area)  and  lob,  kola  wod  in  eknoak  (traditional  special  fishing  location).    
of  biological  resources,  are  respected,  subject  to  national  
legislation   and   relevant   international   obligations,   and  
fully   integrated   and   reflected   in   the   implementation   of  
the  Convention  with  the  full  and  effective  participation  of  
indigenous  and  local  communities,  at  all  relevant  levels.  
Collaborations  with  international,  regional  and  national  institutions  are  opening  up  a  wealth  of  knowledge  on  the  
    biodiversity  of  RMI.  Working  closely  with  the  WCPTC,  SPC  and  FFA  to  monitor  the  state  and  health  of  the  fisheries  
Target   19:   By   2020,   knowledge,   the   science   base   and   stock   provides   the   scientific   information   needed   to   make   informed   decisions   such   as   the   number   of   fisheries  
technologies   relating   to   biodiversity,   its   values,   licenses.   Collaboration   also   with   civil   society   and   non-­‐governmental   organisations   encourages   wider   community  
functioning,  status  and  trends,  and  the  consequences  of   participation   and   ownership   of   management   decisions.   Working   with   NOAA   and   organisations   in   support   of   the  
its  loss,  are  improved,  widely  shared  and  transferred,  and   Micronesia   Challenge   is   also   reaping   benefits   by   focusing   in   addressing   the   knowledge   gap   with   regards   to  
applied.   biodiversity  and  the  state  of  the  environment.  
    RMI  has  a  number  of  initiatives  that  are  in  place  to  assist  with  addressing  the  financial  challenge  that  has  hindered  
Target   20:   By   2020,   at   the   latest,   the   mobilization   of   the   implementation   of   biodiversity   goals   and   targets.   Under   the   National   Environmental   Protection   Act   an  
financial   resources   for   effectively   implementing   the   environmental   protection   authority   fund   is   established   to   collect   monies   appropriated   through   penalties,   fees,  
Strategic   Plan   for   Biodiversity   2011-­‐2020   from   all   damages,  prosecution  or  other  proceedings.    
sources,   and   in   accordance   with   the   consolidated   and   RMI  has  also  contributed  to  the  Micronesia  Conservation  Trust  Fund,  which  in  terms  provide  grants  to  assist  with  
agreed  process  in  the  Strategy  for  Resource  Mobilization,   the  implementation  of  the  NBSAP.  
should  increase  substantially  from  the  current  levels.  This   RMI  is  also  establishing  a  PAN  Fund,  where  it  will  specifically  target  the  implementation  of  the  national  protected  
target   will   be   subject   to   changes   contingent   to   resource   area  network.  
needs   assessments   to   be   developed   and   reported   by   RMI  is  also  targeting  GEF  allocations  towards  the  implementation  of  the  Aichi  Targets.  
Parties  
 

47