1.

INTRODUCTION AUTUMN 2020

Open-channel flow is an important area of fluid mechanics for civil engineers. It describes the
flow in rivers, man-made channels and partially-full pipes (sewers, drains), as well as the
behaviour of hydraulic structures such as weirs, spillways and sluices.

The common feature of all open-channel flows is the free surface, where the gauge pressure
𝑝 = 0. All such flows are gravity-driven, with the discharge 𝑄 and flow depth ℎ dependent on
the balance between the downslope component of gravity and bed friction.

1.1 Classification

Steady or Unsteady

Open-channel flow is steady if all flow properties are independent of time. The most important
examples of unsteady flow are waves, surges and tidal flows. Waves are covered in the second
half of Hydraulics 3.

In this part of the course we consider only steady flow. For a given channel this consists of
various fetches considered as uniform, rapidly-varied or gradually-varied flow.

GVF RVF GVF RVF GVF RVF GVF RVF GVF UF

sluice hydraulic
gate weir change
jump
of slope

Uniform Flow

In uniform flow the depth and cross-stream velocity profile do not vary in the direction of flow.
This can only occur in long straight channels of uniform cross-section, constant slope and no
side streams. (These are called prismatic channels; they are always an approximation for
natural water courses like rivers). Here, the downslope component of weight exactly balances
bed friction. Steady uniform flow is called normal flow. Steady downslope flows in uniform
channels tend to normal flow if there is sufficient undisturbed length.

Rapidly-Varied Flow (RVF)

Rapidly-varied flow occurs when the flow adjusts over relatively short distances (a few times
the flow depth). Examples are hydraulic jumps and flow past hydraulic structures such as weirs
(local bed rise), venturis (local narrowing) and sluices (variable-opening gates). As the
streamwise distance is short, changes to the flow are obtained by neglecting bed friction.

Hydraulics 3 Open-Channel Flow: Introduction - 1 Dr David Apsley

Gradually-Varied Flow (GVF)

In gradually-varied flow the water depth changes slowly with streamwise distance (typically
over distances of hundreds or thousands of times the flow depth) because of an imbalance
between gravitational and friction forces. This may occur as the result of a change in channel
conditions (slope, cross-section or roughness) or an adjustment brought about by upstream or
downstream disturbances such as weirs and sluices. Because the variation is gradual the flow
can still be treated as one-dimensional (varying only with x) and the pressure as hydrostatic.

1.2 Normal Flow

General Friction Law

Let the cross-sectional area of flow be 𝐴 and the wetted perimeter

A be 𝑃.

P
L
The bed shear stress is 𝜏𝑏 . Since bed friction flow
(stress  wetted area) balances the downslope
component of weight (𝑚𝑔 sin θ), then, for a
streamwise length 𝐿, mg

τ𝑏 × (𝑃𝐿) = (ρ𝐴𝐿) × 𝑔 sin θ b 

Hence,
τ𝑏 = ρ𝑔𝑅ℎ 𝑆 (1)
where the hydraulic radius 𝑅ℎ is defined as
𝐴 (2)
𝑅ℎ =
𝑃
and 𝑆 is the streamwise slope. (Strictly, 𝑆 = tan θ, but tan θ ≈ θ ≈ sin θ for small slopes).

The skin-friction coefficient 𝑐𝑓 is defined as the ratio of bed shear stress τ𝑏 to dynamic pressure
1
ρ𝑉 2 , where 𝑉 is the average velocity over the cross-section. i.e.
2
1
τ𝑏 = 𝑐𝑓 (2 ρ𝑉 2 ) (3)

Equating the two expressions (1) and (3) for τ𝑏 , and rearranging for 𝑉:

2𝑔 (4)
𝑉 = √ 𝑅ℎ 𝑆
𝑐𝑓

Hydraulics 3 Open-Channel Flow: Introduction - 2 Dr David Apsley

There are various possible friction laws, including:
𝐷ℎ
• Darcy friction factor (λ = 4𝑐𝑓 , 𝐷ℎ = 4𝑅ℎ )  𝑉 = √2𝑔 𝑆 (pipe flow)
λ

• Chézy (𝐶 = √2𝑔/𝑐𝑓 )  𝑉 = 𝐶 √𝑅ℎ 𝑆

1 1/6 1 2/3 1/2

• Manning (√2𝑔/𝑐𝑓 = 𝑛 𝑅ℎ )  𝑉= 𝑅 𝑆
𝑛 ℎ

We will usually use Manning’s equation in this course, but see the Examples for alternatives.

Main Calculation Formulae

Discharge: 𝑄 = 𝑉𝐴

1 2/3 1/2
Manning’s equation: 𝑉 = 𝑅 𝑆
𝑛 ℎ
𝐴
Hydraulic radius: 𝑅ℎ =
𝑃

Hydraulic Radius For Particular Channel Shapes

In each case ℎ is the depth of flow (measured from the lowest point, or invert).

• Rectangular (width 𝑏)
𝑏ℎ ℎ
𝑅ℎ = = h
𝑏 + 2ℎ 2ℎ
1+ 𝑏
b
• Wide (obtained from the above in the limit ℎ/𝑏 ≪ 1):
𝑅ℎ = ℎ

• Trapezoidal (bottom width 𝑏; side slope expressed here as

h 1
ℎ𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑧𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑙: 𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 = 𝑚: 1, but could be stated many ways.)
m
ℎ(𝑏 + 𝑚ℎ) b
𝑅ℎ =
𝑏 + 2ℎ√1 + 𝑚2

• Circular (radius 𝑅)
2(12𝑅2 θ − 12𝑅sinθ 𝑅cosθ) 𝑅 sin2θ
𝑅ℎ = = (1 − )
2𝑅θ 2 2θ  R
where ℎ = 𝑅 − 𝑅cosθ
h

Hydraulics 3 Open-Channel Flow: Introduction - 3 Dr David Apsley

Normal Depth

For any given discharge 𝑄 there will be a particular normal depth, ℎ𝑛 ; (we will drop the
subscript 𝑛 when the context is clear). The relationship between them arises from:
𝑄 = 𝑉𝐴
where
1 2/3 1/2
𝑉= 𝑅 𝑆
𝑛 ℎ
and 𝐴 and 𝑅ℎ are functions of ℎ.

Thus,
𝑄 = 𝑓(ℎ) (5)
where function 𝑓(ℎ) depends on the shape of the channel, roughness 𝑛 and slope 𝑆.

In most cases, however, we need to know depth ℎ for a particular discharge 𝑄, not vice versa.
Only for a limited number of channel shapes (e.g. wide or V-shaped) can (5) be rearranged
explicitly for ℎ. More generally, for a given discharge 𝑄 it may be solved numerically by
● repeated trial for values of ℎ, or, after suitable rearrangement,
● iteration.

For wide channels it is usual to work in terms of the flow per unit width,
𝑄
𝑞= (6)
𝑏
The corresponding area per unit width is the flow depth ℎ. Then, by Manning, per unit width:
1 2/3 1/2
𝑞 = 𝑉ℎ = 𝑅 𝑆 ×ℎ where 𝑅ℎ = ℎ
𝑛 ℎ
Hence,
ℎ5/3 𝑆 1/2
𝑞=
𝑛
or, by inversion,
𝑛𝑞 3/5
ℎ=( )
√𝑆

For rectangular channels, 𝐴 = 𝑏ℎ and 𝑅ℎ = ℎ⁄(1 + 2ℎ⁄𝑏). Then,

2/3
1 ℎ 𝑏√𝑆 ℎ5/3
𝑄 = 𝑉𝐴 = ( ) 𝑆 1/2 × 𝑏ℎ =
𝑛 1 + 2ℎ/𝑏 𝑛 (1 + 2ℎ/𝑏)2/3
This can either be solved by repeated trial or rearranged to give an iterative formula for ℎ:
3/5
𝑛𝑄
ℎ=( ) (1 + 2ℎ/𝑏)2/5
𝑏√𝑆
Similar iteration formulae may be derived for trapezoidal channels and many other shapes.

Hydraulics 3 Open-Channel Flow: Introduction - 4 Dr David Apsley

Example.
The discharge in a channel with bottom width 3 m is 12 m3 s–1. If Manning’s 𝑛 is 0.013 m−1/3 s
and the streamwise slope is 1 in 200, find the normal depth if:
(a) the channel has vertical sides (i.e. rectangular channel);
(b) the channel is trapezoidal with side slopes 2H:1V.

1.3 Flow Energy: Fluid Head

In hydraulics, because many flows are gravity-driven, it is common to express energy or

pressure in height units:
1
total pressure: 𝑝 + ρ𝑔𝑧 + ρ𝑉 2 (à la Bernoulli’s equation) (7)
2
Divide by ρ𝑔:
𝑝 𝑉2
total head (H): +𝑧+ (8)
ρ𝑔 2𝑔
The total head is the energy per unit weight (𝑚𝑔𝐻 divided by 𝑚𝑔) and is convenient because
it is easily determined from still-water levels (𝐻 = 𝑧 when 𝑝 = 𝑉 = 0).

If there is no vertical acceleration then the pressure at any streamwise location is hydrostatic:
𝑝 + ρ𝑔𝑧 is constant along a vertical line (9)
or, dividing by ρ𝑔,
𝑝
+𝑧 is constant along a vertical line (10)
ρ𝑔

zs(x)
But 𝑝 = 0 at the free surface. Hence,
h
𝑝 𝑝
+ 𝑧 = ( + 𝑧) = 𝑧𝑠 zb(x)
ρ𝑔 ρ𝑔 𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒

So, if the pressure is hydrostatic, the sum of pressure and elevation heads is just the level of the
free surface.

Hence, in regions of uniform or gradually-varied flow the total head is given by1
𝑉2
𝐻 = 𝑧𝑠 + (11)
2𝑔
The first term is a measure of potential energy; the second term (the dynamic head) is a measure
of kinetic energy.

1
In advanced analysis it is necessary to precede the kinetic energy term 𝑉 2 /2𝑔 by a corrective multiplicative
factor α (the kinetic energy correction coefficient) to account for the fact that the velocity profile is not uniform,
and hence the mean squared velocity < 𝑈 2 > is not equal to the square of the mean velocity < 𝑈 >2 . For fully
turbulent flow, α is typically about 1.02; i.e. very close to 1. Hence, this factor will be ignored here.

Hydraulics 3 Open-Channel Flow: Introduction - 5 Dr David Apsley

1.4 Froude Number

In Hydraulics 2 we defined a Froude number in general as Fr = 𝑉 ⁄√𝑔𝐿, where 𝑉 and 𝐿 are

“representative” velocity and length scales. In open-channel flow we invariably take 𝑉 to be
the average velocity over a cross section and 𝐿 to be the average depth; i.e.
𝑉
Fr ≡ (12)
√𝑔ℎ̅

For a wide or rectangular channel ℎ̅ is simply equal to ℎ. For a non- bs

rectangular channel ℎ̅ is the mean depth: the depth of a rectangle with
the same cross-sectional area and surface width: A h

𝐴
ℎ̅ = (13)
𝑏𝑠
where 𝐴 is the water cross-section and 𝑏𝑠 is the surface width.

Where Fr < 1 the flow is said to be subcritical or tranquil.

Where Fr > 1 the flow is said to be supercritical or rapid.
Reasons for the term “critical” and this definition of ℎ̅ will be explained in Section 2. Note that
Fr is not constant, but changes along the channel as the depth changes.

Interpretations of the Froude Number

(1) (Square root of) the ratio of inertial forces (mass  acceleration) to gravitational forces.

For mass 𝑚, velocity 𝑉, lengthscale ℎ (and hence timescale ℎ/𝑉):

𝑉 𝑉2
mass × acceleration ~ 𝑚 × =𝑚
ℎ/𝑉 ℎ
gravitational force ~ 𝑚𝑔
Hence,
inertial force 𝑉2
~ = Fr 2
gravitational force 𝑔ℎ

(2) Ratio of water velocity (𝑉) to long-wave speed (√𝑔ℎ) – see Section 4.
This is important because information can only propagate upstream if the water velocity is less
than the wave speed; i.e. if Fr < 1.

Subcritical flow  Fr < 1  downstream control

Supercritical flow  Fr > 1  upstream control

Where Fr = 1 the flow is said to be critical.

Hydraulics 3 Open-Channel Flow: Introduction - 6 Dr David Apsley

(3) The minimum specific energy (see Section 2) for a given discharge occurs at the critical
depth where Fr = 1, and separates regions of deep, slow, subcritical flow (Fr < 1) and shallow,
fast, supercritical flow (Fr > 1).

The flow may pass through such a region at a broad-crested weir, venturi flume or free overfall,
providing a control point where the relationship between fluid depth and discharge is known.

Example.
The discharge in a rectangular channel of width 6 m with Manning’s 𝑛 = 0.012 m−1⁄3 s is
24 m3 s–1. If the streamwise slope is 1 in 200 find:
(a) the normal depth;
(b) the Froude number at the normal depth;
(c) the critical depth.

State whether the normal flow is subcritical or supercritical.

Hydraulics 3 Open-Channel Flow: Introduction - 7 Dr David Apsley

Appendix: Typical values of Manning’s 𝒏 (from White, 2011)

𝑛 (m−1⁄3 s)
Glass 0.01
Brass 0.011
Steel, smooth 0.012
painted 0.014
riveted 0.015
Cast iron 0.013
Concrete, finished 0.012
Artificial lined channels
unfinished 0.014
Planed wood 0.012
Clay tile 0.014
Brickwork 0.015
Asphalt 0.016
Corrugated metal 0.022
Rubble masonry 0.025
Clean 0.022
Gravelly 0.025
Excavated earth channels
Weedy 0.03
Stony, cobbles 0.035
Clean and straight 0.03
Natural channels Sluggish, deep pools 0.04
Major rivers 0.035
Pasture, farmland 0.035
Light brush 0.05
Floodplains
Heavy brush 0.075
Trees 0.15

Hydraulics 3 Open-Channel Flow: Introduction - 8 Dr David Apsley